TOPIC 1 NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY

Definition of Sociology

Sociology is the study of society and human social action; the study of social rules,

processes that bind and separate individuals as members of groups or institutions; study

of human behavior in group setting.

The term Sociology was first used by a French Philosopher called Auguste Comte

(1798 – 1857) in 1843. The term sociology is a combination of two words. Socius in

Latin and Logos in Greek. Socius means sharing in group. Logos meaning study/

science of i.e. study of sharing.

To Comte Sociology was a science of society; also called social physics.

Comte is credited to be the founder of positivist perspective/ paradigm in sociology.

He believed that society has 3 levels of consciousness/develops through three (3) stages,

from simple to complex:

(i) Magic (Theological) stage – human beings tend to explain social phenomena

(issues) by use of myths and religion.

(ii) Metaphysical (Rational) stage – social phenomena are explained by use of

philosophy or Reason.

(iii) Scientific (Positivist) – science is used to explain social phenomena.

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He assumes that:

(i) Society can be studied scientifically using methods applicable in physical/

natural sciences.

(ii) Both physical matter and human beings react to some kind of stimulus in a

similar way given same conditions; hence when we study using Positivist paradigm we

focus on social factors that are observable, measurable, quantifiable. Thescientification

of sociological inquiry.

A Positivist paradigm of society is objective and testable. It is also empirical

since it can be seen, observed, measured and replicated. As a science, Sociology was to

discover the laws of social order. Explain natural development and help to maintain

social harmony/stability.

It was regarded as the ‘Queen of Sciences’

Other sociologists who adopted the Positivist approach include:

- Emile Durkheim

- Talcott Parsons e.t.c.

Another perspective is Phenomenological Perspective (Paradigm), developed by a

German philosopher, Max Weber. He argued that social phenomena are different from

natural issues hence it would be inappropriate to use methods of physical sciences to

study social issues.

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Human beings have a consciousness and are active participants in their social reality –

Do not just react to stimulus, but interpret it, in different ways. Therefore people react

differently to the same stimulus; (depending on the interpretation.)

The study of society under this approach should take into account individual

differences. The humanization of sociological inquiry.

Sociological perspectives determine how sociological data is collected, analysed and

interpreted. (Many perspectives have emerged e.g. Conflict, feminist, post-modern

etc)

Sociology as a discipline is a product of the 19th century.

Development of Sociology

There are three (3) factors that contributed to the development of sociology as a

discipline in the 19th century:

1. Emergence of New Social Issues

New problems that were not adequately addressed by philosophy/ science of that

time; linked to this was;-

2. Industrial Revolution (Economic)

Rapid development of society gave rise to new problems e.g. Issues of poverty,

pollution, crime, urbanisation and related urban problem (housing, sanitation,

overcrowding e.t.c.)

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3. Role of the French Revolution (Political)

Based on writings of social and political philosophers, encyclopaedists, historians,

economic theorists and other social scientists of the time e.g. Voltaire, Hobbes, Locke,

Kant, Karl Marx, Max Weber, Herbert Spencer, Durkheim e.t.c.

Following the rallying call of French Revolution of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.

( Liberte, Egalite Fraternity)

What sociology deals with

It deals with a wide variety (range) of issues summed up into the following;

1. Study of human behaviour in group settings

Focuses on social groups e.g. family religion as social institutions, politics, education; it

looks at behaviour and activities within the institutions, at social communication within

these institutions and socialization patterns, the value and function of the social

institutions to wider society.

2. Study of culture

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Culture is total way of life of people, or a society. Culture can be material or non-

material. i) Material culture refers to artifacts, physical things, objects made by man,

tools etc.

Culture is shared, transmitted from one generation to another through socialization.

ii) Non-material culture refers to those aspects not perceived by the senses e.g. belief

systems, language, customs, values.

Cultural Practices and Forces on Society

To a sociologist culture is very important. It forms the basis of life in a society; culture

varies from society to society.

3. Social structures and social stratification.

Sociology looks at social institutions and social structures within the society. It looks at

social stratification (social classes), causes and effects of social stratification, looks at

issues of social mobility. Hence certain aspects of education and its role in social

stratification; Role of property and ownership in social stratification, Power/ability to

control means of production and activity of others is considered.

4. Social Pathology

- Social pathology is concerned with identifying types of behaviours that impact

negatively on society and how the activities can be controlled.

- Deals with Ameliorative function – treat and manage problems of the society.

- Ensures that society continues to exist. (Harmony and stability)

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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

There must be an issue/ problem to be investigated, a hypothesis to test an intriguing

question whose solution one wants to explore.

1. Survey Method

Used when target population is large and when general opinions are sought. In

education circles survey method is used by commissions to investigate issues of

curriculum, purpose and or aims, and other themes from a wide population.

2. Interview Method

Researcher interviews the target population (direct communication). The interview/

questionnaire could be open ended or structured. Open ended entails seeking opinion of

the interviewee (opine). In the structured interview the interviewee (respondent)

answers specific questions.

3. Questionnaire Method

A set of questions out of which responses are expected. It could be open ended or

structured.

4. Participant Observation Method

Researcher in the field must have a detailed observation schedule.

5. Case Study

Refers to detailed investigation of a single case. An issue to be investigated is identified

Topic 2

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APPROACHES IN SOCIOLOGY

1. Historical Approach.

Issues of origin development and change in society.

This approach tries to study society from historical perspective i.e. the past is used to

understand the present. The past offers reasons why things appear the way they are.

2. Comparative Approach

This method was popular with earlier sociologists – regarded as method “par excellence” by

pioneer sociologists. Under this approach different societies were studied, compared and

contrasted or institutions from different societies were studied and compared.

However this method was wanting in objectivity. It reflected the biases of individual

researchers (ethnocentrism); these sociologists looked at their own societies as superior and

therefore became standards by which other societies could be judged.

Basis of Evolutionary approach to sociology “Society evolved from simple to complex” hence

social Darwinism. On the simple side is Barbarism and on the complex side was civilization.

3. Functional Approach

Sociologists who used this approach tried to explain the existence of social institutions in terms

of the role they play in maintaining social order and stability i.e. the existence of social

institutions is justified by the role they play in maintaining order in society. It also borrowed

from social Darwinism.

4. Correlational Approach

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This approach tries to establish cause-effect relationships between social phenomena e.g.

poverty and crime.

5. Participant Observation Approach

The researcher goes out to study society in total. This approach is advantageous – with time

one gets accepted in a society hence can get secret information that he could otherwise not.

SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

1. It is systematic and scientific – Investigation is based on systematic and logical approach. The

results of such an investigation must be based on verifiable evidence.

2. It is objective – Free from personal or individual researcher biases. The findings should

reflect the true position rather than the feelings of the researcher.

3. It is empirical – Sociological study should be based on observable and verifiable facts and

experimentation rather than speculation.

4. Replicability – It should stand test of other researchers to come up with comparable

findings. (Not same findings)

5. Causation – There are relationships between social phenomena which are cause and effect.

- Sociology identifies and studies variables to see their relationships, whether a change in one

variable will lead to a change in the other i.e. Dependent and Independent variables.

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BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY

The subject matter of sociology is very wide, covering all aspects of the human society, thus

there are many branches of sociology. Sociologists specialize in certain areas eventually

developing into branches of sociology e.g.

Sociological theory.

The theory a world view; the way in which we organize our thought to try and explain the

world in which we live.Theoretical perspectives (paradigms) in sociology are used by

sociologists to provide logical explanations for why things are the way they are. The theory is

likely to determine how research is carried out e.g. the basic assumption that we come up

with, hypotheses formulated, methods/ methodologies, observations made, and conclusions

arrived at.

Rural sociology

Concept of rural environment.

Issues in rural development.

Role of religion and family in the rural development

Role of NGOs and co-operatives in rural development

Economic activities in the rural environment e.g. subsistence farming, Pastoralism

Political sociology

Deals with issues of power, & how to acquire power.

Looks at types of government, voting patterns, democracy, and human rights e.t.c.

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Medical sociology

Deals with meaning of disease sociologically – Effects of diseases socially

Occurrence and migration of diseases

Availability and distribution of health resources and facilities.

Sociology of poverty;

Difference of wealth and income.

Income differentials

Indicators of wealth and poverty.

Consequences of poverty on society.

Sociology of Family

Deals with family as a basic social unit

Types of Families, functions, role, etc

Urban Sociology

Focuses on issues of, or concept of urbanization.

Urban centres; Characteristics

History of urbanisation

Social issues in urban setting/ centres: Moral (challenges) decadence, unemployment, poverty,

housing, crime, sanitation, overcrowding.

Sociology of knowledge
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Social processes in the production of knowledge and how it is used in society

Sociology of Law

Social contexts and development of law

Functions of law in society

Legal systems in society

Sociology of Religion

-identification with a particular religious sect/group

Topic 3 Notes

Sociology of Education

Branch of Sociology

Deals with systematic analysis of social aspects and processes in Education.

It sees Education as a system as well as a structure within society

Sees interactions between Education as a social institution and other social institutions

Studies the interaction patterns within Education as a system.

In so doing, Sociology of Education makes the following assumptions:-

Human beings need Education, they are capable of educating and human beings Educate their

young ones

Human beings are social and can only have a meaningful existence through their interaction or

relationships with others in society.

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Education or socialization cannot be studied without considering its social context.

Education is an interactive process between the learner and the teacher and also between the

learner and his environment

Education is a process through which the learner becomes an active participant in social life

Aims of education reflect the needs of society – The learner is Educated to serve the society

Based on the above facts therefore, Sociology of Education will try to determine the

content of Education by looking at:-

What do we want the learner to become? – The desire.

Methods of teaching by looking at :-

How can we influence the learner?

How much, to influence learners’ participation?

When should we influence a child’s development?

From these therefore, Sociology of Education has its roots in Sociology, Also has its origin in

other Philosophies of Education namely:-

a).Philosophy of Individualistic Pedagogy– Child centered approach

Proponents of this philosophy include:-

Jean Jacque Rousseau

Immanuel Kant

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Ivan Illich

Fredrick Froebel

According to this school of thought, Education should produce a free individual. Aims and

content of Education should reflect individual rather than social interests i.e. the primary aim

of Education should be to achieve personal happiness and well-being of the learner.

State inference should be limited.

Jean Jacque Rousseau

Wrote 5 volumes of a book called Emile

First 4 volumes – Education of Emile to adulthood

Volume 5 – Education of Emile and his wife (Sophia)

He argues Educators should not begin Education by focusing on syllabus or the content.

Instead, consider the interest of the child. Education should ensure the development of a

human being who enjoys learning and who is keen to continue learning. In childhood, learning

should be by physical activity and experience. He also rejected use of corporal punishment as a

corrective measure – It encourages learners to cheat/lie in fear of being caned. Education

should be a happy experience for the learner.

Fredrick Froebel (1782-1852)

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Following the footsteps of Rousseau as it was, Froebel Proposed that children should be

nurtured very carefully. He believed that children or learners learn to understand the world

through play. He introduced the idea of “Kindergarten”-A garden of children. Like a gardener, a

teacher should take great care of his/her children/learners. The learning environment should

be pleasant. The school should have enough play toys and playthings for the child.

The learner should be allowed to learn what is relevant to him or her and what he/she can

comprehend.

Ivan Illich

In 1970, he wrote a book entitled “Deschooling Society.” He believed that the present school

system is anti-educational because it kills creativity among learners. Learners are made to

believe that they cannot learn anything unless if taught. According to Illich, most learning is

not necessarily the result of teaching. He criticized certification; as indicators of one’s talent,

skill or what one has achieved. Certification not a reliable measure of achievement and

capability of a learner.

He suggests that the method to be used in school should be learning by experience

and discovery – learners can observe, test, experiment with materials. The role of the teacher

under this approach should be passive. A teacher should not pose as the expert of knowledge,

BUT he should provide adequate resources and facilities to encourage learning. He should

encourage learners to conduct experiments and discover for themselves. He should guide but

not control the learners. He should provide an equal-opportunities environment for all

learners. Teacher should be neutral.

b).Philosophy of Social Pedagogy

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Education as Socialization.

Proponents are

- John Dewey

- Emille Durkheim

- Paul Natrop

This Philosophy was developed as an alternative to the child centred approach.

Proponents of this approach believe that Education is a social phenomenon or process. One

can only become human through interaction with other people in society. Therefore,

Education is socially determined in aims, content and methods – Education has to serve the

needs of society.

-Aims – Why?

-Content – What?

-Methods – How?

John Dewey (1859 – 1952)

He belongs to “American Progressive School.” He argues that Education System has a strong

and direct relationship with society. It therefore has to propagate the knowledge, skills, values

that are useful to society. He recommended that society should play an active role in Educating

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children. Education should also be practical and reflect the interests, hopes, needs and

expectations of society.

In 1890, he started a school called “Ideal/Laboratory school”-Practised his ideas.

Emille Durkheim (1858 – 1917)

He recommended that Sociology as a subject should be used to interpret issues of Education

because like Dewey, he saw Education as social in origin, character and function

Durkheim: –Education and Sociology

“Education is the influence exercised by adult generations on those that are not yet ready for

social life. Its object is to arouse and develop in the child a certain number of physical,

intellectual and moral states, which are demanded of him by society. The person who needs

to emerge from education is not the person made by nature”

From that quotation, Education has the role to socialize the youth into responsible adults. This

function/role of socialization had to be carefully undertaken and not left to forces of Nature.

He says that Education should be a deliberate attempt to develop an individual who is capable

of living in harmony with others in society and contribute positively to society. To him,

education was social action

Sociology of Education

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Sociology of Education deals with a variety of issues in Education; summarized into the

following:

Concerned with relationship between Education as a system and the society which it is taking

place

Explore relationship between Education and other social institutions e.g. Education and

religion, Education and the family, Government and Education, e.t.c.

Sociology of Education deals with issues concerning functions of Education in society.

Aims of Education in society e.g. development of human resources/manpower development.

Role of Education in citizenship training.

Role of Education as socializing agent.

Negative effects

-social stratification

Effects of social economic status on Educational attainment.

-How does social class affect educational attainment?

-The school as a formal social organization, social or structural arrangements within the school.

-Interaction patterns /relationships within the school.

-The school environment and its effect on learning.

Teaching profession -Its status -Remuneration -Job satisfaction -Attitudes -

Competencies -Adequate motivation? -Preparedness for multiple roles as teachers -

Counselor -parents -magistrate

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Examines learning environment and how it affects learning.

-Is the environment supportive, positive, can it producewell adjusted learners or is it negative?

The subject matter of sociology of education has pragmatic contribution. The discipline may

not necessarily be about providing specific prescriptions or answers to teaching, classroom or

school problems. What sociology of education does provide is both a unique picture and a

questioning analysis of education. Its role is educative in that it enables disciplined thinking

about education in a different way. Its major contribution is its insistence on viewing schools

and education as pre-eminently social.

REID, I (1986): The Sociology of the School and the Nation. London: Fontana, pp 24-5.

Sociology of Education

Branch of Sociology

Deals with systematic analysis of social aspects and processes in Education.

It sees Education as a system as well as a structure within society

Sees interactions between Education as a social institution and other social institutions

Studies the interaction patterns within Education as a system. In so doing, Sociology of

Education makes the following assumptions:-

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Human beings need Education, they are capable of educating and human beings Educate their

young ones

Human beings are social and can only have a meaningful existence through their interaction or

relationships with others in society.

Education or socialization cannot be studied without considering its social context.

Education is an interactive process between the learner and the teacher and also between the

learner and his environment

Education is a process through which the learner becomes an active participant in social life

Aims of education reflect the needs of society – The learner is Educated to serve the society

Based on the above facts therefore, Sociology of Education will try to determine the content of

Education by looking at:-

What do we want the learner to become? – The desire.

Methods of teaching by looking at :-

How can we influence the learner?

How much, to influence learners’ participation?

When should we influence a child’s development?

Topic 4

Sociological Theories and Their Application to Issues in Education

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A theory is a systematic explanation about the relationship between issues and thus a

sociological theory is a system of explanation between social issues.

It is a set of assumptions about the relationship between social phenomena.

Sociological theories are developed by sociologists to guide in sociological research as

well as in interpretation of sociological information/data.

Social theories therefore provide sociologists with the basis or foundation upon which

social inquiry and research are based.

Social theories view society from different perspectives

Micro-perspective/Symbolic Interactionism

Macro-perspective/Structural Functionalism

At the micro-perspective, social theories focus on how social elements at the micro-level or

individuals within society and how they interact within that society e.g. Symbolic

Interactionism.

At the Macro-perspective, social theories view society from the point of view of a whole

‘wholistic view’ e.g. Structural functionalism.

Social theories may also emphasise

(i) Consensus or,

(ii) Conflict

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The consensus model makes the following basic assumptions;

1. That social norms and values are basic elements of social life.

2. Social life involves commitment on the part of individuals – are determined to live together

as one community.

3. They assume that society is cohesive and tends towards unity.

4. Social life is based on solidarity and depends on solidarity and cooperation.

5. Social systems are based on consensus whereby members recognize legitimate authority

through voluntary obedience.

6. Social systems are stable; integrated and persistent i.e. they are in a state of equilibrium.

7. Social change is gradual, peaceful, and planned.

Under this we have:

- Structural functionalism

- Symbolic interactionism

The Conflict model, social theories believe that society is usually in a state of conflict. Social

life is characterized by competition for scarce resources and for power and status. Social life

therefore is seen in terms of conflicting relationships and interests where some groups try to

dominate others. Conflict theories make the following assumptions:-

1. Social norms and values are not common for all members of the society and that people

relate according to their interests.

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2. Social life involves some inducement and coercion (to achieve consensus) because

consensus is not voluntary – it has to be forced. Consensus achieved through oppression.

3. Social life is divisive because social structures tend to encourage inequality, exclusion,

conflict and hostility.

4. Social systems are always changing, are unstable and social change is violent – people resent

change.

Examples are:

Marxist

Neo-Marxist

THEORIES:

1. Evolutionary and Neo-Evolutionary Theories

Developed by August Comte, Emile Durkheim, and Karl Marx. These theories from the ideas of

Charles Darwin (1859):- “Origin of Species.”

- Societies develop through stages from simple/ primitive to complex systems that with this

development; social structures become more specialized and differentiated – playing special

functions.

- They believed that social development follows a common universal pattern whose

characteristics can be observed and described; social change is one-dimensional i.e. it follows a

common pattern towards a known direction. All societies have to follow the same continuum/

pattern – so all societies are at different stages of development.

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Simple/primitive Civilized/complex

Neo-evolutionary theorists acknowledge that societies do evolve through stages but argue that

societies do not necessarily have to follow similar pattern. Some societies skip certain stages

due to borrowing and diffusion.

Relevance to Education

1. Education as a social structure has to adjust and adapt to social progress and change; and to

guide society through this change.

2. Education has to maintain social stability.

2. Structural - Functionalism

Structure is the skeleton, framework, the anatomy, the physical outlook. Function – the

operational aspect of air, object, its role.

The theories were developed by Herbert Spencer, Talcott Parsons, Emile Durkheim, and Robert

Merton.

As a theoretical perspective, structural functionalism is an analogy between social

systems and organic systems. Claim that society like an organism is composed of a set of

interrelated parts which work in harmony to produce to produce a stable social system. The

nature of social institutions is understood in terms of the functions of each of them plays in

enhancing smooth running of society.

(Kombo talks of – Positive consequences)

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The existence of a social institution is justified by the role it plays in maintaining social stability.

The well-being of society depends on the working efficiency of its institutions and each social

structure has to play a vital or necessary function. The different parts are however

interdependent and work together and wok together to maintain social order (work in

tandem). Generally, each society is like an organism, with different parts.

According to structural – functionalism any change in the function of a structure is a

response to a need arising in the wider society. This structure will be called upon to re-adjust

and perform a new function. This theory is however a bit simplistic because certain social

structures play more than one function and at times some are dys-functional/ disruptive to

social order.

Relevance to Education

1. Education should be geared towards ensuring social continuity and stability by perpetuating

common social norms and values.

2. Education has to serve the needs of society – Human Resource and development though

skill development.

- Transmission of culture

- Socialization e.t.c.

So any change in education should be as a result of interaction between educational system

and society and may follow the following pattern;

(i) A need arises in society.

(ii) Education is called upon to address the need.

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(iii) Changes are made in the education system in order to make it perform/ meet the new

challenge.

(iv) Education effectively addresses the need. Society maintains its state of equilibrium as

education assumes anew function.

This theory has been used as a framework for guiding educational policy and research e.g.

Ominde Commission (1964 December 19th) – Aims of Education.

1968 Education Act, Revised 1970, 1980 – Educational development should be consistent with

national plan for economic and social development of Kenya – education has to serve certain

purpose.

1988:- Kamunge Report:- “Education and Manpower Training for the next Decade and

Beyond.” (Human Resource)

- Education has to perform function of manpower training.

In the realm of research, this paradigm (theory/perspective) has been used by scholars/

researchers such as;

(i) David Court and Kabiru Kinyanjui have used it in their research:- “Education and

development in Sub-Saharan Africa.”

(ii) Phillip Foster – In his book “Education and Social Change in Ghana.”

(iii) Edmund Keller – His book “Education Manpower and Development.”

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3. Marxist and Neo-Marxist

Theories of Karl Marx, Max Weber, Frank Parkin, Walter Rodney, Andre Gunder Frank

These theories fall within the conflict and evolutionary perspective.

Karl Marx argued that social life is determined by the economic base. That the

economy determines the kind of relationships that develop in society. Society is in a constant

state of conflict over scarce economic resources and power. This conflict is between classes.

Society changes over time from one stage to another and using the dialect method (developed

by a German philosopher Hegel) – Each stage contains within itself contradictions or the seeds

of its own destructions. This conflict is what accounts for social change.

Change is cyclic, taking place in three stages

(i) Thesis – the idea

(ii) Antithesis

(iii) Synthesis

(Dialectics)

Contradictions at Thesis stage struggles between different classes. The struggles lead to some

opposition to the thesis hence Antithesis stage. As contradictions and struggles continue some

understanding is arrived at and hence synthesis stage. Synthesis is more advanced than the

first two – expected to serve the society better. However it also becomes a thesis and the cycle

begins again.

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Change in society is influenced by economic change or change in productive

relationship change is inevitable, continuous and sometimes violent; because the powerful

groups economic or political are not willing to give up their power/ influence/ prestige.

Max Weber argued that some psychological factors may be responsible for social

change. He put up a hypothesis of religion – the religion we believe in may encourage or

discourage change. – He wrote a book entitled “Protestant Ethic and the Rise of Capitalism.” –

In the book he claimed to have discovered the relationship between religion and economic

development in Europe – the countries in Europe that espoused Protestantism were more

liberal politically and economically thus why they were ahead of others in industrialization e.g.

Germany and Britain. In Germany – Martin Luther – protested against Catholic Church. England

– Church of England – Against the teachings of Catholics.

France and Italy – Catholic based – less industrialized.

According to Karl Marx education was seen as an ideological state apparatus used by

the ruling class to control knowledge i.e. the government may decide what you learn and how

you learn it.

Whatever that was taught was determined by the interests of the ruling class and

under this system Education enhances inequality in society rather than reducing it. Education

used to serve as a tool of cultural domination of the poor by the rich.

Karl Marx says that however Education should raise the level of awareness of the

underprivileged and the exploited masses. Education should be for liberation and the

development of a critical mind. Education should improve the welfare of all in the society; and

be a tool for social equality for all.

This paradigm has been used in research and policy:-

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Julius Nyerere: “Education For Self-Reliance”

-Aims of Education (positive)

Walter Rodney: “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa”

-Africa is poor is poor due to its relation with the West. Development and underdevelopment

are two sides of the same coin. Human and physical resources from Africa were used to

develop the west.

Paulo Freire: “Education for Critical Consciousness.”

-Deals with the best way of teaching the oppressed.

Franz Fanon: “The Wretched of the World”

4. Symbolic Interaction.

Theory developed by George Herbert Mead (1934) and Charles Horton Cooley (1909)

Human interaction takes place through the use of symbols e.g. language gestures:

e.t.c. These symbols have meaning attached to them and they are culturally accepted. As

human beings interact in society, they tend to attach meanings to other people’s actions.

By attaching meaning to actions, it means we tend to interpret the meaning and

symbol of communication.

So human behaviour is not just a response to stimulus rather the response is a

considered opinion. So different people may react differently to the same situation or stimulus

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depending on the interpretation they attach to it and even the same individual may respond

differently to the same stimulus.

Symbolic interaction therefore refers to a process where two or more people relate,

taking each other into account by use of symbols. The basic assumption of this theory:

Human societies are interactive concerns

Man is an active participant in social life and at sometime engages in self-reflexive behaviour

Human behaviour is cultural in origin – it is determined by culture from which one comes – we

agree to use symbols whose meaning we also agree upon.

The meaning of symbols is also determined by culture and the acquisition of the symbols is

through socialization

Human action is not instinctive. It is a process.

Interpretation

Stimulus

Response

Relevance of symbolic interaction to Education

How Symbolic Interaction Can Be Applied In School.

Language used

Interaction patterns found in school e.g. pupil/pupil, teacher/pupil, teacher/teacher

Medium of interaction

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Development of attitudes.

Topic 5 Notes

EDUCATION, SOCIALIZATION AND CULTURE

Definition

Socialization as a process has been defined differently. However, in these definitions,

certain key characteristics are common.

It is the transmission of culture; as a process by which human beings learn rules and practices

of their society/social group

It’s also seen as a process by which cultural groups try to perpetuate their way of life.

It’s a process by which an individual absorbs/acquires the values, skills, attitudes and morals of

the society in which one lives

All human beings are born within a community with a distinct culture and for one to function

fully as a member of one’s community; one has to learn the cultural attributes of that society.

Individuals acquire knowledge, values, skills and dispositions so as to become full and

functional members of that society.

Socialization is a lifelong process from cradle to grave, from womb to tomb.

It has a beginning and ends at death.

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Socialization may be;

primary/first socialization, where the youth are taught the cultural aspects of their society

It may be secondary, where the adult learns new roles because of changing status in society.

There are two types of socialization that are however related.

Status Socialization

This is designed to prepare the learner to occupy a prescribed position in the society. Status

socialization may also be ascribed i.e. predetermined position (e.g. being a firstborn nobility

e.g. prince gender) or achieved through competition or individual effort i.e. position acquired

due to merit.

Role Socialization

The Socialisee is prepared to play a role expected of him/her by the society. Socialization may

either be congruent – where all agents of socialization propagate the same message or set of

values, or incongruent – where different agents of socialization propagate different, often

conflicting messages or values e.g. telling children to be honest while another parent with

economic hardships tells the children not to pay fare if the conductor does not ask and use it

for lunch instead.

Functions of Socialization

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Transmission of culture.

Form of social control.

Teaching of social roles.

Socialization is responsible for formation and development of culture.

Social control – One learns how to behave in society.

For socialization to take place, three elements have to be present and interact

Learner – Socialisee.

Teacher – Socialiser.

Environment – Setting.

Settings/Agents within Which Socialization Takes Place

Family

School

Religious Organization.

Mass Media e.g internet

Peer groups

Wider community.

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1. FAMILY

This is the oldest institution in the history of mankind. It’s a group of related kin

biologically by blood orientation e.g. children and their parents.

Social Family

Results from an association of marriage e.g. husband and wife. The family is a cultural

institution i.e. is a product of culture and since culture varies from community to community,

there are bound to be different kinds of families,

Monogamous Family

One husband - one wife. Either may be the head of the family. If the father is the head and the

children identify with his lineage trace ancestry to the father’s side it is termed as patrilineal. If

the mother is the head, it is termed as matrilineal.

Polygamous Family.

Polygyny Most common where the husband has more than one wife. It is mostly patrilineal as

the man exercises control, common in Africa and Moslem culture.

Polyandry –Is a polygamous family where the woman has more than one husband. Found in

Sri-Lanka and parts of Niger. She is the head of the home and the children trace their ancestry

through her. It’s Matrilineal.

Group Family

Adult male and female stay together, engage in matrimonial relationships without attachment

to each other and the children belong to the group.

Single parent Family

Either father or mother stays with the children alone caused by death, divorce, separation,

choice, getting children out of wedlock, imprisonment and employment away from the spouse.

Same Sex Families

This is an emerging phenomenon in the African communities and is forceful and is gaining

acceptance. Children may be adopted, or by invitrofertilisation.

Re-constituted (Blended) Family

Here, spouses from previous marriages remarry. They may or may not have children from

previous marriages.

Iweto and Gogo Phenomenon(Kamba and Kalenjin)

Functions of the Family

Matrimonial responsibilities/Activities: where two adults of opposite sex maintain socially

acceptable conjugal relationships with each other. (Denial can lead to divorce in a court of

law.)

Childbearing – For renewal and continuity of the society.

Childrearing – Care, socialization and education of the child ensures that cultural values are

passed from one generation to the next.

Family as an economic entity-members Co-operate and pool resources for economic

independence.

Role of a Family in the Education of the Child

Family is the first socialization setting for a new-born and a child acquires his first social skills

from immediate family members

Family provides emotional support by showing love and affection that is important for

personality development.

Family provides the child with a position of status in society.

The child acquires the tools of communication e.g. language, attitudes and morals.

The family provides role models.

Specifically the family provides emotional support by way of encouragement and motivation.

The family provides economic support on resources.

The family determines the type of school one attends, time of joining and how long one

remains in school.

The kind of family interaction at home influences how the child performs at school. (Poor

parents are harsh, rich parents are friendly.) The language used and acquired at home has

bearing on how the child learns.

Basil Bernstein (1961) “A Socio-linguistic approach to social learning.”

He was a British Sociologist and proposed language-code theory in which he says language is

used to express one’s language perception of the world.

Children from different social classes use language differently. He identified two types of

language, namely:

Elaborated code:

Here, this language is used by the middle class, has more vocabulary, is more expressive, is

explicit and can express abstract ideas.

Restricted Code:
This is common among the lower class. The language has limited vocabulary, uses simple

sentences, and is less expressive, dogmatic and incapable of expressing abstract ideas.

Children who come to school with restricted language (from needy environment make very

simple sentences) are disadvantaged as compared to those with elaborated code who are

likely to perform better.

He concluded that the major factor explaining the success of the middle class child

academically is that he/she uses the same language found at home and school. This enhances

their ability to grasp complicated ideas as expressed by teachers. He found out that teachers

tend to relate better (were positive) with children from middle class families as they speak the

same language. It’s also unlikely that middle class children will assault their teachers.

Challenges facing the Modern Family and how they Compromise Functioning of the Family

(KOMBO PP 43)

Economic vulnerability i.e. increased poverty.

Social vulnerability i.e. the families have become non-supportive, diminishing social control,

most families are unstable.

Pedagogical vulnerability – diminishing parent-children interaction. Parents have abdicated

their duties to other groups e.g. unprepared teachers and house helps.

The family is exposed to a lot of pressure and influence upon which it has to control e.g.

internet, mobiles, T.V, radios, printed information.

General hostility towards the child caused by economic hardships, breakdown in traditional

family structures

Urbanization, overpopulation and lack of proper housing

Parents are conservative, an attitude that has caused increased conflict in the family

Career demand where parents have no time with children.

Liberal legislation (Bill of Rights)

2. THE SCHOOL AS AN AGENT OF SOCIALISATION

After the first few years within the family, i.e. formative years within the family, the

child enters the school to start yet a prolonged period of socialization. The family and the

school play this role in a complimentary manner at the same time,

However, whereas within the family socialization may be basically informal, school

uses both formal and informal methods. In the formal approach, the school austerities are

carefully planned and structured to teach certain desirable attributes. It teaches skills

(desirable) either cognitive/intellectual, normative or moral and creative skills.

Socialization is achieved through the use of an approved and standard curriculum.

Under formal socialization within the school, the school is charged with the responsibility of

preparing learners for occupational roles in society.

At the informal level, the school provides an environment where children learn

informally through association with other members of the community. Through these informal

settings, the learner will acquire social skills and roles by respect, responsibility, leadership

skills.
 The extent of socialization within the school depends on depends on the goals of the

school:-

Academic.

Pastoral/Personal characteristics

Order and discipline

However it should be emphasized all those three goals are important and have to be blended

to reflect the needs of society.

To effectively socialize the youth, the school should provide a positive environment that brings

the best out of the learner. The role of the teacher is very important. A teacher should be

positive in outlook – should see the best in his/her students (look for the positive side of the

student.)

Should avoid negative labeling/streaming, because what the teachers believe the students

achieve. If you believe students are not capable, they will fail.

What your class achieves is the reflection of the attitudes of the teacher.

(Read Article) –David Lewis: “You can teach your child intelligence.” Published in London by

Souveric Press. (1981)

In that book, Lewis argues that:

“Intelligence is not inherited.” He argues it is environmentally determined. Therefore it is the

duty of a teacher and other stakeholders to make the school environment mentally

stimulating, so that learners achieve their best.

3. PEER GROUP AS AN AGENT OF SOCIALIZATION Pg 44 Kombo

 Peer group refers to people within the same age bracket/ group. It is an important

agent of socialization among the youth as well as adults.

A peer group is identified by same values, behaviour, world views, their values, their

dressing code – responsive to fashion

A powerful agent of socialization more so among the youth

Serves as a source of information through networking

Teaches Social roles

Serves as a practicing ground for the learnt roles

Members of a peer group feel together (gang)

Teaches importance of unity and collective behaviour

Conversely peer groups have negative influence on the youth especially when they are

engaged in anti-social behaviour e.g. (D.S.A –Drug and substance abuse)

The school and parents should closely monitor the activities of the group and

encourage only the positive ones

4. MASS MEDIA AS AN AGENT OF SOCIALISATION

Mass Media (a) Electronic – T.V, Radio, mobile phone

(b) Print – Newspapers

Mass Media is a source of information. There is a lot of information available to the

youth via mass media – The information aware of international issues than their age mates a

few years ago because technology is changing rapidly.

 The youths identify with the information they get through these media especially

fashion, role models from other celebrities.

Media is a source of knowledge. It is very educative: may have negative influence, it

exposes out youth to harmful information e.g. –Pornography -Adverts

5. RELIGION AS AN AGENT OF SOCIALISATION

Religion addresses the moral aspect of society, and the individual

Promotes positive values

Agent of behaviour change, done through preaching, seminars, workshops and

counseling.

Negative effects

-Creates fanatics (one who believes)

-Rigidity

-Resistant to change/dogmatic

6. THE WIDER COMMUNITY AS AN AGENT OF SOCIALISATION

Gives a child identity and status

Community has a set of values, knowledge, skills, that have to be taught to the youths

in order for them to function efficiently in society and play with other members of the

community. The youth learn and internalize socially acceptable behaviour.

For socialization to be effective, all agents should be united in agreement about the

values that are being transmitted.

[Read more on Agents of Socialization].

Topic 6

CULTURE AND EDUCATION

Culture

Culture is derived from a German word “Kulture” which means ‘civilization’

To Western scholars, culture and civilization were used to mean the same thing i.e.

interchangeably. Culture is defined as the complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs,

art, morals, laws, customs and the capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of the

society. (Edward Reuter 1950)

Culture is the realm of ideas and ideas, values and symbols; it is the design for living

which produces a distinctive way of life. (Kulkhon 1951)

Bronslous Malinowski, British Anthropologist [1933] Culture comprises of inherited

artifacts, goods, technical processes, ideas, habits and values.

It is obviously the integral whole consisting of implements of consumer goods, of human ideas

and crafts, beliefs and customs.

Unfortunately;

Those sociologists argued that culture was universal and that societies evolved from

savagery to civilization e.g. Tyler said “By simply putting the advanced nations at one end of

the social series, and savage tribes at the other end, arranging the rest of mankind between

these limits, ethnographers are able to set up at best a rough scale of civilization: A transition

from a savage state to our own civilized.

SAVAGECIVILISED
 According to this argument, Western societies were seen as advanced, civilized and

served as a yardstick upon which other societies were compared.

Franz Boaz advanced a more liberal view (more objective) of culture; individual

societies each have their own body of customs, beliefs and social institutions.

Culture is therefore a distinctive way of life of a people and comparing it to other

societies would be futile.

Culture is total way of life of people, or a society.

Culture is both material and non-material

i) Material culture refers to artifacts, physical things, objects made by man, tools etc.

Culture is shared, transmitted from one generation to another through socialization.

ii) Non-material culture refers to those aspects not perceived by the senses e.g. belief systems,

language, customs, values.

Characteristics of Culture

Ezewu and Kombo

Culture is;

Organic – it involves in human beings

Supra-organic – survives beyond the life of any human being

-is persistent

It is Overt – can be observed

It is covert – it is hidden
-certain attributes can’t be observed

Explicit – Actions within a particular culture can be discerned or observed.

-certain aspects cannot be observed e.g. we believe in certain things even when we cannot

explain

Culture is stable and yet dynamic because it is persistent for a long time. Important traits can

be transmitted from one generation to the next. –Dynamic because it changes over time

Culture is ideal and manifest

-Ideal culture is refers to what we ought to be or to do

-Manifest culture refers to what actually happens in society –who are we? -What we do.

Culture is shared: and is Learnt

-Shared by members of the same cultural community. Every human being is born within a

particular cultural setting.

-Learnt because we learn cultural attributes at different times and different rates.

Content of Culture

Content refers to:

Speech – Language and other forms of Communication.

Material traits/ Artefacts.

-Tools used

-Shelter
-Manner of Dress

-Diet/feeding habits

Art – Entertainment

-Music

-Carvings

Knowledge – Mythology

-Theories explaining social-cultural phenomena

Religious Practices

-Ceremonies

-Rituals

Family and Social Practices

-Family Types/Patterns

-Marriage

-Inheritance e.t.c.

Property –Ownership

-Use of the property

-Disposal of property –Trade, sale.

Government – Laws
-Forms f government

-Rights and responsibilities of every individual

Warfare –How a particular culture/group defends itself against external aggression

-Implements, tools used

Emile Durkheim –Education is the action expressed by older generations on those who are not

yet ready for social life. The aim is to awaken in the child physical, intellectual and moral traits

required of him by both society and himself.

Here, Education includes all cultural influences that the child has to go through in

order to become a complete member of society –Knowledge (Cognitive)-Skills (Creativity) and

-Values/Moral

According to R.S Peters, Education has to meet three basic criteria

Must lead to knowledge and understanding – Learner must know

Must transmit something worthwhile/valuable.

Education should use socially acceptable methods.

Education plays the following functions in society among others

Education for cultural transmission.

-Values, knowledge and skills of society are transmitted from one generation to the next

Human Resource Development.

-Learners are trained for roles in society.

-Skills to be applied in the learner’s life

Social Control

-Teaching socially acceptable behaviour so that society can run in harmony.

Education serves the purpose of social selection.

Individuals are selected and allocated different functions and roles in society.

TOPIC 7 NOTES

Education and Social Stratification

Education is a mirror of society to the extent that what happens in society is reflected

in Education e.g. if society is stratified, this stratification is manifested in Education as well as

well as stratification etymologically borrows from geology in society. It refers to the

categorization of members of society into layers based on specific or defined criteria. These

categories or layers or classes occupy more or less similar positions in society. They may enjoy

similar privileges or face similar challenges. In a nutshell, a class is more or less homogenous.

The term stratification has been defined in many ways (Kombo: 2005)

Stratification is the ranking of individuals or categories of people on the basis of

unequal access to resources and rewards.

Stratification is social groups that are ranked one above the other usually in terms of

the amount of power, prestige, rewards and wealth that their members possess.

Stratification is the division of population into two or more layers, each of which is

relatively homogenous and between which there are differences in privileges, restrictions,

rewards and obligations.

Karl Marx sees social class as a group of people who share the same relationships to

the means of protection in terms of ownership and control e.g. land, labor, capital as examples
of means of protection. To him, he believes the economy determines all social divisions. He

calls it ‘economic determinism.’

The characteristics of a social class according Max Weber are the following: He

identifies three aspects;

Wealth – Income, assets, and whether or not you own the means of protection.

Power – the ability of one person to influence the action of others. Power may be derived from

wealth, knowledge and force.

Prestige – The kind of respect you command in society, the esteem, honour. Prestige is usually

determined by society e.g. Wealth, education etc.

Social class can therefore be identified by the use of the following aspects:

1. Wealth – Property ownership.

2. Occupation – Type, status and prestige it commands – is it manual or intellectual?

3. Power and influence – ability to control the actions of others.

4. Education – level of education.

5. The attitudes and values you hold about life, your aspirations, expectations in life and

ambitions. Are you optimistic or have you given up in life.

6. Kind of lifestyle that you lead. What are your consumer mannerisms?

Theories of Stratification

a) Functionalist Perspective

Social stratification is something basic to society. Society is not homogeneous. It has different

groups of classes of people and each class has a particular function to play in society. It is
reinforced by the fact that functions in society require different talents and ability which in

turn attract unequal rewards. Therefore inevitably we have different classes. Stratification is

inevitable and is a function of ability and talent.

b) Conflict Theories (Karl Marx)

Social stratification is as a result of exploitation of a class of people by those who own the

means of production. This exploitation results from competition or struggles for scarce

resources i.e. those who own the labor.

Stratification may be open or closed.

Open Stratification refers to a situation where there is no rigid division between classes and

vertical mobility is possible. One can make up the social ladder on account of individual effort

or talent i.e. you can move up based on merit.

Closed Stratification refers to a situation where there is rigid separation of classes. Movement

between them is not possible. One’s social class is predetermined e.g. the caste system in

India.

Social Mobility

It basically refers to the movement of people across social classes. This mobility may either be

vertical or horizontal. Vertical is change in position from high to low or vice versa.

Horizontal mobility is not well pronounced in society.

The upward social mobility may either be contest or sponsored.

Contest is where the goals are open to all, the playing field is level. We all operate from the

same point, environmental conditions, what is achieved depends on individual effort.

Sponsored is where some may have a head start or undue advantage. May be favored by

circumstances

Vertical social mobility may be as a result of but not limited to:

1. Education

2. Marriage

3. Promotion in occupation.

4. Economic recession and inflation

5. Windfalls
One moves into a social status either achieved or ascribed.

Achieved Status refers to that gained on merit or via personal effort.

Ascribed Status is that position occupied by an individual by birth – predetermined position. Maybe

hereditary e.g. kings, being a first born.

Achieved status is professional (to a large extent) on the other hand ascribed status maybe non-

professional.

In Kenya most people are in their positions because of merit – through contest, individual effort e.t.c. In

most cases succeeding generations are in higher social class than their parents. Kenya as a country is

highly stratified to extent that a small percentage of people are very wealthy while the majority live in

desperation.

This stratification and wealth differences is manifested in education e.g. only 19 National schools –

which are well equipped.

Top quality Private schools – St. Mary’s, St. Andrews School Turi, Sunshine, Strathmore.

Provincial Schools – Friends School Kamusinga, Kakamega High

District schools-

Private schools of low quality – profit oriented.

Examinations tend to favor some of these schools (the elite). In effect education tends to perpetuate

and reinforce social inequality.

Social Class and Education

1. Lower Class.

Most children from the lower class are disadvantaged from the word go. They may be easily condemned

to low class future life. Families are unable to meet financial obligations and demands of Education/

schools – Tuition fees, facilities and other levies.

A needy environment exists in the home not conducive for learning – lack of food, proper lighting,

housing e.t.c. There may be few or none role models within the immediate family environment –

parents maybe illiterate or marginally illiterate – gone to school a few years. These parents may not give

supportive environment for the education of their children.

Poverty is endemic and high – hence parents may encourage their children to look for petty

employment. However studies have shown that in a supportive school environment children from the

lower class benefit more than any other child from the other classes (a lot of change is noticed).

2. Middle Class.

This is the largest class in most societies and the most mobile. Education is used as a means towards

achieving higher social standing. They want to be professionals – very specific. They use education for

occupational preparation – parents in this class are well educated professionals. Parents tend to take a

lot of interest in education of their children by setting high standards and providing means of achieving

the standards e.g. pay fees, provide facilities – text books e.t.c. The main concern in this class will be
where the children will go to school not ‘whether.’ Parents provide the necessary resources whether at

school or at home. Parents are sensitive to the performance of their children in school – make a follow

up.

3. Upper Class

Education is not a means to social mobility but rather it’s a way of safeguarding their position in society.

Emphasis here is on where somebody has gone to school. Education prepares the learners through

selected institutions and fit in the upper class.

Examples of schools attended:-

St. Andrews Turi

Alliance Do not follow the Ministry’s fee guidelines. Parents protested the Kenya High school guidelines.

Topic 8 Notes

School organization

The School as a Social Organization

Social organization is defined as “An institution within society that is structured and mandated to pursue

social goals and objectives.”

There has to be some kind of interactions within these organizations so as to achieve the aims or goals

for which it was created.

Social organization – it is a social unit that pursues specific goals for which it is structured to serve or to

achieve.

It is collection of people whose behavior is guided and coordinated to achieve perceived goals.

A type of collectivity established for the pursuit of specific aims or goals. It is characterized by a formal

structure of rules, authority, division of labor and limited membership or admission. A collection of

people whose behavior is guided and coordinated to achieve specified goals.

Characteristics of a Social Institution

1. Has clear-cut division of labor; among various positions and officials. Each member performs specific

duties as prescribed in the regulations of that social organization. The smooth running of the social

organizations depends on how efficiently each member performs his/her duties.

Occupation of a position is based on merit it is meritocratic – based on one’s ability. Each one who has

the right qualities has an equal chance of occupying the position.

2. Authority within social organizations is arranged in a hierarchy i.e. status and authority of everybody

is hierarchical. Those at the top wield more power. Positions at the top are fewer and more members at

the bottom – pyramidal arrangement. Each official is responsible for the actions of those under him

guided by the rules and regulations of the social organization.

3. The rules and regulations are enacted to govern official decision – making procedures and to clearly

spell out the duties responsibilities the authority and the obligations of each member. These rules and

regulations are intended to help the organizations to achieve the set goals as well as to regulate

members behavior e.g. TSC Code of Regulations, Heads Manual.

4. Employment within the organization and membership are based on merit i.e. has to possess the

required skills and meet the required criteria to be employed or to be a member.

5. Social organization has clear and well defined guidelines of promotion and/ or advancement within

that same organization.

6. Social organization has a well-defined population or groups of people. However this population may

not be permanent as it were.

7. Social organization should have well defined goals i.e. answer the question: For what purpose was it

set up?

a) Instrumental – cognitive aspects.

b) Expressive – unity/ cohesiveness

c) Normative – Moral goals

8. Members of a social class organization are impersonal and objective when dealing with other

members of the organization at official level.

The School as a Formal Organization

The school is a formal organization because;

1. It is specific i.e. it performs specific duty.

2. It is impersonal – relationship between members of the school is official and prescribed.

3. Members are arranged in some form of hierarchy. Principal-Deputy Principal-Senior Master-D.O.S-

H.O.Ds-Subject Heads-Class Teachers-Assistant teachers-Prefects-Students.

As a formal organization, the school shows certain characteristics:

1. Grading system – Learners graded according to performance or age.

2. Time is divided into specific units of academic calendars – term, week, lesson. Each member of the

school is expected to be at a specific place at a given time performing a prescribed duty or function.

3. It occupies a unique space, clearly demarcated and even that school compound is clearly demarcated.

In the classroom there’s an aspect of formalism to show authority. Teacher’s desk at the front.

4. Behavior within the school setting is regulated and controlled by a system of rules and regulations.

5. A school pursues certain specified goals through the academic and co-curricular programmes.

School Organization

Two types:

1. Pyramidal/ Hierarchical Organization

2. Flat organization

1. Pyramidal Organization
Power of decision making is concentrated at the top by few people (the S.M.T). The top most is more

powerful – wield a lot of authority and power; compared to bottom. Any communication between those

at the top and those at the bottom follows a chain of command. Top-bottom follows same channels.

H.T is in charge of all activities within the school, both academic and non-academic and takes

responsibility.

Communication to or from outside the school concerning the school or on behalf of the school should

be through the head teacher’s office or by his approval

Advantages of Pyramidal organizational style

All work is done efficiently, promptly (High level of efficiency)

High quality of work – the continued deployment of a worker is justified by his or her output.

Respect for authority exists.

Disadvantages

1. An atmosphere of fear and silence exists since all members do not partake of decision making they

may be unwilling to take initiative.

2. Suspicion among staff – some are very close to the top.

2. Flat Organization

Many people are involved in daily running of the institution. The Head teacher is flexible and allows

other members of the institution to participate in decision making. Head teacher appreciate the

contribution of others/ motivates.

Advantages

1. Ensures job satisfaction among teachers, workers since they feel appreciated and hence develop a

sense of belonging.

2. Teachers are free to give their opinion and contribution positively towards achieving the

organizational goals.

Disadvantages

1. Low productivity because the workers may lack direction.

2. Workers become complacent.

Leadership Styles

Head teacher is acknowledged leader of the school. He/she is the government representative (TSC).

Head teacher runs the school. In the performance of his/her duties the head teacher is involved in many

relationships and interactions with the members of the school community and others from the outside.

The following leadership styles have been identified to be in use in our schools:

1. Autocratic leadership

2. Democratic

3. Laissez faire

Autocratic Leadership
Power of decision making is at the top. Decision making is one’s man job. Head teacher requires that

duties be performed without question. Head teacher is domineering and demands submission from his

subordinates.

Relationship between the head teacher and other teachers or workers is that of “Master and Servant.”

These head teachers dictate rather than delegate duties. The environment within the school is

characterized by fear. A lot is achieved under this kind of leadership.

Democratic Leadership

This is characterized by consensus building, consultation and delegation of duties and authority.

Decision making is a collective and participatory activity by all members e.g. Starehe Boys’ Centre,

Precious Blood.

Relationships are cordial and friendly based on mutual respect. Teachers and students are adequately

motivated and develop high self-esteem – they feel part of the working system.

A conducive teaching-learning environment exists.

Laissez Faire

There is lack of control by the leader. The institution lacks focus and direction. There is low or no respect

at all for authority in the school. Head teacher seems to be out of touch with what is happening within

his/her institution. Level of discipline is low. The situation may be described as chaotic. Teachers are

indifferent and have no sight of the core functions of the school. There is high degree of absenteeism.