Instrument and Gender as Factors in the Perceptions of Musicians and Musical

Performance
Author(s): Jason P. Cumberledge
Source: Contributions to Music Education , Vol. 43 (2018), pp. 159-174
Published by: Ohio Music Education Association

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26478004

REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26478004?seq=1&cid=pdf-
reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Ohio Music Education Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend
access to Contributions to Music Education

This content downloaded from

46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Contributions to Music Education Vol. 43, pp. 159-173.

Jason P. Cumberledge
University of Louisville

Instrument and Gender as Factors

in the Perceptions of Musicians and
Musical Performance
All musicians should be evaluated in a fair, accurate, and objective manner. It is imperative
for solo evaluations to be objective since preconceived expectations about musicians and
their performances, spurred by gender and behavioral stereotyping, may lead to biased
evaluations. This study will investigate the possible gender and behavioral stereotyping of
wind band musicians during evaluations of musical performances. College students (N =
143) rated the musical performances of fictitious male and female musicians while also
indicating perceptions about behavioral characteristics for each musician. Results indicated
that behavioral stereotyping may be present in the perceptions made of wind band musi-
cians, although male and female musicians were judged equally in regard to their musical
performance. Implications for music educators, as well as suggestions for further research,
are discussed.

Introduction
Individual music performances are evaluated each day in music education.
Music performance evaluations may be one of the most important facets of mu-
sic education (Elliot, 1996). Students’ instrument choice, ensemble membership,
school acceptance, and scholarship awards can all be influenced by others’ judg-
ments of their individual performance ability. All musicians should be evaluated
in a fair and objective manner. It is imperative for solo evaluations to be objective
since preconceived expectations about musicians and their performances, spurred by
gender and behavioral stereotyping, may lead to biased evaluations. Therefore, the
purpose of this study will be to investigate the possible gender and behavioral ste-
reotyping of wind band musicians during the evaluation of musical performances.

159
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Contributions to Music Education

Gender Identity
Gender stereotyping will be explored in this study. To help gain an under-
standing of the complex variables present in gender stereotypes, it may be helpful
to clearly define gender identity. Gender identity is a complex and nuanced part
of a person’s overall self-concept (Burke & Stets, 2009). Smith and Smith (2016)
defined gender identity as a set of expectations and meanings an individual holds
that relate to a role they occupy, a group membership they hold, or a view of their
self as a unique person. Each person’s set of meanings about binary gender iden-
tity ultimately leads to behavior relevant to situational context, or gender output
(Burke & Stets, 2009).
While gender identity is determined from the inside, gender output, or how
each person shows themselves to society, influences the perceptions of others.
Through gender output, people choose whether or not to operate within soci-
etal norms and expectations for each gender, resulting in gender-role expectations
(Burke & Stets, 2009). Gender-role expectations have wide ranging and often
intimate interrelations with social constructs (Ridgeway & Smith-Lovin, 1999).
For example, gender-role expectations have historically associated greater overall
competence with men than women and granted each gender particular skills, such
as mechanical abilities for men and domestic skills for women (Broverman, Voger,
Broverman, Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz, 1972; Williams & Best, 1990).
It is through gender-role expectations that society has developed gender ste-
reotypes. Ridgeway (2001) purported that gender stereotypes originate not from
individuals, but from an institutionalized system of social practices. Glick and
Fiske (1999) contended that gender stereotypes contain a prescriptive aspect that
serves to maintain a societal status quo. Status quo is observable and present in
society everyday. Experiences in daily and mundane social practices may be a pri-
mary source of the formation of stereotypic conceptions (Ridgeway, 2001).

Gender Stereotypes
In the instrumental music classroom, stereotypic conceptions may exist in the
seemingly innocuous task of evaluating students for initial instrument selection.
In an investigation of gender/instrument associations, Abeles and Porter (1978)
surveyed college music majors and found that drums, trombone, and trumpet
were carried masculine connotations, while flute, violin, and clarinet were rated
most feminine. In a similar study, Griswold and Chroback (1981) found the harp
was rated as most feminine, followed by flute and piccolo. Tuba was rated most
masculine, followed by string bass and trumpet. Further research has similarly
indicated flute, piccolo, clarinet, and oboe as having feminine connotations, while

160
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Jason P. Cumberledge

saxophone, trumpet, trombone, tuba, and percussion have masculine connotations

(Fortney, Boyle & DeCarbo, 1993; Hallam, Rogers, & Creech, 2008; MacLeod,
2009). Feminine gender associations with certain musical instruments may lead
males to shy away from those instruments. Over the past twenty years, an in-
creased proportion of females are playing masculine instruments, however males
are not choosing feminine instruments at the same increased rate (Abeles, 2009;
Zervoudakes & Tanur, 1994).
Cramer, Million, and Perreault (2002) surveyed college students and asked
about their impressions of fictitious musicians according to masculine (dominant,
leadership, activity), feminine (warm, sensitive, caring), or gender-neutral (adjust-
ment, happiness, success) descriptors. The researchers indicated that males who
chose to play instruments typically rated as feminine (i.e. flute and harp) were
perceived differently than females who played the same instruments.
Gender stereotypes are also prevalent in the evaluation of musical perfor-
mances, although research results in this area are mixed. Elliot (1996) found that
females who choose to play masculine instruments could be penalized in perfor-
mance evaluations, while male musicians tend to be judged the same regardless of
the masculine or feminine association of the instrument. Conversely, Sinsabaugh
(2005) reported that it is more acceptable for females to step outside the box and
play masculine instruments than it is for males to play feminine instruments. In
fact, boys who play feminine instruments can be bullied and harassed in music
classrooms (Conway, 2000; Taylor, 2011). Ultimately, students that choose to go
against the gender associations of certain musical instruments often rely on their
ability to ignore comments from peers and others who bully them about their
choice (Conway, 2000).

Behavioral Stereotypes
Behavioral stereotyping is the second variable that may contribute to bias in
music performance evaluations. Extant research has shown that musicians may
be stereotyped based on the type of instrument played (Cribb & Gregory, 1999;
Davies, 1976; Lipton, 1987). College music majors have rated saxophone play-
ers as easy-going, trumpet players as egotistic, and percussionists as serious and
aloof (Cumberledge, 2015). Davies (1976, 1978) conducted interviews of profes-
sional orchestra musicians in England. The participants indicated that brass musi-
cians were coarse, unrefined, loud-mouthed, and extroverted, while string players
were seen as oversensitive, serious, and reluctant to do anything physically hard
or tough. Lipton (1987) surveyed professional musicians from orchestras in the
United States and Canada.

161
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Contributions to Music Education

Participants completed a questionnaire that explored possible stereotypes and

personality traits of musicians from four major orchestral instrument sections:
strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion. Survey results showed that brass mu-
sicians appeared to be far more extroverted than string musicians, while string
musicians appeared to be far more neurotic. Specifically, brass musicians described
string musicians as confident, quiet, and feminine while string musicians described
brass musicians as loud, extroverted, and masculine. Cribb and Gregory (1999) ex-
amined personality stereotypes in Salvation Army brass band members. The brass
players were described as “well-mannered” and “not liking the limelight” (p. 109).
The researchers concluded that stereotypes might be based on ensemble traditions
rather than the type of instrument played.
Conversely, other researchers have shown no difference in the behavioral
traits of musicians. In a sample of German professional orchestra musicians, Lan-
gendörfer (2007) reported that string, woodwind, and brass players evinced less
difference in behavioral traits than the stereotyped view of them suggests. Kemp
(1996) examined wind, percussion, keyboard, string, and voice students and found
that all musicians exhibited a common core of traits revolving around introversion,
sensitivity, imagination, and intelligence.

Need for Research

It seems that gender and behavioral stereotypes may exist in music ensembles.
Research is needed to investigate how this bias may influence evaluations of musi-
cal performance, as evaluations should be fair, accurate, and objective. New research
can investigate the possibility of evaluators being inadvertently influenced by gen-
der and behavioral stereotypes when making judgments about other musicians.
While previous research has investigated musical instrument gender asso-
ciations (Abeles, 2009; Griswold & Chroback, 1981; Hallam, Rogers, & Creech,
2008; MacLeod, 2009), behavioral perceptions and personality traits of musicians
(Cribb & Gregory, 1999; Davies, 1978; Lipton, 1987), and musical judgments
about musicians based on gender (Elliot, 1996), little to no research has studied
gender and behavioral bias regarding wind band musicians based on a combina-
tion of gender and type of instrument played. Additionally, research is needed that
takes evaluator gender into account. This study will expand upon extant research
by investigating a combination of gender and behavioral stereotyping, theorizing
that both forms of bias are present at the same time.
Therefore, the purpose will be to investigate the possible gender and behav-
ioral stereotyping of wind band musicians during the evaluation of musical perfor-
mances. Specifically, the following research questions will be addressed: (1) What

162
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Jason P. Cumberledge

is the relationship between the gender of performing musicians and behavioral

stereotypes? (2) What is the relationship between the type of instrument played
and behavioral stereotypes? (3) What is the relationship between evaluator gen-
der and behavioral stereotypes? (4) What is the relationship between performing
musician, type of instrument, and evaluator gender and the perception of musical
performances?

Method
Participants
Participants were 77 male and 66 female (N = 143) undergraduate musicians
at a large university in the southern United States. Not all participants were music
majors. Participants were recruited from three wind bands during regularly sched-
uled class meetings and were asked to voluntarily and anonymously complete a
dependent measure at the conclusion of rehearsal.

Questionnaire Construction and Administration

The dependent measure was a researcher-developed questionnaire that asked
participants to indicate their perceptions about behavioral characteristics and re-
corded musical performances of fictitious male and female musicians playing the
flute, oboe, trombone, and tuba. Specific instruments were chosen during initial
questionnaire construction, when 10 male and 10 female undergraduate students
rated the degree with which gender may be associated with musical instruments.
Similar to survey construction by Cramer, Million, and Perreault (2002), the judg-
es rated relative degrees of femininity and masculinity using a 5-point Likert-type
scale of 10 common wind band instruments. Presentation of instruments was ran-
domized to prevent order effects. Judges rated trombone (M = 4.4, SD = 0.6) and
tuba (M = 4.35, SD = 0.98) as most masculine, and flute (M = 2.05, SD = 0.99) and
oboe (M = 2.55, SD = 1.19) as most feminine. These results were similar to the
instrument/gender associations of previous studies (Fortney, Boyle & DeCarbo,
1993; Hallam, Rogers, & Creech, 2008; MacLeod, 2009; Zervoudakes & Tanur,
1994).
Following initial construction, a two-part questionnaire was designed (see
Appendix A). Part A contained demographic questions, asking participants to
indicate their gender and primary instrument, and a list of 12 behavioral descrip-
tors. The descriptors were included to investigate and analyze the presence of be-
havioral stereotypes in participants’ ratings. Careful selection of descriptors was
needed to maintain an equal balance of masculine, feminine, and gender-neutral

163
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Contributions to Music Education

characteristics. Based on previous research (Cramer, Million, & Perreault, 2002),

descriptors represented opposite spectrums of masculine (dominant/weak, leader/
follower), feminine (caring/uncaring, sensitive/insensitive), and gender-neutral
(introversion/extroversion, successful/failure) behavioral characteristics. Partici-
pants indicated their perceptions of fictitious male and female musicians playing
the flute, oboe, trombone, and tuba. There were eight possible musician/instru-
ment combinations. For example, two possible combinations were a male flute
player and a female flute player.
Part B of the questionnaire asked participants to evaluate the musical perfor-
mance of each musician, using 6-point Likert-type scales. Musicians were evalu-
ated based on expressiveness, rhythmic/technical skills, and overall musicianship.
An audio stimulus was created to coincide with Part B. University music fac-
ulty members were recorded playing the “Ode to Joy” theme from the Finale of
Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, uniformly marked for authentic tempo, dynamics,
and style. “Ode to Joy” was selected based on its status as a widely known music
theme (Whale, 2015). Audio excerpts were recording using a Samsung Zoom
H1 Digital Recorder. The excerpts were rated superior by a panel of experts in
regards to musicianship and audio quality. The four audio recordings (flute, oboe,
trombone, and tuba) were each copied and labeled “male” and “female”. Thus, the
“male” and “female” versions of each audio recording were the same for each in-
strument. The final playlist consisted of eight separate tracks, each featuring a
fictitious male or female musician playing the flute, oboe, trombone, or tuba. The
final presentation of questions was randomized to prevent order effects. A script
of basic instructions was written for the full administration of the questionnaire.
Four university faculty members, two males and two females that played the
clarinet, saxophone, euphonium, and tuba, critiqued three drafts of the question-
naire for content, format, and validity. The faculty members were chosen as a con-
venience sample that also represented expertise in the field of music research. Sug-
gestions for additions or changes were adopted, such as the random presentation
of descriptors and the amount of points in Likert-type scales. A record of the
proceedings involved in the study was kept to establish an audit trail of decisions.
The questionnaire was piloted using undergraduate music majors (N = 7) en-
rolled at the same university, but not used later in the full administration of the
questionnaire. The purpose of the pilot was to determine (a) if the questionnaire’s
directions and questions could be clearly understood, (b) if there were any prob-
lems in completing the questionnaire, and (c) how long it would take to complete
questionnaire. Results of the pilot indicated that the questionnaire could be com-
pleted in less than 10 minutes. Following the pilot, questionnaire instructions were
adjusted for clarification.

164
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Jason P. Cumberledge

The full questionnaire, including the audio stimuli, was administered during
regularly scheduled wind band rehearsal times. Audio stimuli were played through
a laptop computer connected to large external speakers. Students voluntarily and
anonymously completed the questionnaire. Completed questionnaires were col-
lected for data analysis.

Results
Out of 151 questionnaires distributed, 143 were completed, resulting in a 94%
return rate. Responses included male (n = 77) and female (n = 66) participants.
Internal reliability for part A of the questionnaire was computed using a Pearson
correlation coefficient (r = 0.93). Reliability for the Likert-type scales contained
in part B of the questionnaire was calculated using Cronbach’s alpha resulting in
a score of 0.83.

Part A
An examination of the behavioral descriptors showed that male flute musi-
cians were rated “successful,” “sensitive,” and “caring.” Female flute musicians were
rated “sensitive,” “caring,” and “introverted.” Male oboe musicians were rated “suc-
cessful,” “leaders,” and “sensitive” while female oboe musicians were rated “success-
ful,” “leaders,” and “caring.” Male trombone musicians were rated “extroverted,”
“leaders,” and “caring” while female trombone musicians were rated “successful,”
“leaders,” and “dominant.” Male tuba musicians were rated “followers,” “weak,”
and “uncaring” while female tuba musicians were rated “dominant,” “leaders,” and
“successful.” The most frequently selected descriptors for each instrument are pre-
sented in Table 1.

165
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Contributions to Music Education

Table 1
Most Frequent Descriptors: Total Responses and Percentages
Instrument Descriptor S %
Flute
Male Successful 68 48
Sensitive 66 46
Caring 64 45
Female Sensitive 56 39
Caring 45 31
  Introvert 34 24
Oboe
Male Successful 84 59
Leader 68 48
Sensitive 47 33
Female Successful 75 52
Leader 65 46
  Caring 59 41
Trombone
Male Extrovert 54 38
Leader 50 35
Successful 46 32
Female Successful 42 29
Leader 41 28
  Dominant 40 28
Tuba
Male Follower 51 38
Weak 40 28
Uncaring 38 27
Female Dominant 53 37
Leader 44 31
  Successful 36 25

166
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Jason P. Cumberledge

Chi-square analysis was conducted to examine differences in the behavioral

ratings of musicians according to evaluator gender. A Bonferroni correction was
applied during analysis to compensate for alpha inflation. No significant difference
was found between male and female evaluators’ behavioral ratings of musicians.
Ratings were also examined according to type of instrument, defined in this
study as the association of gender with musical instruments. Musicians playing
masculine instruments (trombone, tuba) were rated “leaders,” “dominant,” and
“successful.” Musicians playing feminine instruments (flute, oboe) were rated “suc-
cessful,” “sensitive,” and “caring.” The most common selected descriptor among
all responses was “successful.” Chi-square analysis found no significant difference
between evaluators’ ratings of masculine and feminine instruments.

Part B
Mean scores were calculated for music performance ratings according to
evaluator gender. Table 2 presents the mean scores and standard deviations all
music performance ratings. Musical performance ratings were analyzed using a
mixed factorial ANOVA, with Evaluator Gender (male or female) as the between-
subjects factor, and Type of Instrument (masculine or feminine) and Gender of
Performing Musician (male or female) as the two within-subjects factors. Data
analysis showed no significant difference between the scores for Type of Instru-
ment. Mean inspection showed that musicians who played masculine instruments
received slightly higher scores for expressiveness, rhythmic/technical skills, and
musicianship (Ms = 4.71, 5.05, and 4.89, respectively) than musicians who played
feminine instruments (Ms = 4.63, 4.95, and 4.79, respectively).
For Gender of Performing Musician, data analysis showed no significant dif-
ference between the scores. Mean inspection showed that male musicians received
slightly higher scores for expressiveness (M = 4.69) than female musicians (M
= 4.65). Female musicians received slightly higher scores for rhythmic/technical
skills and musicianship (Ms = 5.04 and 4.86, respectively) than male musicians
(Ms = 4.97 and 4.82, respectively).

167
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Contributions to Music Education

Table 2
Male and Female Evaluators’ Ratings of Performing Musicians: Mean Scores
Expressiveness Technical Musicianship
M SD M SD M SD
Male Flute    
Males 4 1.11 4.54 1.02 4.23 0.93
Females 3.92 1.05 4.42 1.07 4.24 0.95
All 3.96 1.08 4.49 1.04 4.23 0.93
Female Flute    
Males 3.83 1.23 4.28 1.05 4.03 0.92
Females 3.86 1.09 4.5 0.99 4.15 0.88
All 3.84 1.16 4.38 1.03 4.09 0.9
Male Oboe    
Males 5.42 0.73 5.4 0.8 5.38 0.76
Females 5.27 0.77 5.3 0.78 5.27 0.71
All 5.35 0.75 5.35 0.79 5.33 0.74
Female Oboe    
Males 5.36 0.75 5.46 0.71 5.36 0.68
Females 5.33 0.74 5.34 0.74 5.36 0.68
All 5.34 0.75 5.41 0.73 5.36 0.68
Male Trombone    
Males 5.02 0.94 5.34 1.09 5.14 0.97
Females 5.09 0.98 5.58 1.03 5.35 0.96
All 5.05 0.95 5.45 1.06 5.24 0.97
Female Trombone    
Males 4.76 1.19 5.11 1.08 4.97 0.96
Females 4.63 1.07 5.04 1.12 4.86 0.98
All 4.7 1.13 5.08 1.1 4.92 0.96
Male Tuba    
Males 4.44 1.2 4.55 1.19 4.57 1.05
Females 4 0.91 4.61 1.05 4.36 0.9
All 4.24 1.1 4.58 1.13 4.48 0.98
Female Tuba    
Males 4.75 1.04 5.15 1.18 4.92 1.06
Females 4.66 0.97 5.03 1.18 4.89 1
All 4.71 1 5.09 1.18 4.9 1.03

168
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Jason P. Cumberledge

Data analysis was conducted to investigate the interaction between Type of

Instrument and Gender of Performing Musician. There was no difference in the
scores. Mean inspection showed that evaluators’ ratings of musicians’ musical per-
formances did not significantly change according to the gender of the musician.
Table 3 shows the mean scores and standard deviations for masculine and femi-
nine instruments, divided by male and female musicians.

Table 3
Performance Ratings by Gender of Musician and Gender of Instrument Mean Scores
Gender of Musician
Male Female
M SD M SD
Gender of Instrument
Expressiveness
Masculine 4.65 1.11 4.71 1.07
Feminine 4.66 1.14 4.68 1.21
Rhythmic/Technical
Masculine 5.02 1.18 5.09 1.14
Feminine 4.92 1.01 4.98 1.01
Musicianship
Masculine 4.86 1.05 4.91 1
Feminine 4.77 0.99 4.81 1

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the possible stereotyping of wind
band musicians during the evaluation of musical performances. The present study
investigated a combination of gender and behavioral stereotyping and posits that
both forms of bias are present at the same time. It is imperative for music evalu-
ations to be objective since preconceived expectations about musicians and their
performances may lead to biased evaluations.
This study sought to investigate the presence of behavioral stereotypes in mu-
sic evaluations. While no significant difference was found in evaluators’ behav-
ioral ratings of musicians, an examination of the descriptors shows that musicians
playing feminine instruments were typically described with feminine descriptors,

169
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Contributions to Music Education

such as “sensitive” and “caring,” while musicians playing masculine were described
with masculine descriptors, such as “leader” and “dominant.” These results seem to
agree with instrument/gender associations found in previous research (Abeles &
Porter, 1978; Cumberledge, 2015; Hallam, Rogers, & Creech, 2008). Results are
also congruent with common gender role expectations, in which males are stereo-
typically perceived as leaders and females are perceived as nurturing (Broverman et
al., 1972). Ratings also indicated that female musicians playing masculine instru-
ments were seemingly rewarded for stepping outside feminine instrument barri-
ers, females in this study were described with overtly powerful descriptors such
as “dominant,” “leaders,” and “successful,” agreeing with extant research which
reported that judges considered it more acceptable for females to play masculine
instruments and less acceptable for males to play feminine instruments (Sinsa-
baugh, 2005).
Previous authors have suggested that gender stereotyping may exist in evalu-
ations of music performance. The male and female musicians in this study were
judged equally in regards to their musical performance. Participants perceived all
musicians, regardless of gender, to have similar expressivity, rhythmic/technical
skills, and overall musicianship. These results contrast findings of previous stud-
ies where gender bias seemed to influence judgments made about musical per-
formances (Cramer, Million, & Perreault, 2002; Elliot, 1996), but are similar to
research that reported all musicians share similar personality traits (Cutietta &
McAllister, 1997; Kemp, 1996; Langendörfer, 2007).
There were several limitations. The first limitation was the limited geographi-
cal sampling. Since the area of research was conducted at one university in the
United States, the generalizability of the study may be limited. Additionally, be-
havioral descriptors may have different meaning to different people. Participants
were allowed to form their own definitions of descriptors. The current study in-
vestigated peer evaluations, but not the evaluations of expert music educators. Fur-
ther, approximately one-third of the participants were musicians in an ensemble
conducted by the researcher. Finally, sample maturation and task familiarity dur-
ing the questionnaire administration may have influenced the results.
Continued replication of research in this area is warranted, as gender bias and
stereotyping can have an enormous impact on musicians and their musical experi-
ences. Future studies that recognize gender fluidity will contribute greatly to the
present line of research. Most research, including the current study, assumes both
static and binary definitions of gender. Since binary gender bias has been found
to exist in individual music performance evaluations (Fortney, Boyle & DeCarbo,
1993; Hallam, Rogers, & Creech, 2008; MacLeod, 2009), it may be of interest to

170
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Jason P. Cumberledge

music educators to determine what impact gender fluidity has on the perceptions
of individual music performances.
Future investigations using similar procedures but a larger, more randomized
sample are recommended to identify continuing trends. Further inquiry may limit
participation to music majors. Current college music education majors may find
these results useful, as they are seeking to be best prepared to effectively assess
student performance. Continuing to identify the inherent bias present in music
performance evaluations would appear critical as teachers continue to seek ways in
which they can objectively evaluate student performance.

References
Abeles, H. (2009). Are musical instrument gender associations changing? Journal of
Research in Music Education, 57(2), 127-139.
Abeles, H. F., & Porter, S. Y. (1978). The sex-stereotyping of musical instruments.
Journal of Research in Music Education, 26(2), 65-75.
Broverman, I., Voger, S., Broverman, D., Clarkson, F., & Rosenkrantz, P. (1972).
Sex-role stereotypes: A reappraisal. Journal of Social Issues, 28, 59-78.
Burke, P. J., & Stets, J. E. (2009). Identity theory. New York, NY: Oxford University.
Conway, C. (2000). Gender and musical instrument choice: A phenomenological
investigation. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 146, 1-17.
Cramer, K. M., Million, E., & Perreault, L. A. (2002). Perceptions of musicians:
Gender stereotypes and social role theory. Psychology of Music, 30, 164-174.
Cribb, C., & Gregory, A. H. (1999). Stereotypes and personalities of musicians.
The Journal of Psychology, 133(1), 104-114.
Cumberledge, J. P. (2015). Stereotypes of concert band musicians. Research
Perspectives in Music Education, 17(1), 25-35.
Cutietta, R. A., & McAllister, P. A. (1997). Student personality and instrumental
participation, continuation, and choice. Journal of Research in Music Education,
45(2), 282-294.
Davies, J. (1976). Orchestral discord. New Society, 8, 46-47.
Davies, J. B. (1978). The psychology of music. London, England: Hutchinson.
Elliot, C. A. (1996). Race and gender as factors in judgments of musical
performance. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 127, 50-56.
Fortney, P. M., Boyle, J. D., & DeCarbo, N. J. (1993). A study of middle school
band students’ instrument choices. Journal of Research in Music Education,
41(1), 28-39.

171
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Contributions to Music Education

Griswold, P. A., & Chroback, D. A. (1981). Sex-role associations of music

instruments and occupations by gender and major. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 29(1), 57-62.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1999). Sexism and other “isms”: Interdependence, status,
and the ambivalent content of stereotypes. In W. B. Swan, J. H. Langlois, & L.
A. Gilbert (Eds.), Sexism and stereotypes in modern society (pp. 193–221). Wash-
ington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Hallam, S., Rogers, L., & Creech, A. (2008). Gender differences in musical
instrument choice. International Journal of Music Education, 26(7), 7-19.
Kemp, A. E. (1996). The musical temperament: Psychology and personality of musicians.
Oxford, England: Oxford University.
Langendörfer, F. (2007). Personality differences among orchestra instrumental
groups: Just a stereotype? Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 610-620.
Lipton, J. P. (1987). Stereotypes concerning musicians within symphony orchestras.
The Journal of Psychology, 121(1), 85-93.
MacLeod, R. B. (2009). A comparison of aural and visual instrument preferences of
third and fifth-grade students. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Educa-
tion, 179, 33-43.
Ridgeway, C. L. (2001). Gender, status, and leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4),
637-655.
Ridgeway, C. L., & Smith-Lovin, L. (1999). The gender system and interaction.
Annual Review of Sociology, 25, 191-216.
Sinsabaugh, K. (2005). Understanding students who cross over gender stereotypes in
music instrument selection. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest
Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3175728)
Smith, J. S., & Smith, K. E. (2016). What it means to do gender differently:
Understanding identity, perceptions and accomplishments in a gendered world.
Humbolt Journal of Social Relations, 38, 62-78.
Taylor, D. M. (2011). Bullying: What can music teachers do? Music Educators
Journal, 98(1), 41-44.
Whale, M. (2015). How universal is Beethoven? Music, culture, and democracy.
Philosophy of Music Education Review, 23(1), 25-47.
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990). Measuring sex stereotypes: A multination study.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Zervoudakes, J., & Tanur, J. M. (1994). Gender and musical instruments: Winds of
change? Journal of Research in Music Education, 42(1), 58-67.

172
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Jason P. Cumberledge

Appendix A

Questionnaire Copy
Audio Example 1: This is a MALE musician playing the FLUTE.
Please circle three descriptors that may describe a male musician playing the
flute:
Dominant Follower
Successful Insensitive
Uncaring Introvert
Weak Failure
Leader Sensitive
Caring Extrovert
Using the scales below, evaluate the musician heard in this audio example.
Expressiveness
Not Expressive Very Expressive
1 2 3 4 5 6
Rhythmic/Technical Skills
Poor Excellent
1 2 3 4 5 6
Overall Musicianship
Poor Excellent
1 2 3 4 5 6

173
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Contributions to Music Education

174
This content downloaded from
46.6.180.54 on Thu, 14 Mar 2024 09:21:35 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms