EXPERIMENT # 16

16.1 Objective:
To determine the longitudinal and hoop stress experimentally using THIN WALLED CYLINDER
APPARATUS for open end and closed end case.

16.2 Apparatus:
Thin Walled cylinder apparatus

The apparatus consists of a thin-walled aluminum cylinder, held in a robust frame. The frame
holds the cylinder so that it is free to move along its axis. The cylinder contains oil. To stress the
cylinder, students use the hydraulic hand - pump to pressurize the oil. Strain gauges on the
cylinder surface measure strain, while a gauge and electronic sensor measure hydraulic
pressure.

Students can measure strains with the cylinder in two end conditions':

 Open end: the cylinder has no axial load, so there is no direct axial stress.

Or

• Closed end: the cylinder has axial loads, so there is direct axial stress.

Students use a hand - wheel on the frame to set these end conditions.

16.3 Theory:
In relation to stress analysis, cylinders are divided into two groups: thick and thin. The distinction
between the two relates to the ratio of internal diameter to wall thickness of a particular cylinder. A
cylinder with a diameter to thickness ratio of more than 20 is considered to be thin. A ratio of less than
20 is considered to be thick. This distinction is made as the analysis of a cylinder can be simplified by
assuming it is thin. The apparatus cylinder has a ratio of approximately 27, which is well above the ratio
for being considered thin.

The cylinders or shells are commonplace in engineering. Examples of thin walled cylinders are:

 Pressure pipes
 Aircraft fuselages and
 Compressed gas containers
Thick walled cylinders are less common, an example being a gun barrel.
For a closed cylinder with an internal pressure there can be three direct stresses acting upon it.

 Longitudinal stress – the cylinders resistance to stretching along its length (axis).
 Hoop or Circumferential stress – the cylinders resistance to grow in diameter.
 Radial stress – gas or fluid compressing the walls of the cylinder. It is equal to the pressure on
the inside and zero on the cylinder. However the radial stress is related to the pressure alone.
The longitudinal stress and hoop stresses are directly proportional to the pressure and the ratio of
diameter to thickness of the cylinder. However the radial stress is related to the pressure alone.

Because of their relationship to the geometry, the Longitudinal and Hoop stresses are far greater and
more significant than the radial stress in a thin cylinder. It is reasonable and recognized to assume that
the radial stress is small enough for it to be ignored for basic calculations.

Stresses in a thin walled cylinder

The individual direct stresses are given by:

σH = pd/2t and,

σL = pd/4t

where:

σH = Hoop Stress (Nm-2)

σL = Longitudinal Stress (Nm-2)

p = Pressure in the cylinder (Nm-2)

d = Diameter of the cylinder (m)

t = Thickness of cylinder walls (m)

Nearly all applications of the thin cylinder will have closed ends with the biaxial stress system described
previously. However as outlined in the introduction, the equipment allows us to examine the stresses in
the cylinder with open ends i.e. with no direct longitudinal stress. Although there are no practical
applications for a cylinder in this condition, the experiment yields several useful relationships. We can
use these relationships in the more complex closed ends condition.
THE STRAIN DISPLAY

The Digital Display

Above figure shows the main parts of the Strain Display.

The Strain Display is a box with display, controls and input sockets. The input sockets accept the signals
from the strain gauges on the three different systems of the Strain Gauge Trainer. The multiline display
shows the output voltage measured across the strain bridge.

You set the Strain Display to match your chosen strain gauge connections and their gauge factor.
Supplied with the equipment are special plugs with built-in high precision dummy resistors, for use
when you only measure one or two active arms (gauges).

Bridge Connections to the Digital Strain Display

The Strain Display has four sockets for you to connect to the strain gauges. Following figure gives the
basic circuit.

Output

Fixed
input Voltage
 Basic Circuit of the Strain Display

The Quarter Bridge Connection

Quarter Bridge Connection – One Active Strain Gauge

When a single strain gauge replaces one of the resistors, the output voltage V o is proportional to the
strain in the gauge. This is the Quarter Bridge. When all resistors are equal, the output potential
difference is zero. As the strain gauge resistance increases (tensile strain), the output potential
difference becomes more positive. As the strain gauge resistance decreases (compressive strain), the
output potential difference becomes more negative.

Note that resistors R2, R3 and R4 are ‘dummy’ or ‘make-up’ resistors, matched to have exactly the same
resistance as the unstressed strain gauge. This is a simple circuit and has no temperature compensation.
The output from the bridge is not perfectly linear, but for normal resistance changes, the output is
assumed to be linear.

Strain Bridge Equation

To calculate the strain from the dc voltage across the bridge, the Strain Display uses a standard
equation:

ε = 4 x Vo / Gain of Amplifier

GF x Vi x N

where

ε = Strain
Vo = Voltage measured across the bridge (V)

GF = Gauge Factor

Vi = Fixed Input Voltage applied to the bridge (V)

N = number of active arms (gauge connected)

Gain of amplifier is 500. If it is not, then use the zero and span adjustment knobs to set it to 500.

Gain of amplifier = Output

Input

Gain of amplifier = Voltage at voltmeter signal

Voltage at bridge signal

A Typical Quarter Bridge Connection

Typical Quarter Bridge Connection

To help you work out how to connect the gauges to the Strain Display, Figure above shows a typical
quarter bridge connection. A single strain gauge connects to one socket. Three dummy plugs fit into the
other three sockets. There is only one active arm (gauge) so you must set the configuration (ACT) to 1.

Note: The Strain display will not work correctly unless all its sockets have either a strain gauge or dummy
plug fitted.

Temperature Stability

A strain gauge is a resistor. It warms up slightly when you connect it as part of an electrical circuit. Its
resistance changes slightly as it warms up. This makes the readings in correct until it’s temperature
stabilizes. Always allow at least one minute for the gauges on this equipment to warm up before you
take their readings.

16.4 Procedure
STEPS TO FOLLOW FOR CLOSED END CASE:

1. Adjust the screw so that it does not touch the piston of the cylinder.
2. Find out the amplification factor of the Wheatstone bridge circuit.
3. Connect the Wheatstone bridge circuit and find out the INITIAL amplified bridge voltage
with no load condition.
4. Pump the air into the cylinder until its pressure rises up to 30 bar.
5. Again read the FINAL amplified bridge voltage.
6. Find out the difference in amplified voltage (FINAL amplified voltage– INITIAL amplified
voltage) and divide the result by amplification factor to obtain actual bridge difference
voltage.
7. Use the formula to calculate the strain in the direction of the strain gauge.
8. Find out the strain at 0 degree and 90 degree which correspond to longitudinal strain
and circumferential strain respectively.
9. Calculate the longitudinal stress and hoop stress using stress to strain calculation
formulas.
10. Compute the longitudinal and hoop stress using theoretical formulas.
11. Calculate the percentage error for both cases.
STEPS TO FOLLOW FOR OPEN END CASE:

1. Adjust the screw so that it touches the piston of the cylinder.

2. Find out the amplification factor of the Wheatstone bridge circuit.
3. Connect the Wheatstone bridge circuit and find out the INITIAL amplified bridge voltage
with no load condition.
4. Pump the air into the cylinder until its pressure rises up to 30 bar.
5. Again read the FINAL amplified bridge voltage.
6. Find out the difference in amplified voltage (FINAL amplified voltage– INITIAL amplified
voltage) and divide the result by amplification factor to obtain actual bridge difference
voltage.
7. Use the formula to calculate the strain in the direction of the strain gauge.
8. Find out the strain at 0 degree and 90 degree which correspond to longitudinal strain
and circumferential strain respectively.
9. Calculate the longitudinal stress and hoop stress using stress to strain calculation
formulas.
10. Compute the longitudinal and hoop stress using theoretical formulas.
11. Calculate the percentage error for both cases.
16.5 Observation and calculations
Theoretical Values
 For open end condition
Longitudnal
stress(N/m2 Hoop Longitudnal Hoop
2
Pressure(N/m ) t(m) d(m) ) stress(N/m2) strain strain Υ E(pa)

For close end condition

Longitudnal
stress(N/m2 Hoop Longitudnal Hoop
2
Pressure(N/m ) t(m) d(m) ) stress(N/m2) strain strain Υ E(pa)
16.6 Result and Conclusions :
16.7 Applications