ing frame of reference will be Body Dynamics 425 Vw 1 (v — diya, aot ay) Y (12147) Ba. (v — gh) = 0 a 2 ") Jp is the moment of inertia about the directi TI potential V(q, oon i t the direction of . The usual potential V(qs)’ is V(q.) — ag actually mini ; ijeextremum (actually minimum) of which should now correspond to (stable) equilibrium. mample: A spherical bow! of radius a is made to i s] i ‘ rotate with a constant d and 2 small ee shot is set free to roll on the inside surface Satna sca the possible configuration for equilibrium is to be decided by the condition @ (v Epcot tae een 66 2 08 grag either 6-— 0 (unstable equilibrium) or cosd = 9/M?a (stable equilibrium), 8 Bing the angle made at the centre of the bowl between the particle and the assumed vertical axis of rotation. 1 mga cos 6. + gma? sin? 8 =0 1228 DYNAMICS OF SOME GAMES AND SPORTS In this section we plan to give rough estimates of the relevant physical quantities involved ii walking, running, jumping, cycling, throwing, swimming, etc. First of all we must know the basic physical statistics of an average athlete. 12.28.1 Physical Statistics of an Average Athlete (i) Mass of the body (M). This is anessential quantity, which is taken to be 50 kg, unless otherwise stated. The centre of mass of the body lies quite close to one’s navel, the average position being about 5 cm below the navel and about-as much inside the body. The average except for the head. density of the body is minimally less than that of water, { h (i) Surface area of the body (A). The knowledge of this quantity {or different parts of the body is essential for different types of sports activities, but it is not at all easy to estimate vith great accuracy. Perhaps one can take a wide roll of nonsticking bandage cloth, wrap it ‘ound the whole body wit i d estimate the total surface area to an accuracy ly without overlap an Is athe order of 1%. In order to reach a'5% accuracy, one divide pee body acl ‘nto 4 sections — hands and legs, assuming their shapes roughly as sections — head and neck; trunks B be, Ata still more crude level, the es or, cylinders or, truncated cones as the case "AY 1 tea of the Riate body can be taken as approximately three times the area of the trunk. A Be: formula seems to be A = ( -M/30kg)?" metre? The proportional distributions426 Classical Mech .eck : trunk : hands : legs ratios for an average male athlete are 0.09 ; 0, oa: Fis Sor irface area, and 0.07 : 0.57 : 0.09 : 0.27 for the mass; whereas eae athletes these ratios are 0.09 : 0.3: 7; 0.43 and 0.07 : 0.52 : 0.07 : 0.34 respectively, For the total surface area, the formula is the same for women except for the constant for normalisation which replaces 30 kg by 33 kg. (iii) Principal moments of inertia of the body about its centre of mass (Izz, Iyy, Tez) for different symmetric configurations. The body frame axes z,y,2 are defined as follows: rack to front (horizontal forward) about which cartwheeling is performed ight to left (horizontal sidewise) about which somersault is performed z-axis: bottom to top (vertically upward) about which twist is performed. Table 12.3 shows the principal moments of inertia of an average athlete of 60 kg body weight. Table 12.3 Moments of Inertia of Human Body under Different Configurations Layout, Layout, Layout, Layout, arms arms arms twists Configuration at sides overhead out thrown Relaxed Tez (kg m?) 13.5 17.9 16.6 15.0 10.8 Ty (kg m?) 12.0 16.0 13.3 13.5 103 Iz (kg m”) 01.5 015 03.5 01.3 04.4 (iv) Body’s rate of expenditure of energy (K in Cal/hr/kg of bodyweight). There are basically two types of food as well as replenishable material in our body that are capable of delivering energy to or out from the body. One is fat (oily substances) with its calorie value 7700 Cal/kg (1 Cal = 1000 cal = 4200 J) and the other is carbohydrate with its calorie value 3500 Cal/kg. It means that if you eat 100 gm of any oil/fat or 220 gm of sugar/carbohydrate you gain about 770 Cal, and that if you work physically worth 770 Cal you will lose 220 gm of body’s sugar content or 100 gm of body’s stored fat in case sugar is not readily available. Here is a table for the energy expenditure rate (’) for various activities in Cal/hr/kg of bodyweight (see Table 12.4). In total, a typically hard-working person accounts for a daily expenditure rate of energy of about 30 Cal/kg of bodyweight on various items listed in the above table. The he major losses are due to required supply of heat of evaporation of sweat and the heat loss ta body to the surroundings in order to maintain the temperature difference between the ody and. the immediate surrounding, 1728.2 Strolling or Leisurely Walking m one walks in a leisurely fashion, one does not exert much effort consciously. ‘TARigid Body Dynami mics 427 Table 12.4 Power Consumption in various Human Activiti ivities as (cal/n Ae) Ae if ar Ir i viti aiities /kg) Activities (Cal/hr/keg) Bing 1.00 Walking(4.5km/hr) 33 sitting still 1.30 Carpentry 3.8 sanding relaxed 1.55 Active exercise 42 Sewing bY. hand — 1.65 Fastwalking(6.5km/hr) 44 ressing/undressing 1.75 Going down steps 5.0 Sneins, 1.85 Loading heavy objects 5.5 veriting 2.00 Heavy exercise 6.0 Woshing dishes 2.10 Tennis play /swimming 72 Sweeping 2.20 Very heavy exercise 9.0 Tight exercise 2.75 Going up steps 15. be approximated to the natural pendulum-like oscillations of hip joints. If the centre of mass of the legs of length L lies d the two legs make a maximum angle 29. at the apex process of such walking can the legs about the respective distance d below the hip joint an Guring walking, the half period of oscillation of the legs is simply bles g distance 2, the length of stride, and during this time, the person moves through a (12.148) zo = 2Lsind Thus the average speed of walking leisurely is zo 2bsin8 [9 2 [ok tor Phen’ (gee 12.149) Penis t 3 Vane ( ) where ) is defined through d = AL, A < 0.5. ‘Therefore, (i) the longer the legs the faster is the speed of walking, (ii) the bigger the stride the faster is the speed, (iii) the speed is independent of the weight of the body, and (ir) walking on the surface of the moon will be about 2.5 times slower than, that on earth, because of the reduced g-factor. Taking) = 0.4L = 0.8m, and small 8, one gets vy = 2:8 x O m/s 2/10 x! km/hr | HO 150, 2.6 km/hr. «Now when the to lege are farthest apart (26), the centre of gravity of the body is lowered428 Classical Mechanics ). $0 the work done in walking through a total distance D is given by t GD. \ ny Hee aoe Moh (az ra Sia (12.150) by h = Z(1 — cos8) So the total work done is proportional to the distance walked as well as to the length of stride or the speed of walking. 2.28.3 Race Walking ween walking and running is that, in walking either of the legs must touch with the ground. As one tends to walk fast, one moves the legs with conscious effort and the motion can no longer be approximated to the natural cnillation of the legs. In race walking the objective is to increase the speed of walking to the maximum extent, Equation (12.149) suggests that the increase of speed can be achieved by increasing the length of stride or 8. But as @ increases, the total vertical amplitude of the up and down motion of the CM, that is, h increases as 6”, and the requirement of power also increases as 6. For a stride length of about 9 = 30°, the waddling amplitude rr the CM from the previous formula becomes as high as 10.7 em for L = 0.8 m. During fast walking, the legs begin to bend forward sufficiently at the knees, the CM begins to experience a free fall through a height of h, and the time interval T, between the strides is approximately given by = 2h n= 2/2 The difference bet continue to keep in the expression for h can no longer be given by with the exception that for bent legs , the speed of race walking now becomes h = L(1,— cosd). Keeping h as a free parameter, 2hsin8 pat =5 12.151, sn 55 (12.181) ea Equation (12.151) suggests that the athlete cannot increase the speed of his/her race walking without increasing or decreasing h, which under normal circumstances does not go in the desired opposite way. Moreover, for @ = 30°, L = 0.8m, and vo = 5m/s (= 18 km/hr), the required value of h must not exceed 3 cm ! __ Therefore, the art of race walking is to learn how not to allow the waddling of the CM increase with the increase of the length. of stride. This is accomplished by athletes with @ calculated movement of their hips which is fast enough to arrest the rapid free fall of the Rae the whole body but slow enough for throwing their legs to have a8 big a stride as le. 12.28.4 Maximum Speed of Running pout # dozen strides hhile when it touches fall speed once this he feet and the hip pee, eal seccterates in each stride in the beginning and in al Mey ges | of running, Now each leg comes to rest for a w! Tr aes ie deatneti energy of the trunk of the body continues with , but the leg’s rotational kinetic energy about #Rigid Body Dynamics 429 vats alternately between zero and a maximum value of Iu? /2, where I is the average jit Peg about either end and w. is the mast i /2, w g BING! rie constant supply of thi imum angular velocity of both the legs in stride. The mat ae of this energy comes from the work done by the thrust of 0 in ee ee ance goat rests on the ground and bends at the knee, and the weeacis over ® push-ofl length # of the bent leg If the maximum force available in the of the thrust of reaction from the ground available is times the body’s weight Mg, em ergy equation Simply gives tt 1 2x gles < Mg (12.152) is given by phere Uo 18 BH i: wpe Ze L 4, being the maximum speed of the runner and L_ being the length of each leg. Here the uncertain parameters are J, j and s, However, one can perhaps take 1 T= gm? w= 1.5 and Ae saptound my ‘shere m; is the mass of each leg. For an estimate of's, which is approximately the separation between a fully extended leg, and a bent one, or the distance through which the CM of the body moves while the leg is on the ground, one can assume the location of the knee to be at the middle point of the leg and the maximum bending of the Jeg at the knee is as large 2590, giving se (came 0.3L So finally we get, for an average athlete, % < 4/3 ( ) wat (4) ~ 8.7m/s (12.153) Tnorder to increase the value of v. further, a professional runner must have longer (Z ~ 1 1) but lighter legs (M/m, ~ 8), relatively longer forelegs compared to thigh (for achieving t value of s) and strong enough to produce larger thrust (u ~ 1.5) so that V_ ~ 10.2 m/s ‘rin other words, for a 100 m run, the runner would take about 9.8 s. womens using certain drugs such as steroids, one can illegally increase the strength ot 4, which was the reason for Mr. Ben Johnson’s earning notoriety in the 100 m men’s Maing event, in the 1988 Olympics. a the work done by the legs during each stride is W. = uMgs and the final kinetic | the runner becomes M2gs _ 3 4) w, ~ (10 — 12 i 3(= r= ( ) x We (12.154)hnis/her maximum speed of running ly true for all runners, amateur or 430 Classical Mechanics Ii means that the runner can accelerate himself/herself to at the end of the first 10 — 12 strides. This is universall, professional, as it depends simply on the ratio of M and mi. 12.28.5 Maximum Range of Long Jump oven strides, the athlete gains the maximumspeed ed broad jump) the runner has to throw ‘o increase the range of his ay 6; in order t f the runner as @ projectile is We have seen that at the end of about a of horizontal running. For a long jump (also call himself off the ground with an angle of elevation § jump. In absence of any drag, the horizontal range ©! 2 Ri = HE sinh (12.155) und. Obviously, Rr is maximum for ‘hat 0R:/00: = 9 for Oe — x/4, 80 ly insensitive to 6;. For a range ‘thin about 2%. , reduces only to 8.7 m. where Vo is the speed just before taking off the gro 6; = 7/4, giving Rr = V2/9. However note tl achieving maximum value of Ri near 6; = 7/4 is relative of 6; between 40° and 50°, the variation of Ry remains wi Putting Vo = 10 m/s, Ri = 10m, and even if @; = 30°, F Tt seems that the best runner would also succeed as the best champion of broad jump. But this is not so simple. The art of this game is to produce the right take off angle which should be no less than 30°. The entire linear momentum of the body has to change its direction during the last stride only. It requires @ special technique so that the last push off becomes sufficiently long. The yertical component of the momentum generated in the final push off has to be comparable to its horizontal component, the one that has been achieved in about 10 strides. Usually the runner lowers the level of his/her CG and thrusts jossible himself/herself up and the duration of the last push 7 is made to be the longest Pp one. Nom, after n(n < 12) strides on the ground before the final one, becomes vy = V2nugs ain in the vertical component of the velocit, the horizontal speed ,y can be approximated During the last stride the g: to D vy = ngT = HO (12.156) 7] where f, defined through the above relation, corresponds to an effective length of the final oy > 0, which is true for broad jumps but ute it back cd ee can treat 8 as a constant only if igh jumps, Since tan; = vi/vy an we can substit in Eq. (12.155), and get Ry = AL dv2 = uf + vi, and (12.157) 6 = tan’ leap ‘The extra ‘pari ¥ ameter # plays a crucial role in determining R, apart from p and L. TheRigid Body Dynamics 431 world record of long jump Ry ~ 89 : ee iy form ~ 10. m requires a value of 8 ~ 3, and hence 2. 28.6 Maximum Height of Vertical Jump is the centre of gravity of the athlete that has to be lifted as high as possible bs Beatie the maximum amount of the vertical component of the impulse using th imu possible thrust received from the ground, The separation between the lifted co at the reference horizontal bar (h') is also to be minimised. We know that the CG of the right body lies inside the body, but ifthe body is given a shape ofan inverted ‘V’, the CG will not only come out of the body but also remain in a low position. It is known that one wm topple over a horizontal fencing keeping the CG all the time slightly below the upper foundary of the fencing. So an athlete can in practice achieve hk’ < 0 in high jumps. Guppose just before the final take off the athlete brings his/her CG down by a height 4.5(6 < 1) from its usual original height ho. Then the athlete exerts maximum possible thst on the ground so that the force of reaction Mg begins to act on the body. It can continue to act so long as the feet remain on the ground, that is, the CG does not go off shove its normal height h,. Since the work done on the whole body is uMgho6, after the take off the CG will continue to rise a further height of ho6. Hence the total height of the (CG above the ground at its peak of climbing becomes H + hl = hd(1 + y6) (12.157) where H is the height of the reference bar from the level of the ground. For a typical athlete, hp = 1 m,6 = 0.6, 4 = 1.5 and h! = 0, thus giving H=19m 3 to the extreme, one can perhaps achieve hp = 1.1 m, By stretching all the parameter: 6 = 0.75, » = 1.6, h! = —0.05 m in which case of high jump being 2.44 m, held by Javier Sotomayor of Cuba. The interesting point to note is that in Bq. (12.157) the value of g scales out from both sides, and therefore, the statistics of high jump will hardly improve on any other celestial object where the value of g is markedly different, except that the value of the factor night be substantially higher in conditions of lower gravity. H = 2.47 m, the present world record 12.28.7 Throwing discus or shot put, the muscular strength of the athlete's hands From weightlifting statistics, it is known that the highest limit of lifting a dead load Wa lies somewhere between 4. and 5.2 depending.on the weight clase of thes weightlifeera, the ratio being highest for. weightlifters having body Weights 60. 70 kg, Since the weights ace lifted by hands, the limits strongly depend. on the cross section of the weakest joint in the arm (Aw) and the total surface, area of the feet suppotts the renction, apart from the strength of the muscle fbres of the arms and 5, Hence the sauccalas atrenath of the hands for sustaining a maximum pressure can be expressed by the ratio Wa/Aw, where Au. is the cross-section of the wrist, Ih throwing a javelin, mes the most important factor.432 Classical Mechanics Now in all kinds of throwing processes the hand makes a 7 is thrown out in the air, Hence the entire arm, due to the crealhe So aiaeieae 9 jectile must experience an outward centrifugal force and the shoulder joint has to expe es tremendous amount of centrifugal pressure. ‘This happens even when one attempts to ting? a small stone chip, let alone a javelin, discus or shot put. During weightlifting, the eee pressure is maximum at the point of smallest cross-section, that is the wrist joint, but fe throwing, the outward centrifugal pressure becomes maximum at the shoulder joint, phe is given by Which Ly Paes z a A())p()w*dl where Ly is the length of the hand, (I) and p(t) are respectively the cross-section and mass density at a distance 1 below the shoulder joint, wis the approximately constant angular speed of the atm at a given instant and A, is the cross-section at the shoulder joint (= 0). So Cg ApLiw® 10m, ef FEeUOTRART Bey SaTRAR where m, is the mass of the hand and v is the speed of swing of the projectile held in the hand. ‘At the time of release, the maximum speed of throw Umax can reach high enough to satisfy the following equation (12.158) Wa Pet = Ay as the weightlifting is done by using both the hands. Taking Wa — y/Mg, we get DA 1 (MY (Aa thay = Pea (So (= gL, = 192 mrAw my} \Aw where 7 and y’ are defined through the above relations. It is desirable that the thrower have the largest possible value of 7. We can take w= 5, (M/m,) = 20 and(A,/A,) = 1.5, giving 7 — 150. This means that a swinging hand can sustain a maximum outward centrifugal acceleration of the hand of about 150 times the value of g. i Combining Fags (12.158) and (12-158), it is now easy to find out the maximum possible range of throwing a stone chip, for example (without of course imparting any CM motion of the body to the projectile), which becomes Rae = Ln or about 150 times the length of the hand. If L, = 0.65 m, the maximum range of throwing a stone chip without running becomes a little less than 100 m. If by just one swing of hand you can throw up to a distance of say 50 m, you know that you can achieve a centrifugal acceleration on the order of 75g, which algo implies that after the act of throwing you would feel your hand to have become tired, as if it had lifted a dead load from the ground, weighing about 2.5 times yout body weight. This proves not only that our arm muscles are generally very strong, but also that their actions are extremely swift. According to Eq. (12.158), ® (12.159)Rigid Body Dynamics 433 rower should have a relatively lighter, loi tl : er and got {you run to bring the speed of nger and stronger arm. iow if y' peed of your OM ti | Hi Tarange would become, using gs (12.155) ane BE Stata — (max, + 9)? Rm = Sass Soe) sin 2h cea (12.160) ihe extra term Ro being a small correction due to the nonzero height at the moment of jietrow (hs) Usually Ro ~ hi. For vo = 8'm/s, vmax = 30.9'm/s and Ro = 1m, a= 158m j) Throwing a Javelin javelin is basically a long, but light rod pointed at one end. Since it is long and held in hand at the arm's length, it will produce an extra centrifugal pressure at the hinge point of theswinging arm. One has therefore to add a term to our expression for P.; before equating joWa/2Aw- The whole effect can be viewed as an increase in the effective mass of the hand m, An extra factor ay by which the value of mp, increases would depend on the mass and Jength of the javelin, the point where the javelin is held in hand: and its orientation with respect to the straightened arm. Since one is allowed to run before throwing the javelin, ne would have from Eqs (12.158) and (12.160) 1 Rac seed e adhe 9 as which for v, = 8 m/s, ay = 1.7 gives Rm throwing the initial height R, of the CG of the javel ‘The current world record seems to stand at 104 m, s (ii) Throwing a Shot Put Inthis game a 16 Ib lead shot is to be thrown from within a small marked circular zone on the ground without lifting at any time both the legs from the ground. With this heavy shot itone hand, the value of ay in Bq. (12.161) becomes 4.8 or so, and the effective value of 7 does not quite reach 150 in just little more than half a swing. The thrower also attempts loachieve as high a forward centre of mass speed (vo) as possible. This is done by turning Bee fhes citiese ekaraed on ond leg (which makes him attain Zones’ Gt malign), ding backward on one 5 { as of the shot which follows a calculated and final) is 7 1 id finally making a half swing of the body as we 2 0 ‘pital orbit etre release. Ae ‘the same time much effort is spent to raise the CM of the fyi 88 to impart maximum possible vertical component of velocity to the shot. The ‘Mpical values of v, ~ 2 m/s, 7 ~ 120 and R, = 1.5 m giving Rm © 23:3. 2 sin26; + Ro (12.161) I 104 m, assuming that at the moment of Jin was about 1.5 m above the ground. et by Uwe Hohn of GDR. | Mecurrent world record being about 22.9 m- (iti) Throwi ‘i requi Gt) Throwing a Discus its characteristic shape it requi discus ig . javelin, but because o its characteristic shape it requires un eaten eae tability in its long route of directed motion through434 Classical Mechanics Jete turns about himself/herself before fingers and the thrower makes one or two comp! 160°/and Rh OL ey, (aie discus is thrown. With ay = 1.8, % =3 m/s,7 = gives Rm, = 70 m. 12,28.8 Cycling sular power of the leg on the pedals of a bicycle, In hievable by a professional cyclist in a race, we able from the trust of the legs on the pedals athlete in a 100 m race, for example. The ts that the length of the strides is abouy the subsection on running. Hence using inning in a race per unit mass of Cycling is performed by exerting muse’ order to find the maximum speed of cycling ac! must first know what maximum power is avail: We can take this from the performance of an configuration of legs during fast running suggest L/V2, for the expression that we have used for s in Eqs (12.152) and (12.153), the maximum power spent rv the body is given by 05 v2 (my % 15 (4) ne K, = (Gp) pee? pai (12.162) For an average athlete, K, ~ 54 W/kg (= 46 Cal/hr/kg for easy comparison with various entries in Table 12.4) of the body weight. Since running with such a high power lasts only for 10—100 sec, a 60 kg person shall not lose more than 8-80 Cal. The maximum power of leg thrusting on hard ground can thus become 2.7 kW for a 50 kg athlete, which is about 3.6 HP! If the bicycle racer keeps on feeding power at this rate to the cradle of the bicycle, the speed should keep on increasing endlessly. But as it gains speed the losses become more important. For a runner on the ground, the loss was mainly due to periodic acceleration and deceleration of the legs. We calculated the final steady speed of running by equating this rate of loss to the pumping rate from the thrusting of legs on the ground. In cycling too, the loss due to periodic acceleration and deceleration of the legs on pedal is unavoidable, but it is now about 10 or 15 times smaller than the pumping rate (the exact factor depends on the diameter of paddling wheel, height of the bicycle, length of the legs and the speed ratio of the wheel to the cradle). ‘The main loss is however due to combating the air drag. In the speed range we are interested in, the drag law is a quadratic one and is given by ‘b Fp = 3CppaAv? (12.163) where Fp is the drag force experienced by i i i is a y the moving system (= bicycle), 4 i§ the frontal cross-section of the whole system, Cp = 08, ve e ig Pe i is the speed of the system. The loss of power due to this drag is Fou. Keeping a factor (slighty greater than unity) in order to include the losses by the legs and a possible difference in the value of y for thrusting on pedals rather we for the maxi imum oo Ly than on ground, we can ha’ = (vam \* wy = (S224) ey (12.164)Rigid Body Dynamics 435 where vo is the maximum speed of the ath ratio of v) t0 Vp seems to be fairl proportional to the product AL, cycling, the net frontal area is app: J lete as a runner in, say, a 100 m race, The y independent of the athlete’s capacities, as m; is nearly For an athlete keeping his/her head vertically up while roximately M \ot A= 05 2 2 ie me) i the numerical factor 0.5 becomes about 0.45 if both the trunk and the head lean sufficiently forward. Obviously such a posture is helpful in achieving higher speed as A occurs in Eq. (12.164) in its denominator. For an average athlete the constant of proportionality in Eq, (12:164) becomes about 2.51 for (A = 1.1), thus giving 21.8 m/s the present world record of maximum speed in bicycling being about 22 m/s. Uy 12,28.9 Swimming Swimming is a dynamical process in which the swimmer gains a net horizontal momentum by throwing parts of the body in and out while the body remains entirely supported by 4 pool of water. Since there is no component of gravity (the external force) that can act in the horizontal direction, the centre of mass of the body cannot acquire any horizontal component of linear momentum by merely performing any number of internal motions, such as throwing hands and legs, etc. So one has to transfer a net horizontal component of momentum to the surrounding medium, so that the body can receive an equivalent amount as a reaction. During running the momentum is transferred to the earth as an action and during swimming it is transferred to the surrounding water medium. In both the cases the body receives the reaction which is capable of producing the motion of the centre of mass of the body. There are four different styles of swimming depending on the mode of generating the Tequired thrust on water. In freestyle, strokes by hands are performed longitudinally and alternately. In butterfly stroke, longitudinal strokes of hands are made in unison. In breast- stroke, the hand strokes go sideways with hands remaining fully outstretched. In backstroke, the hand strokes are quite similar to those of the freestyle mode, but the body is now kept always in the prone position. Here we shall consider the butterfly mode for reasons of simplicity, Let us analyse a case when the strokes are produced both by hands and legs. The hand Strokes begin with both the hands stretched in the forward direction. Let 79 be the constant acceleration of the tip of the hand, produced by the muscles of the hand, and as a ies at time t, @ be the angle that each arm make with the forward direction. Assuming as before the hands to be uniform rods of length Ly, mass my and longitudinal vertical cross-section Ay (that effectively faces the force of drag from water), the centre of mass of each aa Would experience a net horizontal force as the sum of Fax: = ma7g/2 and the drag fase Fa = -2 CppyAnv2n/3, where Cp = drag coefficient (for swimming speeds op smn Yh Pu = density of water, and vem = the instantaneous speed of the CM of the hand. Since436 Classical Mechanics far force at some stage after which deceleration take, hh respect to the shoulder joint say at £ = 4, when initial values of Vem with respect to the body 11 the momentum they gained in between, to the Fa « v2q, it wins over the muscul: over and brings the hands to rest wit @ = Bmax, say. Since both the final and are zero, the hands must have transferred all surrounding water. ‘The net horizontal forward component of this momentum of each hand that goes to the water in each stroke is i pee -f mitem sin Bdt ‘The equation of motion can be exactly solved in order to get expressions for Pa, Omax and ta in terms of 7, 9, ma, Cp, Ax and pu. The whole body receives the momentum — p, as a reaction and moves forward with a final speed Vy (starting from zero, of course) at the end of t = to, given by 5 Be) VigT ibaa ~ 1.22 (7) V7aTnBaax (12165) Vt = srg and time taken BAe | Ln8, D8, 2/3 mn = age max = ———q_,—,. (12,166) 2/2 19 19 Wi o CopwAnLr ( ) Note that the most uncertain parameter A, is eliminated using the expressions for the directly observable quantity @max- The above expressions will be valid also for the leg strokes with appropriate values of the 7 factor, L and mi. Since a leg can exert 2 maximum of force 4 Mg, its lower tip, that is foot, can produce a maximum acceleration of 2uMg/m, = 7'g ~ 22g. Also note that in the opening out phase of the legs, the body is retarded, while in the returning phase the body gains a forward momentum, if both are performed by thrusting water. The return strokes of the hands could retard the whole body almost exactly by the same amount as it had accelerated in their forward strokes, but the return strokes are carried out in air instead of in water, and therefore retardation of the body due to muscular efforts for resetting the hands back to the original positions are avoided. It is the drag force of wale? that acts on the whole body during both the onward and return parts of the strokes and continues to retard the motion of the CM. For maximum gain in aot the hands sho open out in water, but the legs should open out in air. If the swimmer fails to do 8 does it the wrong way, the efforts of the legs will simply reduce the speed of swimming ‘0° great extent. From Eq. (12.165), one can achieve V; ~ 1.2 m/s ot che end of each St of the hands if Onan = 80°, and ean go.up to 17 wa ithe sat Imax = 60°. It is obvious that the maxim i , SEAT lum average speed V. achieved by the swimmer will depe™ the total surface area of th h al e bo Pibuve lengths of the passive intervals between two successive active phases of the strO#™ the momentum of the whole body SH” During each active part of the stroke by hands,Rigid Body Dynamics 437 the following equation of motion follow P= -,, 1 2 Ph ~ 5CvpwAy (i) \. is the effective surface area of ute part of the strokes of the whole body that Produces the drag. And during 1 PY? =~ 3CppwAo (3) tnder steady state conditions, the time av erage of P ‘i vaeth Since the solution for m, as a tan eeee over the full period of a stroke must tion of t is given by 5 mn [3m 2) =. amagt + nd (. [CopwArg pal) = 757g BV Opp.d (geet for t < ty the time average over a period 21, under the steady state conditions will give 5 1 yey = 3CDPwAo Va (12.167) However in actual practice the return part of the stroke is made slightly longer than f,, in hich case, the coefficient 0.5 on the right hand side of Eq. (12.167) will effectively increase. As seen from the above expression for pa(t) , the instantaneous velocity of the body V_ will approximately vary sinusoidally with an amplitude Vj over the average speed of swimming Vo, which would give, after averaging 1 = V2 + 5 (Viana + 5 (Peg (12.168) Substituting Eq. (12.168) in Eq. (12.167) and using the expressions for Vj’s, we get 2 2A, 2 _ _5ymag 5x? ¢mn\? (Ao) _ 5x* ym (mr (#)| (12.169) Ve= oped [i - = (FR) An 16 yma Gr) Ar peeeting other types of relatively minor contributions coming from the thrusts produced v the chest and head. Putting A, 0.6 m?, A, = 0.02 m?, Ar = 0.09 m?,M = 50 kg, 7 a 180, Mim 2 7.25, 4 = 22, M/m, = 23, Co = 0-7, Pw = 1000 kg/m’, we get for ‘he maximum attainable speed of swimming under most favourable cases Ve = 2.0 m/s .0 m/s in the free style, = 1.86 m/s in {9 m/s in the breaststroke. Z Olympic records till the present suggest Ve = * ‘tterfly mode, = 1.80 m/s in backstroke, and = 1.438 Classical Mechanics For different styles of swimming, the exact numerical coefficient eee ca ay term of Eq. (12.169) would vary a great deal, apart from the changes in the values of A, ang An ; However, it should be noted that the treatment presented above is by no means complete, ‘The physics of a complicated art like swimming has still remained a matter of research, 12.28.10 Playing Tennis, Golf, Ping Pong and Base Ball Small and light weight balls are hit by hand-held tennis rackets for playing tennis, by hand-held golf sticks for playing golf, etc. The speed of the spinning balls often acquires a maximum exceeding 30 m/s. At such high speeds, two types of drag forces are experienced by the spinning balls, one is the usual quadratic law of drag force Fy = ~ S0pp.vv and the other called the Magnus force of lift (after H. G. Magnus who discovered it in 1853) acts always perpendicular to the the flying ball’s velocity vector v and its axis of spinning A = w/w Rae 5CrpeAr(w x 9) where » is the instantaneous velocity of the ball, r = radius of the ball, A mr? effective cross-section of the ball, w = angular velocity of rotation, p, = air density, Cp = drag coefficient for linear speed, and Cy, = drag coefficient for the Magnus force. The last two quantities are given by the following approximate empirical formulae Hence the equation of motion of the centre of mass of the ball is simply 04 eS Op = 0508 + [2250s + 4.196 (<7) v =a C= [2200 + 0.981 al mo = mg + Fp + Fr, Usually a constant spin angular speed is assu; tion of motion is integrated numerically, the effect of backspin is to increase the the back spin rate should be as high as crease with the increase in the initially perpendicular to the direction of motioy remain confined in one plane. It move: sign of the spin. med for the entire trajectory, and the equa using the method of quadrature. It is found that range of the ball. For attaining maximum range; Possible and the optimum launch angle should de Siven spin rate. Since the Magnus force always acts n, it cannot affect the speed but the motion does not either to the right or to the left depending on the 12.28.11 Playing Acrobatics Acrobatics involve basic rotations such as somersautt, twist and cartwheeling of the bodyRigid Body Dynamics 439 various configurational states of the body, namely, arms laid out on sides, or overhead, in twists, or in relaxed or outstretched conditions. Table 12.3 gives an idea of the rincipal moments of inertia about the centre of mass of the body under the above mentioned ations. Ifthe body : thrown in air, gravity cannot produce any net external torque on the body. so the torque free rotation of the body can be described by Buler’s equations of motion ren bY Seca t a =-wx LT dt] yoaytrame i here J is the angular momentum of the body and is given by bodyframe L = Ipewei + Iyyyj + Teewk ‘The solutions of ws, wy and w, can be obtained by numerically integrating these equations of motion. 12.28.12 Performance of Women in Sports This requires an understanding of some subtle and gross differences between men and women in terms of strength, constitution and organisation of the body. The same is true for cartoons and line drawings that bring out subtle features that enable one to easily distinguish between men, women and children, apart from the quite obvious ones. For performance in sports, the following differences may be noted. (i) Smaller feet and lighter body weight. Women are capable of producing less thrust on the ground than men do. The j1 factor seems to be about 1.25. If we substitute this value af u, most of the Olympic statistics for women can easily be explained. (i) Wavy outline of the body due to constricted waist and greatly extended hip. This has happened during the course of biological evolution that enabled women to carry, and nurtus vabies before and after birth. So the centre of gravity of their body lies well inside the body, This gives more stability to performing odd rotations of the body in space. (iii) Fat content. An average woman has about 40% of the body weight in the form of fat, compared to, about 25% for men. They are mainly located in the abdomen, hips, thighs and breasts. However, all these fatty components are considered to be an absolute nuisance for awoman athlete particularly for running, swimming and performing gymnastics, because during all swift movements of the body, these locations try to displace in the same direction adding to great imbalance of the body. (iv) Hands ‘and legs. It is only during adolescence that @ girl between 12 and 16 becomes generally taller than boys of the same age. The ‘centre of mass of the legs begins to move Upward, the hands and legs become f the boys. These factors about 8% taller than those of do help compensate to some extent the deficiencies ‘caused by the lower values of # and 7 for girls of the above age group ove! 1 their male peers. 12.28.13 Controlling Bodyweights Most people are concerned with gai bodyweights, With your normal daily ing a control over their accelerating or decelerating intake of food and daily routine for work including440 Classical Mechanics exercises, you find your bodyweight Mg is either increasing a Se time, op remaining quite steady. If the rate of increase is Mf = dM/dt, wi a bie Practical purposes the same as the rate of fat deposition in the Pte eae ia LS the degree of your daily exercise or reduce the daily calorie intake from in ordep to neutralise the effect, so that Mg x 7000Cal = -AKeW + AQs where AK, is the induced change in the daily average of K in terms of extra exercises, say, by selecting items from Table 12.4, and Qy is the intended changes in the daily intake of food calories. You can make M = 0 by suitably adjusting the two terms on the right hand side of the equation. To give an eae suppose you noticed that your bodyweight (say 50 kg at the time) was increasing at a rate of 1kg per month, and you wanted to keep it steady at about 50 kg only by increasing the level of your daily exercise. Now, 1 kg of fat per month implies 32 gm/day = 0.032 x 7700 Cal/day = 250 Cal/day, or = 5 Cal/day/kg of bodyweight. From Table 12.4, the requirement can be satisfied by an extra exercise of say playing tennis or swimming for 45 minutes or very fast walking (of average speed 6.5 km/hr) for about an hour and a quarter. However, we would like to add a cautionary remark. Most people, particularly young women, are quite conscious of either achieving or maintaining a slim figure. This is good so long as the fat reserve in the body does not go below a critical level. Recent studies have revealed that if the fat content drops below 30% of the body weight, the natural cycle of ovulation becomes irregular, and it stops or cannot even begin for the first time if the fat content remains below 25%. 12.29 SUMMARY We have seen that the degrees of freedom for any arbitrary motion of a rigid body is six, implying that its configuration space is six-dimensional. It therefore becomes extremely dificult to perceive motions of rigid bodies in all their richness with our limited power of vision, which encompasses only up to 3 dimensions. So when we restrict the motion of a rigid bedy to rotating about a fixed point in the body, there is hope for yisualising all the devoted to studying such motions. what is called rotation of a rigid bod: i is ly, are completely new in ki ir dynamical aeseisons, the knowledge of total mass, again a particle Ee a sea aaa structural details of the rigid body are coded in the ac independent components ofRigid Body Dynamics 441 the rae Ine jenaer, Through various theorems on the moment of inertia and the ae Ips of inertia, the symmetries of the moment of inertia tensor are brought out. Pah hes Laser ae 3 a can remain steady only with reference to body ign tert steara tt ‘ veloping a scheme for tackling dynamical problems with reference | ‘Y “rames, which are generally rotating and are therefore grossly noninertial. The eae isations of the Newonian schemes in retaining the torque angular momentum angeaty or developing the relevant equations of motion were successfully carried out by Euler. T! e addition ofa centrifugal term in Euler’s equations of motion has been justified in the text in several ways. Free rotations of rigid bodies with Poinsot’s geometrical interpretations in terms of pol- hodes and herpolhodes, Euler’s analytical solutions in terms of Eulerian angles, and a com- bination of both in terms of body cones and space cones bring out all the subtle features of free rotations. The motions of symmetric tops under the action of Sravitational torques about a fixed point in the rotating body are found to retain the same number of first integrals of motion as a freely rotating rigid body has. This property makes them ideally suited as the first step of extension towards understanding, as well as applying to, many natural examples of top motions in an analytic fashion. The introduction of the Eulerian angles help interpret the motions in terms of most fundamental rotations, such as precession, nutation and axial spin. Lastly, the motivation behind our consideration of a simplified dynamics of some sports and games has been to illustrate the richness of the motions of the human body as a rigid body. The physics of complicated events are usually not so complicated as they appear to be. Through these examples we have also tried to demonstrate how one would go about in order to formulate a physical problem, be it as complicated as the process of running or swimming. PROBLEMS 12.1 A sphere can roll without slipping on a given plane horizontal surface. Find the equations for the nonholonomic rolling constraint, if (i) the surface is at rest, and (ii) the surface is a uniformly rotating heavy platform. ap Show that in the second case, the ball will make circular orbits with respect to the outside inertial observers. 12.2 A sphere of radius a is pressed between two perfectly smooth parallel pie and made to revolve with uniform angular speeds % a % Cae 2 eee i i i tion of the sphere, an erpendicular to their planes. Determine the motio : h the path ‘of the centre of the sphere is a circle described with uniform speed. ‘vertical angle @ rolls on a horizontal plane ‘with its Se Pal angle r/2,— 2a rotates with its axis 12.3 A right circular cone If the line of contact vertex at ©. A second cone of semivertical a vertical and vertex at O, in rolling contact with the first cone.442 Classical Mechanics of the first cone with the plane makes a complete circuit around the vertical in time T, determine the angular velocity of the second cone. 7 iti ticle in a rigid body with respect to a . t) denotes the position vector of any part : a nay ae in the body about which the body turns, show that the motion that sends (0) into r(t) may be reproduced as a single rotation of magnitude 6(t) about an axis with unit vector f(t), and the Rodgrigue’s formula for finite rotation vector B satisfies ne ( . 1) (2 + 58 x 2) where w = instantaneous angular velocity vector, provided p= nun(2)a Also show that ri) = (1+ wv) [(1 - F#) 10) + 516-r00)8 + 8 x n(0) 12.5 Prove the following theorems on centre of mass and moment of inertia (i) Lagrange’s theorem (1783): If R be the position vector of the centre of mass at G of any given object measured from any arbitrarily chosen point O in the body, then prove that MR? = Sana - ye YS mimjlri = 75) fais izt where r; is the position vector of the ith particle, and M = total mass of the body. Use this theorem to find out the centre of mass of a regular pyramid. (ii) Ifz, y, z are three mutually perpendicular intersecting axes set in a given body, prove that the sum of the MI about the three axes is given by Tes + Iyy + Tez = 2 mur? or in other words, prove that the trace of the moment of inertia tensor is invariant. Use this theorem to show that the moment of inertia of a circular hoop of mass M and radius R about an axis 45° with respect to the symmetry axis is 3M R?/4. (ili) Express the mass quadrupole tensor Diz = Yom(3rirj, — 1r26,;)_ in terms of the moment of inertia tensor Ii, 12.6 An object of mass M and moment of inertia I is initially at rest on a frictionless surface. If F be a force of constant magnitude whose li ication is always ff whose line of application is at a distance d from the centre of mass and its orientation with respect to the body jLimains always the same, show that the trajectory of the centre of mass of the objet is a Cornu’s spiral, 12. ellij ‘What is the height-to-diameter ratio of a right circular eylinder such that the inertial psoid at the centre of the cylinder is a sphere. Is it possible to have a suitable12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 Rigid Body Dynamics 443 height to diameter ratio for a right circular cone that would make the inertial ellipsoid about its vertex a sphere? A homogeneous sphere is thrown on the floor with a speed v, such that it slides initially. Calculate the speed at which rolling will occur using the torque angular momentum relationship according to section 12.9 about (i) the centre of mass, and (ii) about the point of contact with the floor. Show that both these frames give the identical answer, namely v = 5v,/7. We know that the total electrostatic energy retained in the electrostatic field of a static electron of mass m and charge e exceeds the value me? if the radius of the electron is assumed to be smaller than 2ro/3, where ro = jice?/4rm = the classical radius of the electron. Since the electron is known to have a spin angular momentum |S| = ,/s(s-+1)h, s = 1/2, show the speed required on the equator of the classical electron exceeds about 440 times the speed of light, that is, if the electron is assumed to be a rigid sphere of radius 2ro/3, and rotating uniformly. This is one reason why one says the spin of an electron is quantum mechanical. However, knowing that an electron also has a magnetic moment p = — (e/m)S, the region outside the electron must produce both an electric field B and a magnetic dipole field H, the combination of which will produce an effective angular momentum L totally outside the electron, defined through the energy flux interpretation of the Poynting vector. Show that L = S if we integrate the angular momentum density due to the Poynting vector over the entire space from infinity down tor = 2r,/3! Einstein and de Haas devised the following experiment in 1916. Suppose you take an iron wire of say 5 cm length and Imm diameter, suspended with its axis vertical, and free to rotate about the axis. The wire is suddenly magnetised by a magnetic field applied parallel to the axis and the resulting increase in its angular velocity was measured. How large was the effect? A horizontal circular disc of mass Mis pivoted about a point on its rim, so that it is free to rotate about a vertical axis passing through the point. If a cat of mass m walks once around the rim, show that the disc turns through an angle a, given by et 4m cos? 6d8 10) fi (3/2) + 4mcos? 6 A body is rotating about a fixed point O in space under the action of gravity, ate directions of the principal moments of inertia of the body are given by the tri OXYZ (i,j,k). Let the direction of the vertical be represented by the unit vector # (= pi + aj + Th), and the position vector of the centre of gravity G be OG = hi + kj + Ik. Find the two usual integrals of motion. ‘rd integral of motion exists provided oi a ar 1a ie (An CP)/AC = (h + P)/B, giving the Hess’ integral Ahw; + Clu 0. s¥0 3 Gr. (i) A = B= 20 and | = 0; giving the Kowslevaki’s integral oF ad S444 Classical Mechanics ghp/C)? + (2w1w2 — ghg/C)? = const. eee Ce i = 4C, k = I = 0, giving the Tshapliguine’s integral ws(w? + 3) — ghurr/C = const. 12.18 (i) Show that polhodes are closed curves. , (ii) Show that steady rotations about the principal axes of any asymmetric top are stable except for the intermediate principal axis. i 12.14 A cone of semiangle a is rotating without slipping on the surface of a stationary cone of semiangle a, keeping their vertices at a common point. If the precessional angular speed of the axis of the first cone be @, find the instantaneous axis of rotation fi, instantaneous total angular velocity w and the axial spin rate # of the rolling cone about its body frame principal axes. Assume a, and ay to be acute angles, What happens when a becomes obtuse? (‘These cones describe precisely the rolling of the body cone over the space cone and the analogy is, in every sense, a realistic one.) 12.15 A uniform right circular cylinder , whose length is 3 times the radius of its circular section and is set spinning with an angular velocity © about an axis passing through its centre and a point on the rim of one of its plane ends, is thrown into the air. If the air resistance is neglected, prove that the times taken by the instantaneous axis of rotation to describe the herpolhode and polhode cones are in the ratio 3: 5. 12.16 If a constant couple N be applied about the axis of symmetry of a body supported at its centre of mass, and initially rotating about an axis perpendicular to that of symmetry, determine the motion completely and show that the cone described in the body by the instantaneous axis of rotation has the equation 2AN |e? + 4?)tan-2 (¥)] — ~ yn? fe? + 9?)tan () O(A — C)n?z where is the initial angular speed of rotation. 12.17 A flywheel of mass m and radius a is executing a free rotation about a fixed point on its shaft. If its precessional angular velocity 2 and the total angular velocity w make an angle a, find the locations of the body cone, space cone and the time to make one complete revolution of the body cone around the space cone. What happens to the motion if a constant Bravity force is switched on along — 2? 12.18 A pair of locomotive wheels of radius r on the in the railway track, that has a radius of curvature R. If the speed of the locomotive remains constant at vo, find the angular velocity of precession of the system and 12.19 If the surface of a sphere is vibrating slowly in such a way that the principal momentsRigid Body Dynamics 445 of inertia are harmonic functions of time 2mr? a ul Bl + ecoswt) 7, = Tee =e — ecoswt) seesic . 1. The sphere is simultaneously rotating with angular velocity M(t). Show that the z-component of 2 remains approximately constant. Show also that M(t) precesses around the z-axis with a precessi = Pca. precession frequency wp, = (3eM,/2) cos wt 12.20 A symmetrical top is spinning with its vertex in contact with a rough horizontal plane. Initially the axis of the top is at rest and makes an angle 7/3 with the upward vertical, the spin about the axis being 2\/Mgh/C. Prove that after the axis is released its inclination to the vertical oscillates between a/3_and 2/2, and that in the latter position the angular velocity of precession is ,/Mgh/A. 12.21 Ifthe outer surface of the earth is assumed to be an oblate spheroid (equatorial radius a, polar radius c) with the principal moments of inertia about its centre A, A and C, and it rotates with an angular velocity 9 about the polar axis, show that the expressions for the effective acceleration due to gravity ger at the poles gy and at the equator g- are given by GM a 3.0708 GM a3 a= (r+ SS - 58) ead ee at cir) where M is the mass of the earth and G the Newtonian constant of gravitation. 12.22 (i) Show that the condition for secular stability of a freely rotating rigid body (that is, with the angular momentum L = constant) having a moment of inertia I is given by the absolute minimum of the effective potential ag 1p Ver = Vit op (ii) Consider the example given at the end of section 12.27. Show that for u? < g/a, the effective potential has an absolute minimum at 6 = 0, but for w? > g/a, the minimum shifts to @ = 6. = cos~(g/wa). Will the shot suddenly jump to the new state of stable equilibrium or do it gradually, if the above critical limit in w is crossed from below? Solve the equation of motion and describe the path it follows. 1223 Determine the period of small amplitude oscillations of a uniform hemisphere which lies on a smooth horizontal surface in the field of gravity, keeping its plane surface up. Consider algo the more general case in which the sphere is arbitrarily cut by a horizontal plane and is made to oscillate about the symmetry axis. 224 Doab i ‘din walking. Suppose the power F’ is spent etter analysis of the power demand in w : " ? Tot only in raisi f the body (Pi) in each stride but also in accelerating peateertising She, 'P_— Py) ineach stride. Consider also the effect of and decel i P» a ., Fite fot lense 3 jess (Ps sag the length of strides a. Find the functional form446 Classical Mechanics 12.25 12.26 12.27 12.28 12.29 12.30 for P as P(v,a) and show that P’ has a minimum for some intermediate length of strides. Show that a backspinning ball while bouncing off from a surface cree experiences a greater decrease in both translational kinetic energy and in tot eae than a forward spinning ball, so that the ball slows down to a great eee pa is why a backspinning cricket ball gives rise to a very slow catch within yards of the striker, (a) Show that the maximum range of a triple jump is approximately twice the maxi. mum range of the long jump. ’ ; i) If the maximum height of a high jump is H and the maximum attainable speed in horizontal running vo, find the maximum height achieved in a pole vault. (i) Why do you prefer to locate a spacious flat surface of a rock to sit upon, while during diving you prefer to use the minimum area of the water surface to dip in? (ii) Cats and monkeys jump from a height with any arbitrary initial configuration and always land safely on the ground having rotated their bodies in flight by the right amount. Does this violate the principle of conservation of angular momentum? If not, how? (iii) While walking, why do your hands swing in opposite directions? (iv) How will you explain the larger total surface area of the body of a man than that of a woman of the same body weight? A chain is suspended keeping both the ends at the same elevation. One end is released. Show that the free end can fall with an acceleration exceeding g. Prove the following theorem on elastic collision of two tigid bodies: ‘The component of relative velocity of points of impact along the impulse direction is exactly reversed. It is known that a doubly asymmetric round pebble when left spinning on a flat surface about one of its asymmetric axes suddenly reverses its sense of spinning. This problem has been completely solved by Hermann Bondi only a few years ago- You can give it a try.