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Aquifer Characteristics, Long Term Groundwater Level Trend and

Hydrochemistry in the Central Indian Groundwater Province: An Overview of
the Chhattisgarh State

Article · September 2021

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 Aquifer Characteristics, Long Term Groundwater Level Trend and
Hydrochemistry in the Central Indian Groundwater Province: An Overview of
the Chhattisgarh State
Anadi Gayen1

Abstract
The state of Chhattisgarh is characterized by typical physiographical features include plain land, hilly areas and plateau regions.
The state is comprised of sub-surface geological formations of diverse natures and is belonging to the geological age of range in
between Azoic to Quaternary. The Archaean crystalline rock consists of granites and gneisses forming the major litho-unit of the
region. Groundwater occurs under unconfined to semi-confined conditions in this central Indian state. The crystalline formations
present throughout the state and covers around 58% of Chhattisgarh except the Janjgir-Champa area. Remaining 27% and 13 %
areas of the state are underlain by geological formations belonging to the Chhattisgarh Group of rocks and the semi-consolidated
Gondwana Supergroup of rocks respectively. Rest only 2 % area of Chhattisgarh is covered by the geological formations like
Deccan Trap, Lameta Beds, Laterite and River Alluvium. The main repository for groundwater within the crystalline rocks is
constituted by the weathered formation and fractures. Monitoring of groundwater abstraction structures like dug well, bore well
and piezometers depicting two different scenarios of phreatic and deeper aquifer systems including the long term water table
trend and hydrochemical perspectives of the state. The entire state may be classified by the three groundwater zones maintains
different hydrochemical characters. The shallow zone of Chhattisgarh performs as an active groundwater flushing layer through
relatively well-leached rocks having HCO3– as the dominant anion and is low in total dissolved solids. The intermediate sub-surface
zone is characterized by less active groundwater circulation layer and is represented by the sulphate (SO4-) as dominant anion. The
lower zone shows very little groundwater flushing having high Cl- concentration and high total dissolved solids contents. The HCO3-
content in groundwater is normally derived from CO2 in the soil layer and also by the process of dissolution of calcite and dolomite
minerals. Demand and supply side management would be appreciable steps towards achieving a sustainable development goals
for various uses of groundwater resources.
Keywords: Aquifer, Physiography, Monitoring, Groundwater Chemistry, Sustainability

1.0 Introduction that the Bastar craton within the Chhattisgarh

basin has preserved the Chhattisgarh Supergroup
Water plays a pivotal role for the livelihood of living
of huge thickness (Approx. 2200-2500 meter) in
beings. The Chhattisgarh basin has preserved the
pristine form. Study reveals that major part of the
rocks that undergone in the different degrees of
Chhattisgarh Supergroup was deposited during the
tectonic phenomenon include metamorphism and
period of 1400 to 1000 Ma (M.E. Bickford et. al,
deformation. The depositional history indicates
2011).
1
Scientist-D (Senior Hydrogeologist), Rajiv Gandhi National Groundwater Training and Research Institute, Central Groundwater
Board, Ministry of Jal Shakti, Naya Raipur, Chhattisgarh. Email: anadigayen1968@gmail.com

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 Indian Ground Water, Vol. XVII, July, 2021

The state of Chhattisgarh has promoted its status Chhattisgarh is the tribal dominated state as
from agricultural to industrial civilization. Hence, around 65.90% of the population is belonging to
the demand of water for various uses has been the tribal community. The northern part of
enhanced at accelerated rate. The Government of Rajnandgaon district and southern part of the
Chhattisgarh established an exclusive water state are hilly area, whereas the central portion of
resource department for monitoring the water Chhattisgarh is plain land.
level and water quality, since the paradigm of
water uses started shifting from surface to
groundwater. The depleted groundwater level the
resultant effect of climate change and excess use
of aquifers. The decadal (2009-2018) groundwater
level trend of the state within the phreatic aquifer
system depicts the depleting behavior of
groundwater regime during both the pre - and
post-monsoon periods (CGWB, 2019).
The groundwater of Ambagarh Chowki block in
Rajnandgaon district, India records an excess level
of As and F- concentration above the prescribed
limit of World Health Organization (WHO)
guidelines. High concentration of fluoride is
detected in groundwater within the shallow
aquifer system, which is consequence of
evaporation of water and replacement of Ca2+
along with precipitation of carbonates (K.S. Patel
et. al, 2017). The research on 'Geo-spatial Fig.1 Location map of Chhattisgarh state
distribution of arsenic contamination of
Source: CGWB
groundwater resources in intricate crystalline
aquifer system of Central India - Arsenic toxicity 1.2 Physiography and Drainage Pattern
manifestation and health risk assessment' (Gayen The state is covered by both the Mahanadi River
et. al, 2020) indicates the severity of arsenic basin and Narmada basin in the central and
contamination within shallow aquifer system in remaining parts respectively. Chhattisgarh is
the Ambagarh Chowki block of Rajnandgaon drained Mahanadi River and its distributaries like
district in the Chhattisgarh state. Shivnath, Rihand, Jonk, Indravati, Arpa and Hasdo.
1.1 Study Area The state maintains three physiographic
characteristics – i) Bastar plateau region on the
The Chhattisgarh state is located in the east of the
southern part, ii) Chhattisgarh Plain region on the
state of Madhya Pradesh covers an area of
central part and iii) Northern hilly region on the
1,37,360 sq.km. The State is situated in between
northern parts of the state (Fig.2).
17047' to 24006'N Latitude and 80014' to 84024'E
Longitude maintains different elevations (Fig.1).

101
Indian Ground Water, Vol. XVII, July, 2021
Fig.2 Physiography of the Chhattisgarh
Source: CGWB
1.3 Methodology
Secondary data sources belong to the Central
Ground Water Board (CGWB) form the basis of this
study. The mode preparation of this paper includes
compilation of the available secondary data, their
detailed analysis and orientation. Water samples
were collected in pure cleaned polythene
containers after rinsing it with the water samples
and were stored in dark and cool place prior to
analyze in the chemical laboratory. These
groundwater samples were collected during both
the months of May, 2018 and January, 2019 during
the pre monsoon and post-monsoon periods
respectively to compare the variation of
contaminants in groundwater and their
occurrences in different seasons.
102
2.0 Hydrogeological Set Up
The occurrence and movement of ground water is
related to the existing geology of the area. The
state is underlain by various rock types belonging
to different geological ages, from Azoic to
Quaternary. The general stratigraphic succession
along with the formation types in combination
with the lithological characteristics with geological
age is explained in table 1.
The Archaean crystalline rocks comprise of
granites and gneisses form the major litho-unit in
the region. The groundwater occurs under
unconfined to semi-confined conditions. All the
districts except Janjgir-Champa are covered by
crystalline formations. The weathered formation
and the fractures form the main repository for
groundwater in these rocks. The second important
litho-unit in the area is the Proterozoic
arenaceous–argillaceous-calcareous rocks of
Chhattisgarh, Indravati, Khariyar and Sukma
Groups. The weathered formation, caverns,
fractures and formation contacts form the
potential ground water zones.
The karstified argillo–calcareous rocks are much
more productive than compact–silicified
arenaceous sediments. The gypsum karsts are
more intense than calcareous karsts in the
Chhattisgarh basin. The overall karstification in
Indravati basin is much higher than in the
Chhattisgarh basin. Karsts, though few and far in
between are the best repository for groundwater.
These rocks cover the districts of Bastar,
Narayanpur, Kondagaon, Dantewada, Bijapur,
Sukma, Kanker, Raipur, Dhamtari, Mahasamund,
Durg, Rajnandgaon, Kawardha, Bilaspur, Mungeli,
Janjgir- Champa, Korba and Raigarh.
The rocks belonging to Gondwana Supergroup are
the third major litho-unit in the area. The
sandstone shows primary and occasional
 Indian Ground Water, Vol. XVII, July, 2021

103
Indian Ground Water, Vol. XVII, July, 2021
Fig. 3 Geological Map of Chhattisgarh
Source : CGWB
2.1 Consolidated Formations
The consolidated formations include the
crystalline and the metamorphosed sedimentary
formations belonging to Proterozoic age. They are
mainly granites, granite gneisses, schistose rocks,
charnockites, quartzites, calcsilicate rocks, shales,
phyllites and limestones. These rocks are devoid of
primary porosity. The groundwater occurs in the
secondary porosity resulting from fracturing,
jointing and weathering. These hard rock aquifers
exhibit considerable variations laterally as well as
depth wise. The weathered formation is composed
of loose regolith with secondary intergranular
porosity, which facilitates free circulation of
groundwater. Also, the fractures at depth form
104
potential repository of groundwater. In general,
the average thickness of weathered formation
varies from 15 to 20 m. The groundwater occurs
under water table conditions. The water bearing
fracture zones are generally occurring within a
depth of 100m, but deeper potential fractures are
also encountered in some of the boreholes.
Deccan Trap basalts are typical hard rock
formations. The lava flows are generally 10 to 20 m
thick. The top of each flow comprises of 25 to 40 %
vesicular/fragmentary basalt. The vesicles are
generally filled with secondary minerals like calcite
and zeolite. The characteristic red bole beds form
the marker horizons and occur as inter-trappean
beds between successive flows. Deccan Traps with
 Indian Ground Water, Vol. XVII, July, 2021

primary vesicular structure and secondary
fractures and joints are moderately productive
from ground water point of view. The groundwater
occurs under both unconfined to semi confined
conditions. The Deccan Trap basalts are occurring
at few places.
layers act as a good repository for groundwater.
The groundwater occurs under unconfined
conditions. The laterites occur as cap rocks on
basalts or granites. The laterites are vesicular,
essentially ferruginous and form good repository
of groundwater.

2.2 Semi-consolidated formations 3.0 Discussion

3.1 Depth to Water Level (Pre-monsoon: May,
The semi-consolidated formations include
2018)
Gondwana Supergroup of sedimentary rocks and
ranging in age from Upper Carboniferous to In general, the depth to water level range up to
Cretaceous. This group 5 m bgl is observed in
includes sandstone, shale, approximately 19.57% of
s i l t s t o n e a n d the wells and depth to
conglomerate beds. These water level range up to 10
formations are generally m bgl is observed in 81.0 %
highly compact and of the wells in the state.
possess less intergranular D e e p e r wate r l e ve l s
porosity. The coarse to ranging between 10 and
medium grained, 20 m bgl occur only in
weathered, fractured and 18.27% of the observation
friable sandstone wells and mostly in all part
formations perform as of state. Deeper water
potential aquifer. The levels ranging between 20
groundwater occurs under and 30 mbgl occur only in
water table conditions in 0.63% of the observation
the near surface aquifers wells and mostly in all part
and under confined of Korba, Bilaspur, Surguja,
conditions in the deeper Durg, Mahasamund and
aquifers. The depth of Kawardha district. The
weathering in Gondwana deepest water level of 40
Group of rocks generally m bgl in Achanakmar
extends to a depth of 15 m observation well
bgl. (Piezometer) in Bilaspur
district is observed.
2.3 Unconsolidated
formations Total 18 numbers of wells
(approximately 1.9% of
The unconsolidated
the monitored wells) in the
formations include Fig. 4 Hydrogeological Map of Chhattisgarh
Source : CGWB
state are showing water
alluvium and laterite.
levels between 0-2 m bgl in
Alluvium occurs as
almost all the districts of
discontinues patches along the river courses
Chhattisgarh State except Bastar, Bilaspur, Janjgir-
where the thickness is limited. The sand and gravel
Champa, Kanker, and Kawardha. Groundwater

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Indian Ground Water, Vol. XVII, July, 2021
levels in the range of 2-5 m bgl are recorded in
about 166 of the observation wells monitored. The
highest percentages of wells in this range are in
Baster (27.27%), Durg (28.97%), Mahasamund
(32.35%) Raipur (28.71%) and Dhamtari (24.44%)
districts. Nearly 66.67% of observation wells are
exhibiting water level in the range of 5-10 m bgl in
most of the districts of the state. The depth to
groundwater level during May, 2018 is
represented in fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Depth to Groundwater Level Map
(Pre-monsoon: May, 2018)
Source : CGWB
3.2 Depth to Groundwater Level (Post-monsoon:
January, 2019)
In general, the depth to water level range up to 5 m
bgl is observed in approximately 47.02% of the
wells and depth to water level range up to 10 m bgl
is observed in approximately 95.79% of the wells in
the state. Deeper water levels ranging between 10
106
and 20 m bgl occur only in 4.20% of the
observation wells and mostly in parts of Bilaspur,
Durg, Kawardha, Janjgir- Champa, Jashpur, Korba,
Koriya, Mahasamund, Raigarh, Raipur and Surguja
districts. The deepest water level of 14.46 m bgl
was monitored in Korba observation well of Korba
district. Around 47.02% of the monitored wells in
the state are showing groundwater levels between
0-2 m bgl in almost all the districts of Chhattisgarh
State. Water levels in the range of 2-5 m bgl are
recorded in about 358 (44.30%) of the observation
wells monitored. The highest percentages of wells
in this range are in Jaspur (62.96), Mahasamund
(65.00), Raipur (60.00) districts. Nearly 48.76 % of
observation wells are exhibiting water level in the
range of 5-10 m bgl in most of the districts of the
state. Depth to groundwater Level Map (Post-
monsoon: January, 2019) is shown fig. 6.
Fig. 6 Depth to Groundwater Level Map
(Post-monsoon: January, 2019)
Source : CGWB
 Indian Ground Water, Vol. XVII, July, 2021

3.3 Long Term Groundwater Level Trend (2009- trend of more than 20 cm/yr which is a cause of
2018) concern. The post monsoon decadal water level
trend map of the phreatic aquifer presents a more
The long-term water level trend (2009-2018) of
alarming picture. It shows large tracts of Surguja,
the phreatic aquifer was plotted for both the pre
Koriya, Jashpur, Kawardha, Rajnandgaon etc with
and post-monsoon periods. For the pre-monsoon
significant decline in water level of more than 20
period, the major part of Chhattisgarh shows
cm/yr. during the last 10 years. This long-term
water level trend between -10 to +10 cm/yr which
trend is also depicted from the individual
can be categorized as safe, but many parts of
hydrographs of network stations. Some
Jashpur, Surguja, Korba, Janjgir-Champa,
representative hydrographs are given above.
Kawardha, Rajnandgaon show significant falling

Fig.7

Fig.8
Fig. 7 & Fig. 8 National Hydrograph station of Gatori village, Bilashpur district and Katghora village of Korba District of Chhattisgarh
state respectively (Source: CGWB)

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Indian Ground Water, Vol. XVII, July, 2021
4.0 Study on Groundwater Quality
4.1 Factors controlling groundwater quality
The factors contributing to the groundwater
quality are the chemical composition of the
rainwater, the soil types and the mineralogy of the
rock formations. The geochemical processes in the
soil zone and in the underlying unsaturated and
saturated zones, temperature, pressure, duration
of contact of the percolating water and the
surrounding media, and other associated factors
determine the chemical composition of the
groundwater. Pollution from near surface sources
arising out of the human activities like industrial
wastes disposal, use of fertilizers, pesticides also
influence the groundwater quality.
4.1.1 Climate and Rainfall Pattern: The
temperature and precipitation influence
weathering, climate, vegetation, soil types and the
composition of the water draining the area. The
rainwater containing SiO2, CO2, O2 picks up organic
acids after reaching the earth's surface and reacts
with the minerals, which get dissolved. In humid
temperate climate the bicarbonates are
predominant and are rather high in arid climate.
The wet and dry climate promotes release of
considerable soluble inorganic matter through
weathering. Very cold climate inhibits weathering
and restrict solute concentration in water.3
4.1.2 Process of Soil formation: The geochemical
reactions involved in the soil forming processes
also dictate the chemical composition of the
ground water. In soils dissolution of CO2 and the H+,
HCO3-, CO2- ions in percolation water control pH of
water and thereby increasing its capacity to react
with rocks and minerals.
4.1.3 Role of Geology: The mineral constituents
in rock influence the geochemical evolution of
water passing through the rock.
108
4.1.4 Anthropogenic Factors: The streams and
unlined drains are carrying the untreated
industrial effluents, which may percolate down to
the sub-surface aquifers in the downstream part
and in turn may develop adverse impact on the
quality of groundwater. The pollutants are
migrating to the saturated zone in notable extent
in the sand layers. The urban areas of the state are
also generating conspicuous amount of
wastewater and pursue the natural water courses
resulting the contamination of both the surface
water and groundwater sources. Groundwater
pollution is also caused by the dumping of solid
waste in the low lying valley areas. Organic and
inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and
other chemicals used in the agricultural fields are
often leached to the groundwater. Nitrate,
potassium and phosphate are the common
fertilizer used in agriculture land and are the
potential pollutants in the groundwater.
4.2 Evolution of Hydrochemical Quality
As groundwater moves along the flow paths in the
saturated zone, it is enriched with total dissolved
solids and with major ions. The shallow zone is
characterized by active groundwater flushing
through relatively well-leached rocks has HCO3 – as
the dominant anion and is low in total dissolved
solids. The intermediate zone has less active
groundwater circulation, and total dissolved
solids, while sulphate (SO4- ) is normally the
dominant anion in this zone. The lower zone with
very little groundwater flushing has high Cl-
concentration and high total dissolved solids. The
HCO3- content in groundwater is normally derived
from soil zone CO2 and from dissolution of calcite
and dolomite. There are several soluble
sedimentary minerals that release SO4- or Cl- upon
dissolution. The process of evolution from stage to
stage is controlled by the availability of minerals
along the groundwater flow paths. In some

groundwater flow system, the water does not
evolve past the HCO3- stage or past the So4-.
It is noteworthy hereby that the increase in HCO3-
and decrease in SO4- , which may occur as a result of
biochemical SO4- reduction. Large variations in
major cations occur in groundwater flow systems
due to the cation exchange process.
4.1 Sampling for Groundwater Quality
The purpose of ground water quality sampling is
varied viz. evaluation of regional water quality,
detection and assessment of the extent of the
contaminant release. In this context the important
attributes are location and number of monitoring
wells for ground water sampling. The information
from the ground water sampling network is related
to the number of stations to be sampled and the
frequency of sampling. Due to slow rate of ground
water movement, the ground water quality does
not change rapidly. Similarly, in contrast to
unconfined aquifers, the quality change in
confined aquifer is rather slow.
The chemical quality of groundwater was
determined from 917 water samples collected
from the National Hydrograph Network Stations
(NHNS) distributed throughout Chhattisgarh. The
water samples were collected in pure cleaned
polythene containers after rinsing with the water
samples and were stored in dark and cool place.
These samples were collected during the month of
May, 2018 in the pre monsoon period, when the
concentrations of ions were maximum. The water
samples were analyzed for the major ions viz. pH,
EC, CO3, HCO3, CI, SO4, F, Total Hardness (TH), Ca,
Mg, Na, K, PO4 and Si. The Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS), Total alkalinity were calculated by the
obtained conductivity value and carbonate, bi-
carbonate ion concentration respectively.
The chemical analysis shows that the ground water
is neutral to low alkaline in nature. The pH value
was determined with direct reading pH meter. The
determination of pH is an important factor
109
Indian Ground Water, Vol. XVII, July, 2021
because the solubility of CO 2 and the
concentration of the various carbonate species
depend on the pH value. The pH value is lying in
between 6.2 and 8.4. The lowest pH value 6.2 was
recorded at Kachandure village, Durg block of Durg
district and highest pH value 8.44 was recorded at
Padumtara village, Rajnandgaon block of
Rajnanadgaon district. Highest arsenic (As)
concentration in groundwater is observed in
shallow aquifers (within 50 m bgl) in the Ambagarh
Chowki block of Rajnandgaon district. The
electrical conductivity of water is also expressed as
inverse of the electrical resistance across one cm
cube of water. It is related to the TDS because it is a
function of concentration of all ionic solutes. The
EC is temperature dependent and all the readings
are related to the equivalent reading at 25°C. The
highest conductivity value 2730 µS/cm at 25°C was
recorded at Barchavillage, Takhatpur block of
Mungeli district and lowest conductivity 35 µS/cm
at 25°C was recorded at Samarumi village of
Gharghoda Block Raighar district.
As per the Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS)
guidelines the acceptable and permissible limits
for the hardness as CaCO3 are 200 and 600 mg/l,
respectively. The highest value of total hardness
1040 mg/l was observed at Chirhual village of
Mungeli district. The lowest value was recorded at
Hanumangarh village, Premnagar block of
Surajpur district. Calcium (Ca + 2 ) was the
predominant cation in the groundwater of the
state and in certain regions Magnesium (Mg+2) was
recorded higher than other cations. As per the BIS
guidelines, the acceptable and permissible limits
of Ca in drinking water are 75 mg/l and 200 mg/l
respectively. The minimum calcium concentration
02 mg/l was recorded at Samarumi village,
Gharghoda block of Raighar district and maximum
calcium concentration 350 mg/l was observed at
jhalam village, Bemetra block of Bemetra district.
Similarly, the acceptable limit for Mg in drinking
water is 30 mg/l and maximum permissible limit is
Indian Ground Water, Vol. XVII, July, 2021

100 mg/l. The undesirable affect outside the The highest phosphate was recorded at Baghima
acceptable limit include encrustation in water village Ambicapur block of Surguja district and
supply structure and adverse effects on domestic highest silica was recorded Belkota village Batauli
use. The highest Mg concentration was observed block of Surguja. The high fluoride content (>1.5
at Chandargarhi village, Pathariya block of mg/l) was observed in isolated locations in state,
M u n g e l i D i s t r i c t .T h e m i n i m u m s o d i u m mostly in Raighar, Surgpur, Korba, Bilaspur, Durg,
concentration 1.0 mg/l was recorded at Sontarai Mahasamund and Jashpur district. The highest
village, Sitapur block of Surguja district and fluoride concentration 3.2 mg/l was recorded at
maximum sodium concentration 210 mg/l was Hanumangarh village, Premnagar block of
recorded at Barcha village, Pathariya block of Surgpur district. The distribution of Electrical
Mungeli district. The highest potassium Conductivity and Chloride is shown in Fig. 9 and
concentration 132 mg/l was recorded at Janjgiri Fig.10 respectively.
village, Durg block of Durg district and lowest
potassium concentration was recorded at Litiya
village, Dhamdha block of Durg district.
No carbonate alkalinity was observed in any
location throughout the state. The maximum bi-
carbonate (769 mg /l) was recorded at
Khaprivillahe, Thakhatpur block of Bilaspur district
and minimum bi carbonate concentration was
observed at Barpali and Samarumi village of
Raighar district. The chloride (Cl-) concentration in
the ground water was within the BIS prescribed
limits for drinking purposes. Acceptable and
maximum permissible limit (IS 10500:2012) in
drinking water are 250 and 1000 mg/l respectively,
The minimum chloride concentration 3.5 mg/l was
recorded at some place at Durg, Raighar and
Surguja district.Highest chloride concentration
504 mg/l was recorded at Tarkori village, Dhamdha
of Durgdistrict. The acceptable and maximum
permissible limit (IS10500:2012) in drinking water
are 200 and 400 mg/l respectively. The high
sulphate content was recorded in some locations
of Bilaspur, Bemetra, Kawardha, Korba, Mungeli,
Durg and Raighar district. The highest
concentration (879 mg/l) was recorded at
Sahaspur village, Bemetra block of Bemetara
district. The phosphate and silica concentration
was recorded low in most of the locations.
However some of the locations it was recorded
Fig.9. Electrical Conductivity (EC)
exceptionally high. Map of Chhattisgarh

110
 Indian Ground Water, Vol. XVII, July, 2021

Fig. 10 Chloride in Groundwater Fig. 11 Floride, Nitrate and Sulphate in Groundwater

Source : CGWB

5.0 Conclusions 10 m bgl in the Chhattisgarh state. Due care needs

to be implemented for extraction of groundwater
T h e s t u d y re v e a l s t h a t t h e c o m p l e t e
especially in the water table depleted aquifers to
understanding of the aquifer characteristics, long
avoid future water decline. In the canal command
term groundwater trend and seasonal fluctuation
areas, a threat to increase the soil salinity is
in combination with hydrogeochemical
resulting due to less withdrawal of groundwater.
perspectives. This research would be beneficial for
But, in the non-command areas accelerated
achieving sustainable development goal towards
groundwater development is causing the problem
efficient groundwater management for the
of water table depletion. Promotion of the water
optimum agricultural growth and to ensure the
efficient crops and change in cropping pattern
irrigation, domestic and industrial needs. Around
would be helpful to bring more areas under
67% of the groundwater monitoring wells is
irrigation, which in turn would help to minimize
depicting the range of water level in between 5 and
the pressure on groundwater reserves. Judicious

111
Indian Ground Water, Vol. XVII, July, 2021
balance in between supply and demand side
management may be the key for future water
security.
Acknowledgements
The author would like convey his earnest thanks to
the Chairman, CGWB and the Regional Director,
RGNGWTRI for help and according kind permission
to publish this paper in the journal. The author is
especially thankful to the Regional Director of
CGWB, NCCR, Chhattisgarh for according
necessary data support for the paper.
References
1. Central Ground Water Board, NCCR, Groundwater Year
Book of Chhattisgarh (2018-19), Published Report.
2. https://www.aninews.in/news/national/general-
news/chhattisgarhs-raipur-facing-water-crisis-people-
travel-far-to-fulfill-daily-needs20190528062415
112
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3. Bickford, M.E., Basu, A., Patranabis-Deb, S., Dhang, P.C.
and Schieber, J., 2011. Depositional history of the
Chhattisgarh basin, central India: constraints from new
SHRIMP zircon ages. The Journal of Geology, 119(1), pp.33-
50.
4. Patel, K.S., Sahu, B.L., Dahariya, N.S., Bhatia, A., Patel,
R.K., Matini, L., Sracek, O. and Bhattacharya, P., 2017.
Groundwater arsenic and fluoride in Rajnandgaon District,
Chhattisgarh, northeastern India. Applied Water Science,
7(4), pp.1817-1826.
5. www.gsi.gov.in (Accessed on 22.05.2021).
6. Singh, R., Gayen, A., Kumar, S. and Dewangan, R., 2020.
Geo-spatial distribution of arsenic contamination of
groundwater resources in intricate crystalline aquifer system
of Central India: Arsenic toxicity manifestation and health
risk assessment. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An
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7. Water Resource Department, Government of
Chhattisgarh.