The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
https://www.emerald.com/insight/1746-5680.htm
SBR
17,4
574
Received 5 January 2022
Revised 1 March 2022
Accepted 10 March 2022
Society and Business Review
Vol. 17 No. 4, 2022
pp. 574-593
© Emerald Publishing Limited
1746-5680
DOI 10.1108/SBR-01-2022-0010
Convergence of educational
leadership behaviours and
socio-economic status of students
amidst academic capitalism,
consumerism and commodification
Prashant Sunil Borde, Ridhi Arora and Sanjeeb Kakoty
Department of Organization Behaviour and Human Resources,
Indian Institute of Management Shillong, Shillong, India
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to review the literature on academic capitalism, consumerism and
commodification (A3C) in higher education. Additionally, this study aims to understand core attributes of
educational leadership behaviours with ethical leadership (EL) and transformational leadership (TL) styles
can contribute to inclusive and equitable quality education for students belonging to diverse socio-economic
status (SES).
Design/methodology/approach – This paper adopts a literature review methodology initially on
themes of A3C, EL, TL and SES, adopting social learning theory and social identity theory. Further,
organizational behavioural dynamics related to students and faculty in higher educational institutions are
illustrated. Simultaneously, suggestions with practical focus are offered.
Findings – This paper synthesizes the literature on the convergence of leadership and SES and develops
propositions to encourage future inquiry. Further, the study illuminates several attributes of four groups of
student populations, namely, “privileged,” “contestant,” “dependent” and “deprived” formed because of this
convergence.
Research limitations/implications – A3C have posed several severe questions for the sustainable
development of society. Educational leaders must benefit society, offer equitable opportunities and develop
affirmative leadership.
Originality/value – Leaders with high EL and TL behaviours can considerably contribute to achieve
United Nations Sustainable Goals of Quality Education. This paper presents realistic solutions and
scrutinizes organizational dynamics because of convergence of leadership and SES. Further, pragmatic
leadership development strategies are suggested.
Keywords Ethical leadership, Transformational leadership, Socioeconomic inequality,
Inclusive and equitable education, Leadership development strategies, Academic capitalism
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
Past evidence indicates that higher educational institutions (HEI) have been considerably
affected by capitalism (Slaughter and Leslie, 2001; Tirronen and Nokkala, 2009),
consumerism (Gumport, 2000) and commodification (Schapper and Mayson, 2004).
Academic capitalism mainly refers to marketization activities and mechanisms based on
entrepreneurial behaviours in academic institutions. (Slaughter and Leslie, 2001; Noonan,
2015; Sigahi and Saltorato, 2020). Additionally, this has been related to multi-layered fee
policies, collaboration with international corporations and the restructuring of instructional
resources (Kauppinen, 2012; Taylor and Bicak, 2020). Furthermore, academic consumerism Educational
primarily indicates the role of HEI as an industry to serve the choices and interests of leadership
students as consumers (Gumport, 2000). Notably, this has been linked to legitimacy in
behaviours
restructuring educational and managerial policy frameworks to meet the needs of students
(Marginson, 2013). On the other hand, academic commodification denotes the mutually
acceptable exchange of knowledge and cognitive activity as a commodity for commercial
use (Schapper and Mayson, 2004). This has been strongly linked to central management 575
control over academic activities and academic labour; international student recruitment and
self-promotion (Willmott, 1995; James-MacEachern, 2018; Page, 2020).
Ethical leadership (EL) and transformational leadership (TL) styles have been central
domains of educational leadership research in higher education organizational studies
(Leithwood and Jantzi, 2000; Gibbs and Murphy, 2009; Mostovicz et al., 2009; Walumbwa
et al., 2017). Furthermore, these two styles have been researched extensively in holistic
business ethics, sustainable development goals and corporate social responsibility (Groves
and LaRocca, 2011; Nejati et al., 2021). Additionally, these styles have been affirmatively
linked to pertinent organizational attributes such as organizational commitment (Pillai and
Williams, 2004; Dinc, 2018), satisfaction (Walumbwa et al., 2004; Toor and Ofori, 2009) and
organizational citizenship behaviours (Dinc, 2018; Shapira-Lishchinsky and Raftar-Ozery,
2018). In particular, these attributes can facilitate educational leaders to restructure
institutional environments conducive to ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education
(Poon-McBrayer, 2017; Óskarsdottir et al., 2020; Luzmore and Brown, 2021).
EL has been primarily conceptualized as individuals having normatively appropriate
behaviours towards followers, altruistic motivation and steering employees’ focus to ethical
standards (Brown et al., 2005; Brown and Treviño, 2006; Toor and Ofori, 2009). More
specifically, this style has been defined as the exhibition of normatively apposite conduct
through individual actions, interpersonal relationships and the encouragement of such a
manner to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement and decision-making
(Brown and Treviño, 2006).
Moreover, this style has been affirmatively related to a leader’s ethical conduct
(Walumbwa et al., 2017), community citizenship behaviours (Eva et al., 2020) and social
responsibility (De Hoogh and Den Hartog, 2008). Additionally, this style has been related to
followers’ ethical decision-making, pro-social behaviours and satisfaction (Brown and
Treviño, 2006; Nejati and Shafaei, 2018).
TL has been predominantly associated with emphasizing intrinsic motivation, trust,
respect and positive development of followers (Bass, 1990). Distinguishably, this style has
four core components, namely, idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized
consideration and intellectual stimulation (Bass, 1990). This style has been related to
numerous pertinent organizational attributes such as followers’ development, performance
and work engagement (Dvir et al., 2002; Zhu et al., 2009).
Furthermore, this style has been affirmatively linked to self-efficacy, group cohesiveness
and organizational commitment (Pillai and Williams, 2004; Walumbwa et al., 2004).
Additionally, this style has been observed to impact organizational innovation, goal-directed
behaviours and a spirit of trust (Al-Husseini and Elbeltagi, 2016).
Undoubtedly, these phenomena of academic capitalism, consumerism and
commodification (A3C) have severely impacted the objectives and roles of leaders in HEI
(Gumport, 2000; Olssen and Peters, 2005; Marginson, 2013; Pais and Costa, 2017).
Additionally, ethical market forces are too weak (Zsolt and Zsolnai, 2016) to guide for HEI
and its consumers. In this, two contrasting perspectives arise. Firstly, is contemporary
SBR leadership in HEI focused on the sustainable development of “society”? Or secondly,
17,4 whether this leadership is for the sustainable development of the “HEI”?
Our study recognizes the current status particularly predisposed on the socio-economic
inequalities and interleaved prevailing A3C and discovers the state of affairs in
unfathomable chaos. Hence, a study on this theme is necessary to investigate the
convergence of educational leaders’ leadership behaviours and the SES of individual
576 students.
Our critical review of this pertinent theme aims to understand these two divergent but
eye-catching schools of thought using social identity theory (SIT) (Tajfel, 1974) and social
learning theory (SLT) (Mischel, 1973). More specifically, SIT offers us to comprehend
differentiating notions of “superior” and “inferior” identities of individuals because of their
place in the social system (Tajfel, 1974). In particular, economic inequalities have shaped
social behavioural dynamics between groups within societies (Jetten et al., 2017).
Furthermore, SLT has been related to an individual’s competencies to construct diverse
behaviours, observing, modelling and imitating behaviours (Mischel, 1973). Also, social
learning perspectives on leadership styles, especially EL and TL, have been related to
influencing followers’ conduct via role modelling (Brown et al., 2005).
We suggest that contemporary leadership extend strategies, training and development
programmes to reinforce EL and TL behaviours in HEI and contribute to achieving the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDG) on inclusive and equitable quality
education. Specifically, UNSDG 4.3 is aimed to ensure equal access for all to affordable and
quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university. Also, SDG Report
(2020, p. 32) has highlighted that 71 million people are estimated to be pushed back to
extreme poverty. The progress towards inclusive and equitable quality education has been
too slow, which has been hampered because of income inequalities. More directly, this has
been essential considering the existing diversity because of socio-economic status (SES) that
structurally inhibits many students from achieving quality education. Past studies have
recommended a strong focus on leadership development in HEI according to distinctions in
evolving circumstances and environments (Leithwood and Jantzi, 2000; Bhana and Bayat,
2020). Additionally, several studies have suggested scrutiny of the intricacies of SES
diversities under different contexts and socio-cultural factors (Stuart et al., 2011; Ghazal
Aswad et al., 2011).
We argue that leaders with TL and EL styles can potentially change the course of HEI
and contribute to achieving equitable quality education for inclusive societies. The
contemporary study aims to contribute to the leadership development literature, especially
amidst the circumstances that have been intertwined with A3C in HEI. Our first goal is to
analyse the impacts of A3C on HEI. Further, our second goal is to comprehend EL and TL
behaviours as guiding principles through a literature review. Thirdly, we analyse the impact
of convergence of leadership and SES amidst A3C and suggest pragmatic leadership
development strategies.
The present literature review has been done using research studies published in premier
international journals predominantly related to education, sociology, economics and
leadership studies. In this, we have included journals that have been ranked in Academic
Journal Guide, Australian Business Dean Council, Australian Research Council, Financial
Times 50 and Scopus. In particular, we have included articles related to the themes of A3C,
the impact of SES on students and leadership in HEI. Further, no restrictions on publication
year were considered in selecting the relevant articles. Additionally, we have referred to
several books pertinent to this theme. However, we have restricted our review to only
research studies published in English.
 There are three critical implications of this research. First, it offers scrutiny of Educational
convergence of educational leadership behaviours and SES of student populations. Second, leadership
it suggests the need to enhance EL and TL styles in educational leaders in HEI that are
essential for the sustainable development of society. Third, it discusses strategies by which
behaviours
leadership behaviours can be enhanced.
In the first section, we discuss A3C in HEI. Next, in the second section, we discuss the
necessity of EL and TL in HEI. After that, in the third section, we discuss the impact of the
convergence of leadership and SES amidst A3C. Next, in the fourth section, we offer 577
pragmatic leadership development strategies. In the end, we conclude and discuss the
limitations of the study and future research directions.

2. Academic capitalism, consumerism and commodification in higher

educational instituitions
Contemporary HEI have been associated in recent times with emerging themes such as
global citizenship (Canton and Garcia, 2018), global capitalism (Poff, 2010) and educational
institutions as national policy changers (Marginson and Rhoades, 2002). Among the recently
recognised neoliberal discourses of efforts for institutional sustainable development
frameworks, these themes have been highlighted to foster competitions, collaboration and
bring educational institutional transformations to emphasise intellectual productivity and
performance (Knight and Trowler, 2000; Olssen and Peters, 2005; Gibbs and Murphy, 2009).
A3C has been defined as an academic institutional behaviour (Slaughter and Leslie, 2001)
based on the approaches and ideologies that are consonant to bazaars, where academic
courses and certificates are marketed and subsequently sold in a socially accepted manner
fashion to students. In addition, Wildavsky (2012) has argued that this scholarly
marketplace has been fashioning an innovative worldwide meritocracy that has been seen
as rewarding everyone economically and educationally.
More specifically, A3C have altered traditional open intellectual discussion, teachings
and culture by financially driven strategic managerial ideas and practices for the
development of the HEI (Olssen and Peters, 2005; Williamson, 2021).

2.1 Academic capitalism

Academic capitalism has been associated with justified and essential marketization
practices in educational institutions (Sigahi and Saltorato, 2020). This phenomenon has been
primarily related to academic institutional behaviours on the part of the faculty and
organized procedures based on marketplaces’ ideologies (Slaughter and Leslie, 2001; Jessop,
2017; Page, 2020).
These predominantly include efforts to generate incomes and capital from several
sources (e.g. contracts, grants, industrial and business collaboration), fee policies, online
marketing seats and external tuition programs (e.g. faculty-student coaching programs and
associations with international corporations and research universities) (Kauppinen, 2012;
Jones and Andrews, 2019; Taylor and Bicak, 2020). This socially accepted practice of
receiving external “prestige economy” (Rosinger et al., 2016), especially in stratified urban
societies, has been progressively amplified. Moreover, AC has been attributed to the
impression of “goals of productivity” (Noonan, 2015) and the better allocation and enabling
of existing educational resources.

2.2 Academic consumerism

Academic consumerism has been mainly associated with the notion that educational
institutions play the social role of industry to ensure sovereign and secure consumers’
SBR economic interests (Gumport, 2000). More specifically, a student has been recognized as a
17,4 potential or current employee who has sought workforce guidance or economic security.
In this, two broad perspectives emerge. First, students as consumers have multiple
choices for educational curriculum, identity, acceptable satisfaction in education and
potential economic interests in the acquisition of educational certifications. Second, as
service providers, institutions have the authority to restructure educational, financial and
578 managerial policies to provide education tailored to the preferences of students (Gumport,
2000; Naidoo and Jamieson, 2005; Marginson, 2013).

2.3 Academic commodification

Academic commodification has been related to turning knowledge and cognitive activity
into a commodity and a commercial use item as per educational aims and reasons of diverse
student populations (Schapper and Mayson, 2004). This phenomenon has increased HEI’s
restructuring, corporate-business discourse and rampant self-promotion (Webster, 2003;
Page, 2020), primarily meant to create innovative intellectuals and a capable industrial
workforce.
Several practices have been associated with this practice, such as the international
student recruitment market (James-MacEachern, 2018), managerial control of academic
work and academic labour (Willmott, 1995) and increasing spaces of consumption for
students groups (Cunningham, 2016). Moreover, Brancaleone and O’Brien (2011) have
critically argued that learning outcomes because of commodification strategies have
appeared to be evocative; however, HEI have remained considerably incompetent at
delivering the requisite level of quality education.

2.4 Advantages of academic capitalism, consumerism and commodification

From an administrative standpoint, McClure (2016) has described the role of A3C as
organisational facilitators for a variety of persuading behaviours such as infrastructure
construction, establishing novel educational courses, cultivating donations through the
management and capital development, setting visions for roundabout entrepreneurship and
modifying procedures and policies. Furthermore, this practice has been linked to
restructuring HEI elements to achieve financial gains (Slaughter and Leslie, 2001; Tirronen
and Nokkala, 2009). In another study, Lee (2002) has expressed the positive behaviour of
A3C on quality assurance, managerial efficiency and cost-effectiveness from an
organizational perspective in the HEI.
Additionally, A3C has enabled opportunities for students such as goal-oriented private
tuitions, online and distance learning and the availability of expert faculty that would not
have been possible to be given in the ordinary course of instruction (Jessop, 2018). Moreover,
it enhances research and development capabilities by facilitating reliable collaboration
between educational institutions, transnational corporations and industries (Kauppinen,
2012), which are essential for societal development in the long run. Most importantly, it
provides a mechanism of recognizable and measurable certification of academic acumen
assurance for students, industry and society. Consequently, this mechanism facilitates
enhancing quality systems (Sadiq et al., 2003) at the organizational level.

2.5 Disadvantages of academic capitalism, consumerism and commodification

The faculty and management have been seen to alter their behaviour, institutional culture
and priorities in the circumstances of unethical conduct of students (customers) such as
cheating and academic dishonesty (Kezar and Bernstein-Sierra, 2016). The conditions have
been considerably worse than before and the traditional approaches of student corrective
actions and moral judgments have been discouraged safeguarding “seller” interests. This Educational
trend has made academia rethink the role of teachers and academics sceptically. leadership
Another problem institutions face modifying a system in a multi-tiered (Wheaton, 2020)
organization. Cost-saving arrangements such as paraprofessionals, external coaching,
behaviours
online modules and contractual visiting faculty arrangements have changed traditional
educational cultures. With A3C as the new normal, a phenomenon of “valorization of shiny
things” (Hermanowicz, 2016) has evolved and has considerably deteriorated the
foundational framework of HEI as an organization. Additionally, academic activities such as 579
research and development have been driven by economic and market requirements (Olssen
and Peters, 2005; Pais and Costa, 2017). Thus, leaving unoccupied spaces may not benefit
the pro-society approach in this process. Further, A3C have a considerable effect on
equitable educational opportunity, especially considering the lower SES of student
populations (Ghazal Aswad et al., 2011).

3. Leadership in HEI
The world is suffering not from too much achievement, but from too little improvement; not from
too much theory and too many programs, but from too little actual service; too much organization
at the top of our economic, political, official and educational systems and too little work at the
bottom (Blackmar, 1911).
Obviously, leadership plays a significant role to play in HEI (Leithwood and Jantzi, 2000;
Gibbs and Murphy, 2009; Nejati and Shafaei, 2018). Leadership is especially crucial for
ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education (Fletcher et al., 2015). Conspicuously, EL
and TL have been considered by the research community and academia as the most
preferred leadership styles essential for achieving pertinent organizational outcome
attributes in HEI (Al-Husseini and Elbeltagi, 2016; Walumbwa et al., 2017).

3.1 Ethical leadership

Primarily, EL has been conceptualized as abiding by normatively appropriate behaviours
towards subordinates that facilitate enhancing followers’ altruistic motivation and steering focus
to ethical standards (Brown et al., 2005). In addition, Cuellar and Giles (2012) have highlighted
that leaders following this style have been shown to impact the educational environment from a
moral necessity established on humanistic concern that affirms “others” as a common good.
Drawing from the SLT framework, this style has been considerably encouraged for
ethical norms, integrity and empathy (Gibbs and Murphy, 2009) amidst environments
intertwined with A3C. In another study, this style has been demonstrated to enhance
students’ self-efficacy and ethical decision making (Blewitt et al., 2018). Moreover, Xia and
Yang (2020) have highlighted that this style significant influences knowledge-sharing and
pro-social motivation.
Additionally, this style has been linked to group learning through ethical conduct and
peer justice (Walumbwa et al., 2017). Furthermore, this style and institutional ethical climate
have been the positively related acquisition of business ethics competence of students
(Hernandez Lopez et al., 2020). In another study, Nejati and Shafaei (2018) have highlighted
that universities have a pertinent role in nurturing socially responsible graduates who will
create a better society in the future.
In particular, leaders adopting EL behaviours in HEI have a significant role in
developing pro-social behaviours in students under their supervision. As a result, it is worth
noting that the EL behaviours of leaders in HEI have a considerable impact on the formation
of society and nation.
SBR 3.2 Traditional leadership
17,4 Principally, TL has been related to behaviours of organizational leaders, stressing core
attributes such as intrinsic motivation, trust, respect and the positive development of
followers. More specifically, this style has four components, namely, idealized influence,
inspirational motivation, individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation (Bass,
1990). In particular, idealized influence encompasses behaviours that instil confidence, pride
580 and a sense of role model in followers. Next, inspirational motivation refers to
communicating a vision that increases optimism and enthusiasm. These two components
have been associated with followers’ personal commitment to change (Lo et al., 2010) and
top–down instigation of organizational learning (Lauer and Wilkesmann, 2017) in HEI.
Next, individualized consideration involves considering and identifying followers’ needs
and attending to them individually. This component has been affirmatively linked to
organizational climate on change-oriented organizational citizenship behaviour (Lopez-
Domínguez et al., 2013). Lastly, intellectual stimulation denotes encouraging a new
perspective at old methods/issues by encouraging creativity and reassessing assumptions
underlying problems. This component has been suggested to inspire followers to higher
levels of performance (Kirby et al., 1992).
Furthermore, this style has been affirmatively linked with a teacher’s professional
learning, motivation and psychological empowerment (Bin Bakr and Alfayez, 2021).
Additionally, this style has been associated with faculty organizational commitment and
organizational citizenship behaviours (Khan et al., 2021). This style has also been related to
employee well-being, job satisfaction and turnover intentions (Samad et al., 2021). In another
study, Al-Husseini and Elbeltagi (2016) have illustrated that this style had a significant
influence on innovation that further increased in goal-directed behaviours, organizational
change and a spirit of trust in the educational faculty. Needless to say, the affirmative
interactions and behaviours in educational institutions are perceived by students through
cognitive social-learning that helps transform their personalities (Mischel, 1973).
More specifically, this style has been demonstrated to significantly influence on student
engagement (Leithwood and Jantzi, 2000) and academic performance (Balwant et al., 2019).
Additionally, this style has been affirmatively linked with students’ motivation, satisfaction
and perceptions of instructor credibility, in addition to students’ affective and cognitive
learning (Balwant, 2016). Therefore, it can be understood that leaders adopting the TL style
have a considerable impact on organizational dynamics in HEI.

4. Convergence of leadership and socio-economic status

Past studies have indicated that the SES of student populations has considerable disparities
in the inclusive and equitable quality of education offered and sought (Morley et al., 2009;
Husain and Syed, 2012). SES, more specifically as per SIT, has been primarily related to
economic inequalities in societies that affect social behaviours and attitudes (Jetten et al.,
2017). In another study, Aries and Seider (2005) have highlighted the prevalence of
intimidation, uneasiness and exclusion amongst students of lower SES.
The financial differentiation experienced by such students is likely to increase the
students’ anxiety and depression, which can have adverse consequences on academic
performance or even lead to the discontinuity of higher education. This attribute is
significantly related to students’ psychological and social characteristics, including a
proclivity to study abroad (Salisbury et al., 2009) and participation in publicly funded HEI
(Chesters and Watson, 2013). Besides, because of socio-cultural factors, students with low
SES have been debated to have psychological barriers such as low emotional experiences,
motivation, identity management and low self-perception (Jury et al., 2017).
 Notably, highlighting Nelson Mandela’s recommendation that “Education is the most Educational
powerful weapon which you can use to change the world” (Canton and Garcia, 2018), this leadership
section analyses the impact of the convergence of SES of student populations and leadership
behaviours amidst the presence of A3C on organizational dynamics in higher education.
behaviours
We use SIT and SLT as a theoretical foundation for understanding intertwining factors
in HEI that impact student outcomes, such as pro-social behaviours, society-citizenship
behaviours and academic performance. Our study proposes that the convergence of
leadership and students’ SES constructs four groups with particular organizational 581
dynamics in HEI in each, as indicated in Table 1.

SES of student populations

High SES Low SES

(Privileged)

Students (Contestants)
Coaching, attention, feedback,
facilities, awareness, infrastructure, Students
identity Competitive environment, self-
Strong leadership

Faculty affirmation, ethical conduct

Team learning, group decision Faculty
making, organizational citizenship Individual focused independent
Leaders with EL and TL in higher education

behaviours, organizational decision making, ethics, values, goal-

commitment, innovation, trust,
professional acumen
Student outcomes
Affirmative effect of A3C, Pro-
social behaviours, visionary,
intelligent, satisfied, motivated,
competent, high performance and
learning outcomes
directed
Student outcomes
Ambitious, pro-social behaviours,
benevolent and moral behaviours;
considerable affirmative learning
outcomes

(Dependents)

Students (Deprived)
Convenient certifications as
measures of recognized education, Students
uncompetitive environment, Lack of coaching, attention,
Weak leadership

unethical practices facilities, awareness, and identity;

Faculty highly dependent
Prone to political influence and Faculty
exogenous circumstances; higher Resistance to organizational change
turnover; low job satisfaction, and innovation, frivolous activities,
commitment, and performance absenteeism Table 1.
Student outcomes Student outcomes Organizational
Negative effect of A3C, Low Poor performance, drop out, low behavioural
learning outcomes and competence; society-citizenship behaviours dynamics related to
dependent on external decision students and faculty
making; low on life satisfaction in HEI
SBR 4.1 Privileged
17,4 The first group denotes the behavioural dynamics of privileged student populations. These
have considerably higher SES and educational leaders with high leadership (EL and TL)
behaviours. In this, students can get apt coaching, individualized attention and crucial
feedback for their academic development. They are more conscious of current competitions,
preparedness expectations and educational policies. Additionally, they develop an academic
582 identity (Winter, 2009) in this phase of their life, which further helps them to develop a
professional identity.
The faculty develops affirmative mechanisms such as team learning, group decision-
making and innovation (Chen and Hou, 2016; Bai et al., 2019). These leaders have higher
performance attributes such as organizational citizenship behaviours, organizational
commitment (Walumbwa et al., 2004) and a spirit of trust (Al-Husseini and Elbeltagi, 2016).
Such a positive culture facilitates both developing professional acumen and significantly
impacts their students’ developing psychological and social aspects. Furthermore, the
students considerably have an affirmative effect of A3C. They develop pro-social
behaviours and become visionaries. Additionally, they become more satisfied, motivated,
competent and exhibit high performance and learning outcomes. Accordingly, the first
proposition asserts:

P1A. Students with high SES and guidance from educational leaders with high
leadership behaviours are likely to be privileged.
P1B. A3C is likely to have an affirmative effect on privileged students.

4.2 Contestants
The second group relates to the behavioural dynamics of contestant student populations.
These have considerably lower SES but educational leaders with high leadership (EL
and TL) behaviours. More specifically, students have a competitive environment for
students in this group. Leaders with considerably high EL and TL behaviours considerably
mould ethical and moral conduct (Toor and Ofori, 2009) and enhance self-affirmation
amongst the student populations. Moreover, the leaders display ethics and values (Gibbs
and Murphy, 2009) and have individual-focused independent decision-making mechanisms
to survive in a competitive culture.
Predominantly, these leaders attempt to reduce the biasing effect of socio-cultural factors
and remain goal-directed to achieve success. Consequently, students become ambitious in
their lives, which motivate them to work continuously harder. They develop higher pro-
social behaviours (Nejati and Shafaei, 2018), benevolence and morality (Coldwell et al., 2020).
Additionally, these students can achieve considerably more affirmative learning outcomes.
Accordingly, the second proposition asserts:

P2. Students with low SES and guidance from educational leaders with high leadership
behaviours are likely contestants.

4.3 Dependents
The third group relates to the behavioural dynamics of dependent student populations.
Dependents have considerably high SES, but their educational leaders have lower
leadership (EL and TL) behaviours. Brown and Treviño (2006) have highlighted that leaders
can become destructive, dangerous and even toxic in the absence of ethics. In particular,
students have the reluctance to adopt appropriate ethical practices. In an equitable Educational
competition, the students demonstrate a significant lack of resilience and hope. They leadership
perceive HEI as industries that offer convenient certification as quantitative educational
outcome measures.
behaviours
Further, educational leaders with low leadership behaviours cannot considerably offer
inspirational motivation, individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation to
students. Furthermore, they lack the capacity to make independent decisions on behalf of
the institution and are vulnerable to external political, academic capitalism (Jessop, 2017).
583
Such institutions, in particular, have higher faculty turnover and lower job satisfaction and
performance. Consequently, students suffer in the long term, with considerable adverse
effects from A3C. More directly, they have considerably lower learning outcomes and
competence. Additionally, they lack independent decision-making skills and have low life
satisfaction. Accordingly, the third proposition asserts:

P3A. Students with high SES and guidance from educational leaders with low
leadership behaviours are likely to be dependent.
P3B. A3C is likely to have a negative effect on dependent students.

4.4 Deprived
The last group in this convergence denotes thebehavioural dynamics of deprived student
populations. In this context, students belong to a lower SES (Maringe and Moletsane, 2015)
and have the guidance of leaders with considerably lower leadership (EL and TL)
behaviours. In this, students considerably lack individual attention, coaching and
motivation. Moreover, they lack a sense of identity and struggle hard to survive in the
educationally competitive environment. In particular, they do not get an opportunity to
access the proper educational upbringing. Additionally, they lack the presence of leaders
who can be their role models and ideals. Such circumstances make their behaviours highly
dependent on their faculty.
The faculty members in this group considerably display resistance to organizational
change and innovation and get involved in frivolous activities. Additionally, issues such as
absenteeism and indiscipline escalate in institutions (Shapira-Lishchinsky and Raftar-Ozery,
2018). Consequently, students’ morale, motivation and competency get severely hampered in
the long run. A few concerns, such as students’ poor performances and dropouts (Meijers
and Kuijpers, 2014), and a lack of development of good society-citizenship behaviours, have
been exhibited in this convergence group. Accordingly, the fourth proposition asserts:

P4. Students with low SES and guidance from educational leaders with low leadership
behaviours are likely to be deprived.

5. Leadership development strategies

Definitely, A3C, as well as several socio-cultural factors, play significant interleaving roles
in HEI. We observe that disproportionate opportunity has been given to low SES student
populations, especially when leaders have considerably lower EL and TL behaviours.
Therefore, attention and redress are essential to holistically attaining the UNSDG of
inclusive and equitable quality education. Our study recommends three plausible strategies
(Figure 1) and has been specifically aimed at educational leaders such as Deans, Principals,
Faculty and Administrators in HEI.
SBR
17,4

584

Figure 1.
Leadership
development
strategies

5.1 Training workshops on ethical and traditional leadership at premier higher educational
intituitions
Yen et al. (2019) have indicated the affirmative results of leadership workshops, primarily
focusing on equity, diversity and inclusion in higher education. Similarly, Marshall et al.
(2012) have highlighted that training in leadership behaviours may facilitate individual
faculty’s cognitive and behavioural strategies to improve performance. We recommend
conducting training workshops on EL and TL at government-funded HEI of national
excellence on the analogous line.
In this, emphasis is essential in understanding multiple perspectives of leadership.
Therefore, the training should consider mixed methodologies and multidisciplinary
approaches incorporating sociological, psychological and organisational perspectives.
Additionally, case studies, focused group discussions and situation reaction tests on several
topics such as EL, TL, A3C and social diversities can considerably help achieve desired
objectives. Additionally, the curriculum and methodology of these workshops can be
standardised and their outcomes can be evaluated.
This strategy has two main advantages. Firstly, these workshops offer both individual
and social learning as well as learning spaces that engage conversations and crucial
reflective exercises between the participants (Sense, 2005). Secondly, these workshops will
offer opportunities to diversified faculties to achieve enhanced performance outcomes
towards an equitable and inclusive education strategy.

5.2 External quality supervision and assessment mechanisms

The importance of robust and ethical external quality supervision and assessment
mechanisms in the face of the rapid proliferation of private players in HEI (Jessop, 2017) has
been underscored by the quality and relevance of educational curriculum and
methodologies. In this, leaders have a significant role in managing the quality of education Educational
(Osseo-Asare et al., 2007). leadership
Mainly, quality assessment of leaders for their leadership behaviours is necessary from
national, social, administrator, parental and student viewpoints. Considering this, we
behaviours
recommend establishing and continuously enforcing external, unbiased and ethical
mechanisms incorporating organizational behavioural experts to ensure leadership quality.
More specifically, assessment of organizational attributes from surveys, structured
interviews and focus group discussions with faculty and students may benefit policy 585
formulation on leadership development.
This strategy has two main advantages. Firstly, focusing on external quality assessment
of leadership will augment motivation, accountability and social identity in leaders as well
as have a force-multiplier outcome on institutional dynamics. Secondly, this strategy will
considerably enhance leadership behaviours and management development standardisation
by bringing crucial transformations in organizations. Especially considering SES
inequalities, this will also supplement ethical practices, checks and regulatory mechanisms
for reducing the ill influences of A3C.

5.3 Exercise of leadership muscle

Preston-Dayne (2013) has recommended that leaders need daily exercise and leadership
fitness challenge activities for leadership development and self-assessment. More directly,
the leadership behaviours required in HEI can be debated, scrutinized and remodelled
constantly. Leaders can use leadership research articles, presentations and videos amply
available in print and on the internet.
On these lines, we recommend that university management organize frequent faculty
meetings, seminars and conferences on leadership development themes. Especially
considering the impact of the convergence of leadership and SES, we recommend that this
strategy will have a considerable affirmative influence on dependent and deprived students.
This strategy has three main advantages. Firstly, the creation of intrinsic mechanisms
for leadership development will enhance organizational innovation. Secondly, it will
enhance the EL and TL behaviours of principals, deans, faculty and administrators. Thus,
this will enhance competitive culture through social learning amongst students. Thirdly,
adverse student outcomes such as poor performance, dropouts and lower citizenship
behaviours will be considerably reduced in the long run.

6. Conclusions
While the leadership theories have significantly discussed enhancing organizational
outcomes (Brown et al., 2005; Blewitt et al., 2018; Xia and Yang, 2020; Bin Bakr and Alfayez,
2021; Khan et al., 2021), very little has been conveyed to decrease the social concerns arising
out of A3C on student populations of low SES. Through SIT and SLT, we briefly discussed
the pertinent intertwining facets of EL, TL, A3C and SES in HEI. Further, we unequivocally
illustrated the convergence of organizational attributes and SES on student populations.
The propositions expounded in this study on the privileged, contestant, dependent and
deprived student populations, provide a starting point for future inquiry.
Our study furthers the dialogue on academic capitalism in higher education (Slaughter
and Leslie, 2001; Marginson, 2013; Taylor and Bicak, 2020; Page, 2020) with the elaborated
contextual framework of A3C and the necessity of higher EL and TL behaviours in HEI
(Lauer and Wilkesmann, 2017; Nejati and Shafaei, 2018; Hernandez Lopez et al., 2020; Bin
Bakr and Alfayez, 2021). Specially, educational leaders who exhibit high levels of EL and TL
behaviours can make significant contributions not only to the HEI but also to society
SBR (Mostovicz et al., 2009). This study is helpful for present-generation academia, leaders and
17,4 future researchers in leadership and education. Distinguishably, leadership development
strategies may considerably contribute to achieving the UNSDG of inclusive and equitable
quality education.

7. Limitations of the study and future research directions

586 The current study has reviewed the literature on TL and EL on the intersections between
A3C and SES in higher education. While not exclusively highlighting it, we have also
proposed a framework indicating underlying factors because of the convergence of
leadership behaviours and students’ SES. Furthermore, our study stressed three appropriate
leadership development strategies that can curtail the ill effects caused by the interleaving
of SES, A3C and low leadership behaviours.
Our review has three limitations. Firstly, the study was limited to Scopus-indexed
journals, especially concentrating on psychology, economics, management and
organizations only. Secondly, we observed a considerable lack of dialogue on themes of
quality management and strategies for leadership development in HEI. Thirdly, we found a
considerable focus on leadership studies for theory-building and empirical research and
have neglected the pragmatic insights and valuable lessons from educational leaders.
Despite these limitations, we consider that the theme has been poised for significant
advancements. For now, we offer three suggestions for future research studies.
Firstly, researchers may consider the research questions of this study. How does A3C
impact HEI? How does the convergence of leadership and SES impact student populations?
And, what are viable leadership development strategies? We strongly believe that all these
questions require attention in different contexts and regions. In particular, human resource
management theories and economic theories may add new perspectives to this discussion.
Secondly, we suggest empirical scrutiny and validation through cross-sectional studies
of our propositions on the impact of the convergence of leadership and SES. Especially, this
can strengthen propositions of this study and facilitate in interpreting the outcomes with
wider frameworks of social, organizational and business research in HEI.
Thirdly, the qualitative studies in this theme are essential to scrutinize relationships
between leadership and SES. In particular, narratives and case studies on leadership
approaches to handle A3C can move the debate forward considerably.

Statements and declarations

The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.
The authors did not receive financial assistance from any organization for the submitted
work.
The authors have no competing interests.
The authors have no financial interests.
The authors have no non-financial interests.
No humans and/or animals were involved in this study.
This study did not have any human participants. Hence, no informed consent was
obtained from any one.
This study did not use any software.
The article does not have any survey data.
The authors do have any employment interests.
The corresponding author has checked for English grammar and plagiarism through
Turnitin online service before finalization of the script. The corresponding author declares
the article to be original work of research study.
 The authors agree that if the manuscript is accepted it will be checked by journal’s Educational
copyeditors for spelling and formal style before publication. leadership
The institution of authors “Indian Institute of Management Shillong” was previously
recognized as “Rajiv Gandhi Indian Institute of Management Shillong” (RGIIM).
behaviours

Author contributions
All authors (Prashant Sunil Borde, Dr Ridhi Arora and Dr Sanjeeb Kakoty) have contributed 587
to the study conception and design. Literature review has been conducted by Prashant Sunil
Borde. Further, the analysis and proposition were performed by Prashant Sunil Borde and
Dr Ridhi Arora.
The first draft of the manuscript was written by Prashant Sunil Borde, and all authors
commented on previous versions of the manuscript.
Dr Ridhi Arora and Dr Sanjeeb Kakoty have supervised and critically revised the work.
All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest certificate

It is submitted that there are no conflict of interest with any person or any organization
regarding the publication of the article “Convergence of educational leadership behaviours
and socio-economic-status of students amidst academic capitalism, consumerism and
commodification” in the Society and Business Review journal.

References
Al-Husseini, S. and Elbeltagi, I. (2016), “Transformational leadership and innovation: a comparison
study between Iraq’s public and private higher education”, Studies in Higher Education, Vol. 41
No. 1, pp. 159-181, doi: 10.1080/03075079.2014.927848.
Aries, E. and Seider, M. (2005), “The interactive relationship between class identity and the college
experience: the case of lower income students”, Qualitative Sociology, Vol. 28 No. 4, pp. 419-443,
doi: 10.1007/s11133-005-8366-1.
Bai, Y., Lin, L. and Liu, J.T. (2019), “Leveraging the employee voice: a multi-level social learning
perspective of ethical leadership”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management,
Vol. 30 No. 12, pp. 1869-1901, doi: 10.1080/09585192.2017.1308414.
Balwant, P.T. (2016), “Transformational instructor-leadership in higher education teaching: a meta-
analytic review and research agenda”, Journal of Leadership Studies, Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 20-42, doi:
10.1002/jls.21423.
Balwant, P.T., Birdi, K., Stephan, U. and Topakas, A. (2019), “Transformational instructor-leadership
and academic performance: a moderated mediation model of student engagement and structural
distance”, Journal of Further and Higher Education, Vol. 43 No. 7, pp. 884-900, doi: 10.1080/
0309877X.2017.1420149.
Bass, B.M. (1990), “From transactional to transformational leadership: learning to share the vision”,
Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 19-31, doi: 10.1016/0090-2616(90)90061-s.
Bhana, A. and Bayat, M.S. (2020), “The relationship between ethical leadership styles and employees
effective work practices”, International Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 128-137,
doi: 10.5430/ijhe.v9n4p128.
Bin Bakr, M. and Alfayez, A. (2021), “Transformational leadership and the psychological
empowerment of female leaders in Saudi higher education: an empirical study”, Higher
Education Research and Development, doi: 10.1080/07294360.2021.1969538.
Blackmar, F.W. (1911), “Leadership in reform”, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 16 No. 5,
pp. 626-644.
SBR Blewitt, J.C., Blewitt, J.M. and Ryan, J. (2018), “Business forums pave the way to ethical decision making:
the mediating role of self-efficacy and awareness of a value-based educational institution”, Journal
17,4 of Business Ethics, Vol. 149 No. 1, pp. 235-244, doi: 10.1007/s10551-016-3103-0.
Brancaleone, D. and O’Brien, S. (2011), “Educational commodification and the (economic) sign value of
learning outcomes”, British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 32 No. 4, pp. 501-519, doi:
10.1080/01425692.2011.578435.
588 Brown, M.E. and Treviño, L.K. (2006), “Ethical leadership: a review and future directions”, The
Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 17 No. 6, pp. 595-616, doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004.
Brown, M.E., Treviño, L.K. and Harrison, D.A. (2005), “Ethical leadership: a social learning perspective
for construct development and testing”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,
Vol. 97 No. 2, pp. 117-134, doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.03.002.
Canton, A. and Garcia, B.I. (2018), “Global citizenship education”, New Directions for Student
Leadership, Vol. 2018 No. 160, pp. 21-30.
Chen, A.S.-Y. and Hou, Y.-H. (2016), “The effects of ethical leadership, voice behaviour and climates for
innovation on creativity: a moderated mediation examination”, The Leadership Quarterly,
Vol. 27 No. 1, pp. 1-13, doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.10.007.
Chesters, J. and Watson, L. (2013), “Understanding the persistence of inequality in higher education:
evidence from Australia”, Journal of Education Policy, Vol. 28 No. 2, pp. 198-215, doi: 10.1080/
02680939.2012.694481.
Coldwell, D.A., Venter, R. and Nkomo, E. (2020), “Developing ethical managers for future business
roles: a qualitative study of the efficacy of stand-alone and ‘embedded’ university ‘ethics’
courses”, Journal of International Education in Business, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 145-162, doi: 10.1108/
JIEB-08-2019-0040.
Cuellar, C. and Giles, D.L. (2012), “Ethical practice: a study of Chilean school leaders”, Journal
of Educational Administration, Vol. 50 No. 4, pp. 420-436, doi: 10.1108/0957823
1211238576.
Cunningham, J. (2016), “Production of consumer spaces in the university”, Journal of Marketing for
Higher Education, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 199-213, doi: 10.1080/08841241.2016.1238023.
De Hoogh, A.H.B. and Den Hartog, D.N. (2008), “Ethical and despotic leadership, relationships with
leader’s social responsibility, top management team effectiveness and subordinates’ optimism:
a multi-method study”, The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 297-311, doi: 10.1016/j.
leaqua.2008.03.002.
Dinc, M.S. (2018), “Direct and indirect effect of ethical leadership on employee behaviours in higher
education”, International Journal of Management in Education, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 201-222, doi:
10.1504/IJMIE.2018.092853.
Dvir, T., Eden, D., Avolio, B.J. and Shamir, B. (2002), “Impact of transformational leadership on follower
development and performance: a field experiment”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 45
No. 4, pp. 735-744, doi: 10.5465/3069307.
Eva, N., Newman, A., Zhou, A.J. and Zhou, S.S. (2020), “The relationship between ethical leadership and
employees’ internal and external community citizenship behaviours: the mediating role of
prosocial motivation”, Personnel Review, Vol. 49 No. 2, pp. 636-652.
Fletcher, J., Bernard, C., Fairtlough, A. and Ahmet, A. (2015), “Beyond equal access to equal outcomes:
the role of the institutional culture in promoting full participation, positive inter-group
interaction and timely progression for minority social work students”, British Journal of Social
Work, Vol. 45 No. 1, pp. 120-137, doi: 10.1093/bjsw/bct081.
Ghazal Aswad, N., Vidican, G. and Samulewicz, D. (2011), “Assessing the impact of socio-economic
inequities on college enrolment: emerging differences in the United Arab Emirates”, Journal of
Higher Education Policy and Management, Vol. 33 No. 5, pp. 459-471, doi: 10.1080/
1360080X.2011.605221.
Gibbs, P. and Murphy, P. (2009), “Implementation of ethical higher education marketing”, Tertiary Educational
Education and Management, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 341-354, doi: 10.1093/bjsw/bct081.
leadership
Groves, K.S. and LaRocca, M.A. (2011), “An empirical study of leader ethical values, transformational
and transactional leadership and follower attitudes toward corporate social responsibility”,
behaviours
Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 103 No. 4, pp. 511-528.
Gumport, P.J. (2000), “Academic restructuring: organizational change and institutional imperatives”,
Higher Education, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 67-91, doi: 10.1023/a:1003859026301.
Hermanowicz, J.C. (2016), “Universities, academic careers and the valorization of ‘shiny things’”, The
589
University under Pressure, Emerald Group Publishing, Bingley.
Hernandez Lopez, L.E., Álamo, V., Francisca, R., Ballesteros, R., José, L. and De Saa-Pérez, P. (2020),
“Socialization of business students in ethical issues: the role of individuals’ attitude and
institutional factors”, International Journal of Management Education, Vol. 18 No. 1, p. 100363,
doi: 10.1016/j.ijme.2020.100363.
Husain, S.A. and Syed, S.H. (2012), “Perception of education quality in private universities of
Bangladesh: a study from students’ perspective”, Journal of Marketing for Higher Education,
Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 11-33, doi: 10.1080/08841241.2012.705792.
James-MacEachern, M. (2018), “A comparative study of international recruitment’ tensions and
opportunities in institutional recruitment practice”, Journal of Marketing for Higher Education,
Vol. 28 No. 2, pp. 247-265, doi: 10.1080/08841241.2018.1471014.
Jessop, B. (2017), “Varieties of academic capitalism and entrepreneurial universities: on past research
and three thought experiments”, Higher Education, Vol. 73 No. 6, pp. 853-870, doi: 10.1007/
s10734-017-0120-6.
Jessop, B. (2018), “On academic capitalism”, Critical Policy Studies, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 104-109, doi:
10.1080/19460171.2017.1403342.
Jetten, J., Wang, Z., Steffens, N.K., Mols, F., Peters, K. and Verkuyten, M. (2017), “A social identity
analysis of responses to economic inequality”, Current Opinion in Psychology, Vol. 18, pp. 1-5,
doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.05.011.
Jones, R.J. and Andrews, H. (2019), “Understanding the rise of faculty–student coaching: an academic
capitalism perspective”, Academy of Management Learning and Education, Vol. 18 No. 4,
pp. 606-625, doi: 10.5465/amle.2017.0200.
Jury, M., Smeding, A., Stephens, N.M., Nelson, J.E., Aelenei, C. and Darnon, C. (2017), “The experience of
Low-SES students in higher education: psychological barriers to success and interventions to
reduce social-class inequality”, Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 73 No. 1, pp. 23-41, doi: 10.1111/
josi.12202.
Kauppinen, I. (2012), “Towards transnational academic capitalism”, Higher Education, Vol. 64 No. 4,
pp. 543-556, doi: 10.1007/s10734-012-9511-x.
Kezar, A. and Bernstein-Sierra, S. (2016), “Commercialization of higher education”, in Bretag, T. (Ed.),
Handbook of Academic Integrity, Springer, Singapore.
Khan, S.K., Memon, M.A., Cheing, A. and Ting, H. (2021), “Organizational citizenship behaviour and the
mediating role of organizational commitment: a study of private universities”, International
Journal of Business and Society, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 14-32, doi: 10.33736/ijbs.3160.2021.
Kirby, P.C., Paradise, L.V. and King, M.I. (1992), “Extraordinary leaders in education:
understanding transformational leadership”, The Journal of Educational Research,
Vol. 85 No. 5, pp. 303-311.
Knight, P.T. and Trowler, P.R. (2000), “Department-level cultures and the improvement of learning and
teaching”, Studies in Higher Education, Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 69-83, doi: 10.1080/030750700116028.
Lauer, S. and Wilkesmann, U. (2017), “The governance of organizational learning: empirical evidence
from best-practice universities in Germany”, The Learning Organization, Vol. 24 No. 5,
pp. 266-277.
SBR Lee, M.H. (2002), “A tale of two cities: comparing higher education policies and reforms in Hong Kong
and Singapore”, Australian Journal of Education, Vol. 46 No. 3, pp. 255-286, doi: 10.1177/
17,4 000494410204600303.
Leithwood, K. and Jantzi, D. (2000), “The effects of transformational leadership on organizational
conditions and student engagement with school”, Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 38
No. 2, pp. 112-129, doi: 10.1108/09578230010320064.
Lo, M.-C., Ramayah, T. and De Run, E.C. (2010), “Does transformational leadership style foster
590 commitment to change? The case of higher education in Malaysia”, Procedia – Social and
Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 5384-5388.
Lopez-Domínguez, M., Enache, M., Sallan, J.M. and Simo, P. (2013), “Transformational leadership as an
antecedent of change-oriented organizational citizenship behaviour”, Journal of Business
Research, Vol. 66 No. 10, pp. 2147-2152.
Luzmore, R. and Brown, C. (2021), “Self-Interest and altruism: how English school leaders navigate
moral imperatives in a high stakes culture”, Educational Governance Research, Vol. 16,
pp. 141-154.
McClure, K.R. (2016), “Building the innovative and entrepreneurial university: an institutional case
study of administrative academic capitalism”, The Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 87 No. 4,
pp. 516-543, doi: 10.1353/jhe.2016.0023.
Marginson, S. (2013), “The impossibility of capitalist markets in higher education”, Journal of
Education Policy, Vol. 28 No. 3, pp. 353-370, doi: 10.1080/02680939.2012.747109.
Marginson, S. and Rhoades, G. (2002), “Beyond national states, markets and systems of higher
education: a glonacal agency heuristic”, Higher Education, Vol. 43 No. 3, pp. 281-309, doi:
10.1023/a:1014699605875.
Maringe, F. and Moletsane, R. (2015), “Leading schools in circumstances of multiple deprivation in
South Africa: mapping some conceptual, contextual and research dimensions”, Educational
Management Administration and Leadership, Vol. 43 No. 3, pp. 347-362, doi: 10.1177/
1741143215575533.
Marshall, G., Kiffin-Petersen, S. and Soutar, G. (2012), “The influence personality and leader behaviours
have on teacher self-leadership in vocational colleges”, Educational Management
Administration and Leadership, Vol. 40 No. 6, pp. 707-723, doi: 10.1177/1741143212456910.
Meijers, F. and Kuijpers, M. (2014), “Career learning and career learning environment in Dutch higher
education”, Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 295-313, doi:
10.1108/jarhe-06-2013-0025.
Mischel, W. (1973), “Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality”,
Psychological Review, Vol. 80 No. 4, pp. 252-283, doi: 10.1037/h0035002.
Morley, L., Leach, F. and Lugg, R. (2009), “Democratising higher education in Ghana and Tanzania:
opportunity structures and social inequalities”, International Journal of Educational
Development, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 56-64, doi: 10.1016/j.ijedudev.2008.05.001.
Mostovicz, E.I., Nada, K.K. and Kakabadse, A. (2009), “Is an ethical society possible?”, Society and
Business Review, Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 246-264, doi: 10.1108/17465680910994236.
Naidoo, R. and Jamieson, I. (2005), “Empowering participants or corroding learning? Towards a
research agenda on the impact of student consumerism in higher education”, Journal of
Education Policy, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 267-281, doi: 10.1080/02680930500108585.
Nejati, M. and Shafaei, A. (2018), “Leading by example: the influence of ethical supervision on
students’ prosocial behaviour”, Higher Education, Vol. 75 No. 1, pp. 75-89, doi: 10.1007/
s10734-017-0130-4.
Nejati, M., Brown, M.E., Shafaei, A. and Seet, P.-S. (2021), “Employees’ perceptions of corporate social
responsibility and ethical leadership: are they uniquely related to turnover intention?”, Social
Responsibility Journal, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 181-197.
Noonan, J. (2015), “Thought-time, money-time and the temporal conditions of academic freedom”, Time Educational
and Society, Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 109-128, doi: 10.1177/0961463X14539579.
leadership
Olssen, M. and Peters, M.A. (2005), “Neoliberalism, higher education and the knowledge economy: from
the free market to knowledge capitalism”, Journal of Education Policy, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 313-345,
behaviours
doi: 10.1080/02680930500108718.
Óskarsdottir, E., Donnelly, V., Turner-Cmuchal, M. and Florian, L. (2020), “Inclusive school leaders –
their role in raising the achievement of all learners”, Journal of Educational Administration,
Vol. 58 No. 5, pp. 521-537. 591
Osseo-Asare, A.E., Longbottom, D. and Chourides, P. (2007), “Managerial leadership for total quality
improvement in UK higher education”, The TQM Magazine, Vol. 19 No. 6, pp. 541-560, doi:
10.1108/09544780710828403.
Page, D. (2020), “The academic as consumed and consumer”, Journal of Education Policy, Vol. 35 No. 5,
pp. 585-601, doi: 10.1080/02680939.2019.1598585.
Pais, A. and Costa, M. (2017), “An ideology critique of global citizenship education”, Critical Studies in
Education, Vol. 61 No. 1, pp. 1-16, doi: 10.1080/17508487.2017.1318772.
Pillai, R. and Williams, E.A. (2004), “Transformational leadership, self-efficacy, group cohesiveness,
commitment and performance”, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 17 No. 2,
pp. 144-159, doi: 10.1108/09534810410530584.
Poff, D.C. (2010), “Ethical leadership and global citizenship: considerations for a just and sustainable
future”, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 93 No. S1, pp. 9-14, doi: 10.1007/s10551-010-0623-x.
Poon-McBrayer, K.F. (2017), “School leaders’ dilemmas and measures to instigate changes for inclusive
education in Hong Kong”, Journal of Educational Change, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 295-309.
Preston-Dayne, L.A. (2013), “Leadership fitness challenge: daily exercise of the leadership muscle”, in
McCauley (Ed.), Experience-Driven Leader Development: Models, Tools, Best Practices and
Advice for on-the-Job Development, 1st ed., John Wiley and Sons, San Francisco, CA.
Rosinger, K.O., Taylor, B.J., Coco, L. and Slaughter, S. (2016), “Organizational segmentation and the
prestige economy: deprofessionalization in high and low-resource departments”, The Journal of
Higher Education, Vol. 87 No. 1, pp. 27-54, doi: 10.1353/jhe.2016.0000.
Sadiq, M.S., Rajadurai, J. and Azlin, A.R.N. (2003), “Managing quality in higher education: a Malaysian
case study”, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 17 No. 4, pp. 141-146, doi:
10.1108/09513540310474365.
Salisbury, M.H., Umbach, P.D., Paulsen, M.B. and Pascarella, E.T. (2009), “Going global: understanding
the choice process of the intent to study abroad”, Research in Higher Education, Vol. 50 No. 2,
pp. 119-143, doi: 10.1007/s11162-008-9111-x.
Samad, A., Muchiri, M. and Shahid, S. (2021), “Investigating leadership and employee well-being in
higher education”, Personnel Review, Vol. 51 No. 1, pp. 57-76, doi: 10.1108/PR-05-2020-0340.
Schapper, J.M. and Mayson, S.E. (2004), “Internationalisation of curricula: an alternative to the
Taylorisation of academic work”, Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, Vol. 26
No. 2, pp. 189-205, doi: 10.1080/1360080042000218258.
SDG Report (2020), “The sustainable development goals report 2020 United Nations”, available at:
https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2020/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2020.
pdf (accessed 2 February 2022).
Sense, A.J. (2005), “Facilitating conversational learning in a project team practice”, Journal of Workplace
Learning, Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 178-193, doi: 10.1108/13665620510588699.
Shapira-Lishchinsky, O. and Raftar-Ozery, T. (2018), “Leadership, absenteeism acceptance and
ethical climate as predictors of teachers’ absence and citizenship behaviours”, Educational
Management Administration and Leadership, Vol. 46 No. 3, pp. 491-510, doi: 10.1177/
1741143216665841.
SBR Sigahi, T.F.A.C. and Saltorato, P. (2020), “Academic capitalism: distinguishing without disjoining
through classification schemes”, Higher Education, Vol. 80 No. 1, pp. 95-117, doi: 10.1007/s10734-
17,4 019-00467-4.
Slaughter, S. and Leslie, L.L. (2001), “Expanding and elaborating the concept of academic capitalism”,
Organization, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 154-161, doi: 10.1177/1350508401082003.
Stuart, M., Lido, C., Morgan, J., Solomon, L. and May, S. (2011), “The impact of engagement with
extracurricular activities on the student experience and graduate outcomes for widening
592 participation populations”, Active Learning in Higher Education, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 203-215, doi:
10.1177/1469787411415081.
Tajfel, H. (1974), “Social identity and intergroup behaviour”, Social Science Information, Vol. 13 No. 2,
pp. 65-93, doi: 10.1177/053901847401300204.
Taylor, Z.W. and Bicak, I. (2020), “Buying search, buying students: how elite US institutions employ
paid search to practice academic capitalism online”, Journal of Marketing for Higher Education,
Vol. 30 No. 2, pp. 271-296, doi: 10.1080/08841241.2020.1731910.
Tirronen, J. and Nokkala, T. (2009), “Structural development of Finnish universities: achieving
competitiveness and academic excellence”, Higher Education Quarterly, Vol. 63 No. 3,
pp. 219-236, doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2273.2009.00425.x.
Toor, S.-R. and Ofori, G. (2009), “Ethical leadership: examining the relationships with full range
leadership model, employee outcomes and organizational culture”, Journal of Business Ethics,
Vol. 90 No. 4, pp. 533-547, doi: 10.1007/s10551-009-0059-3.
Walumbwa, F.O., Hartnell, C.A. and Misati, E. (2017), “Does ethical leadership enhance group learning
behaviour? Examining the mediating influence of group ethical conduct, justice climate and peer
justice”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 72, pp. 14-23.
Walumbwa, F.O., Wang, P., Lawler, J.J. and Shi, K. (2004), “The role of collective efficacy in the relations
between transformational leadership and work outcomes”, Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, Vol. 77 No. 4, pp. 515-530, doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.11.013.
Webster, G. (2003), “Corporate discourse and the academy: a polemic”, Industry and Higher Education,
Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 85-90.
Wheaton, A. (2020), “Shift happens; moving from the Ivory tower to the mushroom factory”, Higher
Education Research and Development, Vol. 39 No. 1, pp. 67-80, doi: 10.1080/
07294360.2019.1670145.
Wildavsky, B. (2012), The Great Brain Race: How Global Universities Are Reshaping the World,
Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
Williamson, B. (2021), “Making markets through digital platforms: Pearson, edu-business and the (e)
valuation of higher education”, Critical Studies in Education, Vol. 62 No. 1, pp. 50-66, doi:
10.1080/17508487.2020.1737556.
Willmott, H. (1995), “Managing the academics: commodification and control in the development of
university education in the UK”, Human Relations, Vol. 48 No. 9, pp. 993-1027, doi: 10.1177/
001872679504800902.
Winter, R. (2009), “Academic manager or managed academic? Academic identity schisms in higher
education”, Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 121-131, doi:
10.1080/13600800902825835.
Xia, Z. and Yang, F. (2020), “Ethical leadership and knowledge sharing: the impacts of prosocial
motivation and two facets of conscientiousness”, Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 11, p. 3068, doi:
10.3389/fpsyg.2020.581236, Art. 581236.
Yen, J., Riskin, E.A., Margherio, C., Spyridakis, J.H., Carrigan, C.M. and Cauce, A.M. (2019), “Promoting
gender diversity in STEM faculty through leadership development: from local and national
leadership workshops to the online LEAD-it-Yourself! toolkit”, Equality, Diversity and Inclusion:
An International Journal, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 382-398, doi: 10.1108/EDI-09-2017-0181.
Zhu, W., Avolio, B.J. and Walumbwa, F.O. (2009), “Moderating role of follower characteristics with Educational
transformational leadership and follower work engagement”, Group and Organization
Management, Vol. 34 No. 5, pp. 590-619, doi: 10.1177/1059601108331242. leadership
Zsolt, B. and Zsolnai, L. (2016), “The failure of business ethics”, Society and Business Review, Vol. 11 behaviours
No. 1, pp. 93-104, doi: 10.1108/SBR-11-2015-0066.

About the authors

Prashant Sunil Borde is pursuing PhD in Organizational Behaviour and Human Resources (OB and 593
HR) from Indian Institute of Management Shillong. He has done Bachelors of Technology, Master of
Political Science and Master of Personnel Management. He has attended EURAM Conference 2021
and has published several articles in Indian Journals. He has 19 years of experience in public sector
organizations and educational institutions. His research interests include social studies, international
relations, security studies, agricultural studies, electrical engineering, leadership, education and
health care. Prashant Sunil Borde is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: psb.
phdwp19@iimshillong.ac.in
Sanjeeb Kakoty is a faculty in the area of Sustainability and Liberal Studies at the Indian Institute
of Management Shillong. He is a teacher, writer and a documentary film maker. He has studied
history, management and sustainable development. He has several publications in the field of social
studies, sustainable studies, education, organization behaviour and leadership. His latest book
entitled Science, Technology and Social Formation in Medieval Assam was published by Cambridge
in 2012. He has publications in many leading international research journals listed in ABDC, ABS
and Scopus.
Ridhi Arora is a faculty in the area of Organizational Behaviour and Human Resources (OB and
HR) at the Indian Institute of Management Shillong. She earned her doctorate degree (PhD) in
Management (OB/HRM) from the Department of Management Studies at the Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, India. Her research interests include personality dynamics, mentoring and
career relationships, organizational design and restructuring and entrepreneurship. She has
publications in many leading international research journals listed in Scopus, SSCI, ABDC and ABS
etc. to her credit along with several edited and co-authored chapters in management books.

For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website:
www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm
Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com