Asst.

sub-engineeer Local infrastructure Wave institute

Syllabus of Loksewa
1. Need for irrigation
2. Types of irrigation,
3. Methods of irrigation
4. Head works and canal network
5. operation and maintenance of irrigation system
6. River training works
Introduction
➢ It is the process of artificially supplying water to soil for rising crops.
➢ Nepal is an agriculture country where more than 90% people depend on agriculture.
➢ Agriculture plays vital role for development of country
➢ For proper development of agriculture, the development of irrigation is must.
➢ For development of irrigation following donor agency are involved like ADB, WB, JICA etc.
➢ The artificial application of water to land to assist in the production of crops
➢ Irrigation policy in Nepal first established in 2049BS.
➢ For irrigation purposes, the p-H value of water should be between 6 and 8.5
➢ According to annual report of DOI ( F.Y 2072/73)
o Total area =14.7181 million hectare
o Agriculturable area=2.641 million hectare
o Irrigable area = 1.766 million hectare
o Surface irrigation =7,80,415 ha
o Underground irrigation = 4,09,463 ha
o Farmers water course = 2,02,229 ha
o Total irrigated area = 1.392 million ha ( 13,92,107ha)
o Irrigation cover about 79% of irrigable area
Need for irrigation
➢ Increases in food production
➢ Protection from famine (भोकमरी बाट बचाउन)
➢ Irrigation is required for economic development.
➢ It is required when less rainfall
➢ Non-uniform rainfall
➢ Commercial (ब्यबसायक) crops with additional water.
➢ Controlled water supply
➢ Generation of hydro-electric power.
➢ Domestic and industrial water supply.
➢ Improvement in the ground water storage.
➢ Irrigation helps to improve the yielding (Maximum production).
Disadvantage of irrigation
➢ Breeding place for mosquitos
➢ Water-logging

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Asst.sub-engineeer Local infrastructure Wave institute

➢ Excessive seepage into the ground raises the water-table and this in turn completely
saturates the crop root-zone.
➢ Under irrigation canal system valuable residential and industrial land is lost.
Types of irrigation

Types

Flow Irrigation lift Irrigation

Perennial Inundation By man or

Irrigation
Source By Mechanical or
Irrigation annimal power
electrical power

Direct Irrigation
Open Well

Storage
Irrigation
Shallow well

Combined
(storage & direct) Deep well

# Lift irrigation

• Water is required higher level and Water is available in lower level

• The water is supplied by artificial mechanical process.
# Flow irrigation
• Water is required lower elevation and source of water is available in higher elevation

Sources of water for irrigation

➢ There are manly three type of sources they are as below
o ground water
o surface water and

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o non-conventional sources/rain water

▪ The non-conventional sources are treated wastewater, drainage water,
fog (कुहिरो) collection, etc.
Quality of water for irrigation
➢ Salinity makes infertile of soil.
➢ The Salts of Ca++,mg++,Na+ ,K+ ( these are normal salt) in the irrigation water is harmful
for plant
➢ Silt is fertilizing agent

The sodium hazard of water based on SAR (Sodium Absorption Ratio) Values.
SAR Sodium hazard of Comments
values water
1-10 Low Use on sodium sensitive crops such as
avocados must be cautioned.
10 - 18 Medium Amendments (such as Gypsum) and leaching
needed.
18 - 26 High Generally, unsuitable for Continuous use.
> 26 Very High Generally, unsuitable for Use.
➢ Soil-Water
o In Soil contains
▪ Water = 25%
▪ Air =25%
▪ Organic matter =5%
▪ Mineral = 45%
o The water present in soil in the following form (Physical classification of soil water)
▪ Gravitational water. (Not used for plant)
• A part of water which will move out of the soil, if proper drainage is
provided
▪ Capillary water (used for plant)
• A part of water which exists in the porous space of the soil by
molecular attraction
▪ Hygroscopic water
• Not used plant
• Used micro-organism
• It is in vapor form
• When an oven-dried sample of soil is kept open in the atmosphere, it
absorbs some amount of water.
o The water present in soil in the following form (Biological classification of soil water)
▪ Super-fluous water (it is also called gravitational water)
▪ Available water

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▪ Unavailable water
o Toxic/harmful element for irrigation -- Boron
o Permissible concentration of boron—2ppm
o Permissible concentration of salt – 2000ppm
➢ Permanent wilting point moisture content for a crop represents the
o Hygroscopic water
o Capillary water
o Field capacity
o None of these

Methods of irrigation are: -

On the basis of irrigation area can divided into following type

I. Arid Reign or zone – water is required every crops (like main crops and inferior)
II. Semi-arid reign or zone – water is required only main crops.
➢ The area where irrigation is a must for agriculture is called the arid region. While the
area in which inferior crops can be grown without irrigation is called a semiarid
region.
➢ Main crops: - those type of crops, which are needed to grow for our requirement.
➢ Inferior crops: - those crops, which are grow without irrigation and they grow self.
1) Sub-surface irrigation

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➢ Water is applied beneath the ground by creating and maintaining an artificial water
table at some depth
➢ Usually 30 to 75 cm, below the ground surface
o Natural sub-surface irrigation - suitable for the place where water table is high
▪ Seepage of water from unlined canals is gain
by plant using capillary action
o Artificial sub-surface irrigation -artificially water is supplied by perforated pipes
▪ System of open ditches and drains are laid
down below the natural surface and water is
gain by plant capillary action
2) surface irrigation
• The water is applied directly to soil surface from a canal located at the upper reach of
the field, is called surface irrigation or flow irrigation.
• In this method the water is directly applied to the surface of land.
• Effective management practices are dependent on the type of irrigation, and the
climate and topography of the region.
i) Flooding
ii) Contour farming
iii) Furrow
i) Flooding
• Water is allowed to cover the surface of land in a continuous sheet.
• In this method large amount of water is wasted.
• It is only suitable, if the irrigation water is abundant (प्रसस्थ) and inexpensive.
• It is suitable flat level land
• It is also known as wild (natural) flooding.
a. Wild irrigation
➢ It is also called uncontrolled flooding.
➢ The water is spread into the field from the ditch excavated either on the
counter or up and down the slope.
➢ It is suitable for inundation irrigation system where water is available in
abundance at the highest elevation
b. Controlled flooding
• Water is applied from the head ditch and guided by corrugation, furrows,
and borders.
(i) Free flooding or ordinary flooding/uncontrol
➢ There is no control over flowing water to the field
➢ This method high evaporation and infiltration losses.
➢ Efficiency is low because of losses
➢ It is the commonly adopted method where irrigation water is in abundance
and cheap

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➢ The land is divided into plots of suitable size depending on porosity of soil.
➢ Water is spread over the field from water course.
➢ It is suitable for close growing crops, pastures etc.
➢ Movement of water is not restricted, it is sometimes called “wild flooding”
➢ This method may be used on rolling land (topography irregular) where
borders, checks, basins and furrows are not feasible.
➢ It is highly inefficient method.

(ii) Border irrigation (Border flooding)

➢ There is control over flowing water
➢ Area between subsidiary ditches is known as strip
➢ Time required by water to cover the given area of land
𝑦 𝑄
t = 2.303 ( ) log10( )
𝑓 𝑄−𝑓𝐴
Where,
Y=depth of water applied
F=infiltration capacity
Q=design discharge
A=given area of the field
➢ Maximum area that can be covered by water during irrigation
𝑄
Amax=
𝑓
➢ In this method, the field is divided into narrow strips by low parallel ridges on
the sides
➢ The farm is divided into a number of strips (width 10 ~ 20 m and length 100 ~
400 m) separated by low levees or borders.
➢ Border irrigation is a method of controlled surface flooding
➢ Or The field to be irrigated is divided into strips by parallel dikes or border
ridges, and each strip is irrigated separately
➢ The surface is essentially level between levees and lengthwise slope is
somewhat according to natural slope of the land (0.2 ~ 0.4%)
➢ Uniform distribution and high-water application efficiencies are possible.

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➢ Large streams can be used efficiently.

➢ It involves high initial cost.

(iii) Check flooding (suitable for large discharge)

➢ Complete Area is divided in to number of levees and cross levees
➢ The confined area between levees 0.2ha to 0.8ha
➢ The losses is less compered to border and free flooding
➢ This method is used both high and low infiltration capacity of soil.
➢ It is similar to free flooding except that the water is controlled by
surrounding the area with low and flat levees.
➢ Levees are generally constructed along the contours of vertical interval 5-
10cm Similar to Ordinary flooding
➢ Water is controlled by surrounding the check area with low and flat levees
➢ Widely practiced method of irrigation in terai.
➢ It is similar to free flooding.
➢ Cereal crops most commonly adopted check method.

(iv) Contour lateral

➢ It is adopted on close growing crops on sloping or rolling lands not subjected
to any degree of leveling necessary for other methods of irrigation
➢ This method is best suited to steeper terrain.

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➢ Suitable for steeper terrain (steep slope ground)

(v) Zig-Zag method

➢ In this method land is divided into square or rectangular plots

➢ This method is suitable for relatively level plot.
➢ It is special method of controlled flooding.
➢ The water take circuitous (not direct similar to circuit) route to irrigate the
land

(vi) Basin flooding

➢ It is special type of check flooding, adopted for irrigation of orchards.
➢ Shape of basin may be regular or irregular
➢ Use of this method growth of trees in orchard
➢ Adopted specially for “Orchard trees” (area where fruit trees are grown) and
large tree.
➢ One or more trees are generally placed in the basin

➢ Suitable for root tree

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ii) Contour farming

• System in sloping agricultural lands whereby crop rows are oriented perpendicular to
or across the slope of the land.
• The land is divided longitudional curved plots
• It is used in hilly area or sloppy area.

iii) Furrow method (cotton, potato, groundnut, tobacco etc.)

• It is similar to natural sub surface irrigation
• Less loss of cultivation area compere to other method
• Less evaporation losses but high infiltration losses
• Furrow are narrow field ditches, excavated between rows of plants and carry water
through them
• Furrows vary from 8 to 30 cm deep and may be as much as 400 meters long
• Small shallow furrow (called corrugations)
• It is suitable for row crops (like potatoes, sugarcane etc.)

3) *Sprinkler irrigation
• Water is applied in the form of spray as in ordinary (सामान्य) rain
• It is down in undulating sandy fields.
• It is pressurised irrigation method.
• Less infiltration loss but high evaporation loss
• Efficiency of this method approximately 80%
• This method suitable for erodible soil
• It requires high artificial pressure head
• It is kind of an artificial rain and gives good results

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• It can be used for all types of soils and for widely different topographies and slopes.

4) *Drip irrigation (Trickle irrigation)

• It is the latest field irrigation technique (also called trickle irrigation)
• This method has negligible infiltration and evaporation losses.
• Efficiency is approximately 100 %
• In this method, water is slowly and directly applied to the root zone of the plants for
minimizing the losses by evaporation and percolation
• This method is being used for small nourishes, orchards, or gardens.
• Irrigation water is applied by using small diameter (12 to 32 mm) plastic lateral lines.
• It is best suited for widely spaced plants, salt problems and for areas with water
scarcity

Component of canal:
1. Head works
2. Main canal
3. Branch canal
4. Distributaries
a. Major distributary
b. Minor distributary
Head works:
➢ Any hydraulic structure which supply water to take off taking canal is called a head work.
➢ Headwork is a civil engineering term for any structure at the head or diversion point of
a waterway.
➢ It is smaller than a barrage and is used to divert water from a river into a canal or from
a large canal into a smaller canal.

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Function of head work:

1. It rises the water level on its upstream side
2. It regulates the supply of water into canals
3. To reduce the fluctuations of the level of the river.
4. To control the silt entry into the canal.
Type of Head work:
a. Diversion head work
➢ When a weir or barrage is constructed across a perennial(Always) river to rise the
water level and to divert the water to the cannel is called diversion head work
➢ It is also known as canal head work
➢ Canal headwork’s has nothing to do a Safety ladder
b. Storage head work
➢ When a dam is constructed across a river valley to form a storage reservoir, it is
known as storage head work.
❖ Following is the list of component parts of a diversion head works:
1. Weir or barrage.
2. Scouring sluices or under 6. River training works.
sluices. 8. Silt control devices
3. Divide wall. 9. Silt excluder
4. Fish ladder. 11. Silt ejector
5. Canal head regulator.
➢ Out of all these component parts river training works include lot of other elements
also.
➢ The most suitable location for canal head work is through stage.
➢ Rocky and delta stage are generally unsuitable for sitting of head works.

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▪ *Weir:- constructed across the river over the water may flow
▪ *Divide wall: - constructed at perpendicular to the axis of weir separating the river
and under sluices/scouring sluices.
▪ *Fish Ladder: - Fish can’t travel in the opposite direction if the velocity is greater than
0.3m/sec.
▪ Silt excluder: - It is placed at the bed of the river and up stream of the head regulator.
▪ Silt Extractor/ejector: - it is placed at the bed of the canal and downstream of the
head regulator.
Canal network or classification of canal:
Based on nature of sources of supply
a) Permanent canal
• The canal in which water flows throughout the year is called permanent canal
i. Perennial canal-those canals which get continues supply from the
source throughout the year.
ii. Non-perennial canal- those canals which get their supplies only part of
the year
b) Inundation canal
• Inundation canal are long canals taken off from large rivers.
• They receive water when the river is high enough and especially when in flood.
• The canal in which water does not flows through the year is known as
inundation canal
• Water is found during monsoon only.
• It is non-perennial canal

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Based on function (purpose)

a) Feeder canals- Its function is to feed two or more canals and its also called link canal.
b) Carrier canals- It is a canal which carries water either from the headwork's or from
the feeder canal up to the distribution canal network
c) Irrigation canal- carry water from source for irrigation purpose
d) Navigation canal- A canal that is built mostly for navigational purposes is known as
navigation canal. (such as canals, rivers and lakes)
• The water level & width required in a navigation canal is usually a lot higher to
facilitate the navigation of large boats, ships, etc.
e) Power canal- it helps to move turbine and produce electricity.
Based on the discharge
a) Main canal d) Minor distributary
b) Branch canal e) Field canal or field ditch or water
c) Major distributary course
a) Main canal

• Main canal directly off from the head works constructed on the river bed
• It carries water from reservoir/river
• This supply from main canal is not directly used for irrigation

b) Branch canal (Q> 5𝒎𝟑 /𝒔𝒆𝒄)

• Branch canals have discharge in the range of 5-10 m3/sec, (cumecs)

• All offtakes from main canal with head discharge is not more than 14-15 cumecs and
above are termed as branch canals.
• Branch canal also plays the role of feeder channel for major and minor distributaries.
• Branch canals do not carry out direct irrigation, but they provide direct outlets.
• Branch Canal Supply water to major and minor distributary canals.

c) Major distributary (Q= 0.25 to 5𝒎𝟑 /𝒔𝒆𝒄)

• Water in Major Distributary Canal takes off from the branch canal or in few cases from
the main canal.
• This canal supply water to the minor distributaries and field channels.
• It takes off water from branch canals.
• A canal is called to be a major distributary when its discharge lies between 0.25 to 5
m3/sec
• Sometimes getting supply from the main canal, their discharge is less than branch canal.
• These are mostly known as irrigation canal because of their supply of water to the field
directed through outlets.

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d) Minor distributary (Q<0.2 5𝒎𝟑 /𝒔𝒆𝒄)

• It takes off water from branch canals.

• Sometimes getting supply from the main canal, their discharge is less than branch canal.
Based on Alignment:
a) Watershed canal or ridge canal

• Aligned along ridge line called ridge canal

• It is also possible to irrigate a larger area.
• It avoids the cross drainage
• It irrigates the area on both side
b) Counter canal

• The aligned parallel to the area or counter line called counter canal
• It irrigates one side only since other side is higher.
• This type of canal can be observed in hilly regions.
• Irrigation is only possible in a single direction only.
• Cross drainage work is provided
• It is also called single bank canal
• It irrigates the area on one side only
c)*Side slope canal

• It is perpendicular to counter and parallel to the natural drain.

• Cross drainage work is avoided.
• Canal should straight as for as possible.
• The side slope canals are also called as double bund canals.
Operation and maintenance of irrigation system

Irrigation system operation stage

At the irrigation system operation stage, the following tasks are to be solved:
• arrangement of water uses and water consumption;
• arrangement of primary accounting of water;
• control of the quality of irrigated areas, quality of groundwater and surface water;
• field inspection of technical condition of irrigation system components;
• Governance and management of the operation stage.
Irrigation system maintenance stage
At the irrigation system maintenance stage, the following tasks are to be solved:
• material and technical support of irrigation system operation;

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• carrying out of measures for restoration (improvement) of the quality condition of irrigated
lands;
• carrying out of servicing of irrigation system components;
• implementation of technical maintenance of irrigation system components;
• implementation of repairs at the irrigation system components;
Problem of canal irrigation
• Efficiency of canal system depend upon dam and its application network
Problem of canal
1. Silting- desalting operation should be down
2. Seepage losses
3. Evaporative losses
4. Submergence of lands
5. water losses;
6. Low water levels due to canal erosion.
Technical terms

• *Base period
o It is whole period of crop starting from the time when the irrigation water is first
issued to its last watering before harvesting
o Its unit is day and denoted by B
• Frequency of irrigation / Rotation period
o It is the time interval between two consecutive water (i.e interval of 1st watering
and 2nd watering or 2nd and 3rd or so on)
1
o Frequency of irrigation =
𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
• Pleo irrigation
o Before sownig the application of water into a dry land for making or fit for
growth of crops.
• Crop period
o The time in days that a crop takes from the instant of its sowing to that of its
harvesting
o Base period is less than crop period
o crop period is grater than base period
• Rabi-karif ratio / corp ratio
o Rabi-karif ratio simply called as crop ratio.
o It is the ratio between area of irrigated in rabi season to area of irrigated in
kharif seasion.
𝑰𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒊 𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒏
o i.e Crop ratio=
𝑰𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒏
o i.e Rabi-kharif ratio = 2:1

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Asst.sub-engineeer Local infrastructure Wave institute

• *Delta
o It is the total depth of water provided to a crop during the entire base period
𝑩
o ∆= 8.64 ( matric system), where D= duty unit is hectare/cumec
𝑫
𝑩
o ∆= 1.985 ( FPS system)
𝑫
• *Duty
o It is the total area irrigated by a unit discharge running continuously during the
base period and its unit is ha/cumec.
o It is the no. of hectores of land irrigated by flow of water at rate of 1m3/sec
during its complete base period.
o Types of duty
▪ Flow duty –( Duty of flowing water) (i.e Related in Direct irrigation)
▪ Storage duty–( Duty of stored water) (i.e Related in Storage irrigation)
▪ Well dutey–( Duty of Well water) (i.e Related in lift irrigation)
• Kor water
o It is the first watering applied after swoing.
o It is 2nd watering applied to the land during base period.
• Kor depth
o The depth of water applied during kor watering is known as kor depth
Types of crops
❖ Karif crops :- ( Time 1st april to 30th september)
o It is also knowwn as summer crops
o EX: Rice, maize (Makai), cotton, jute,tobacco, groundnut etc.
❖ Rabi crops :- (1st october to 31th march)
o It is also known as winter crops
o EX:Gram,Wheat, Barley, peas, mustard, tobacco, potato etc
❖ Zaid season (march to july)
o Three month crops like seasional vegitable, seasonal fruits etc
❖ Cash crops
o The crops which have to be encashed in market for further processing.
o All food crops are not conseder as cash crops
o E.g cash crops are – cotton, coffee,tea,sugercan etc.
❖ Eight months crops (cotton)
❖ Perennial crops (sugar-cane) (base period B=360 days)
❖ Aqueduct ,syphon aquduct,super passage , canal syphon
o When canal pass over the natural drain
▪ Either aqueduct or syphone-aqueduct is used
o When canal pass below the natural drain
▪ Either super passage or a syphone is used

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o An aqueduct is a bridge exept that instead of carrying a road or a railways it

carries a canal on its top
o In superpassage no road is provided along the canal
o A separate bridge across the canal is provided.

# Free board of canal according to discharge

Discarge F.B

<0.3m3/sec 0.3m

0.3-1 m3/sec 0.4m minor

1-5 0.5m major dis.

5-10 0.6m branch calnal

10-30 0.9m main canal

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# River Training Works

➢ Many structures are provided for guiding -dfu{ lgb]{zg ug'{_ and protecting -hf]ufpg'_ the river from
changing its direction and to prevent from flooding -af9L_ of surrounding -jl/k/Lsf]_ area during
heavy rainfall -3gf jiff{_.
➢ River training work is classified into following types:
o High water training: training of discharge during maximum water flow.
o Low water training: training of for depth during minimum water flow.
o Mean water training : training for sediment
➢ Following structures are provided for river training work:
o Embankment or levees
▪ To prevent river to enter into country side.
▪ It is constructed parallel to river and up to height 12m.

o Guide Bank or Bell Bunds

▪ To guide river in its path.
▪ Length of upstream guide bank = 1.25 L to 1.50 L
▪ Length of downstream guide bank = 0.25 L

o Spurs or Groyens
▪ Structure provided transverse to river
▪ Provided to reduce energy of following water in river.

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o Bed pitching and Bank revetment

▪ Stones, boulders or concrete is provided in bank of river.
▪ It protects bank of river from scouring -lvofpg'_.
o Dredging of river
▪ Excavation at bottom of river to increase depth of flow.

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