INDEX

1. Theory 03 - 29

2. Exercise 30 - 37

3. Answers Key 38
ANIMALS TISSUES
THEORY 3

ANIMAL TISSUES

● In the animal kingdom, there are a variety of organisms. Some of them are unicellular while some are multicellular.
● In unicellular organisms, all functions like digestion, respiration and reproduction are performed by a single cell.
● In the complex body of multicellular animals, the same basic functions are carried out by different groups of cells in a well-
organized manner. Such an organization is called a tissue.
● A tissue is a group of one or more types of cells and their intercellular substance that perform a particular function.
● The word “tissue” was given by Bichat. In the animal kingdom, tissues evolved for the first time in Cnidarians.
● The study of tissue is called histology. The term histology was given by Mayer.
● The human body is composed of billions of cells to perform various functions. These cells are organized in the
following manner:

Cells Tissues Organs Organ system Organism.

Fig. 7.1: Level of organization in humans

Types of Tissues

Based on embryonic development, structural organization, and functional properties.

Name Origin Main Functions

1. Epithelial Tissues Ectoderm, Mesoderm, Protection, secretion, absorption,

Endoderm excretion, reproduction

2. Connective Tissues Mesoderm Attachment, support, protection,

storage, transport

3. Muscular Tissues Mesoderm Movement of body parts and

locomotion

4. Nervous Tissues Ectoderm Control and coordination by nerve

impulse conduction.
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ANIMAL TISSUES

1. Epithelial Tissues (Epi= Above, Thelium= Layer)

● Word epithelium was introduced by Ruysch.

● It was the first tissue to be formed in animals.
● This tissue has a free surface, which faces either a body fluid or the outside environment and thus provides a covering or a
lining for some part of the body.
● Features:
● Cells are closely packed with very little intercellular spaces.
● It is avascular i.e., it has no blood supply. However, it has great capacity for regeneration.
● It is derived from all the three germ layers such as
● Ectoderm: Skin epidermis
● Mesoderm: Coelomic epithelium
● Endoderm: Lining of alimentary canal
● Epithelial tissue that lies on the interior of the body is called endothelium.
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ANIMALS TISSUES

Fig. 7.2: Epithelial tissue with basement membrane

● Only tissue with an underlying acellular basement membrane.

● It consists of two layers:
● Basal Lamina: It is an outer thin layer made up of mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins secreted by
epithelial cells.
● Fibrous or reticular lamina: It is an inner thick layer composed of collagen or reticular fibers of underlying
connective tissue.
● The basement membrane provides elastic support. It also allows selective chemical exchange between epithelial
tissues and surrounding blood vessels.

1.1 Specialization of Plasma Membrane of Epithelium

● In some cases, the plasma membrane of epithelial cells has certain specialization. They can be as follows:

Cilia Stereocilia Microvilli

1. Arise from basal granules Basal granules absent Basal granules absent

2. Motile Non-motile Non-motile

3. 9+2 structure Absent Absent

4. Taper distally Cylindrical Extremely thin and short

structured

5. Cells of respiratory and Epididymis and vas Intestinal absorption and

reproductive tracts deferens of male secretion are the major activity
reproductive system
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ANIMAL TISSUES

1.2 Types of Epithelia

● There are two types of epithelial tissues namely simple epithelium, compound epithelium and glandular epithelium.

1.2.1 Simple Epithelium

● It is composed of a single layer of cells and functions as a lining for body cavities, ducts, and tubes.
● Based on structural modification of the cells, simple epithelium is further divided into
Simple Squamous Epithelium:

Fig. 7.3: Simple Squamous Epithelium

● It is composed of single layer of flat cells whose edges fit closely together like tiles in a floor, hence it is called pavement
epithelium.
● Cells are generally polygonal or discoidal in shape.
● Nuclei of the cells are flat and lie in the center of the cells.
● This epithelium is present in the alveoli of the lungs, wall of the Bowman's capsules and loop of Henle, membranous
labyrinth (internal ear), blood vessels, lymph vessels, heart, coelomic cavities, and testis.
● The cells of endothelium and mesothelium may become wavy; hence these epithelia are called tessellated.
● It mainly helps in protection, excretion, gaseous exchange, and secretion of coelomic fluid.

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

(a) (b)
Fig. 7.4: (a) Simple cuboidal (b) Brush border cuboidal

● It is composed of a single layer of cube-like cells.

● Nuclei of the cells are spherical and centrally placed.
● It is present in small salivary and pancreatic ducts, thyroid vesicles, sweat glands and parts of membranous labyrinth,
distal convoluted tubule, ciliary bodies, choroid and iris of eyes.
● In ovaries and seminiferous tubules of testes, it is called germinal epithelium as it produces gametes.
● The cells of cuboidal epithelium often form microvilli on their free surface giving them a brush like appearance. These
microvilli increase the surface area for the absorption. Hence, the tissue is called brush border
cuboidal epithelium.
● These microvilli increase the surface area for the absorption. E.g., PCT
● It is mainly involved in protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, and gamete formation.
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ANIMALS TISSUES

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Fig. 7.5: Brush border Columnar epithelium

● It is composed of a single layer of tall, slender column-like cells.

● Nuclei is elongated and is located near the base.
● It lines the stomach, intestine, gallbladder and bile duct. It also forms gastric gland, pancreatic glands and intestinal
glands where it is called glandular epithelium.
● Certain cells of columnar epithelium contain mucus producing goblet cells. Free surfaces of some cells may have
microvilli also. E.g., small intestine.
Simple Ciliated Epithelium

Fig 7.6: Ciliated Epithelium

● It helps in protection, secretion and absorption.

● If the columnar or cuboidal cells bear cilia on their free surface, they are called ciliated epithelium.
● The cilia remain in rhythmic motion and create a current to transport the material which comes in contact
with them.
● Ciliated columnar epithelium: It lines most of the respiratory tract and fallopian tube. It also lines the ventricles of the
brain and central canal of the spinal cord. It is also present in the tympanic cavity of the middle ear and auditory tube.
● Ciliated cuboidal epithelium: It consists of cubical cells which have cilia on the free surface. Some part of nephrons of
kidney.
● It helps in maintaining the flow of mucus or liquid or suspended particles or bodies constantly in one direction.
Pseudo-stratified Epithelium

Fig. 7.7: Pseudostratified Epithelium

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ANIMAL TISSUES

● The cells are columnar but unequal in size. Long cells extend up to the free surface and short cells do not reach the outer
free surface.
● Long cells have oval nuclei however short cells have rounded nuclei.
● Although epithelium is one cell thick, it appears to be multi-layered which is due to the fact that nuclei lie at different
levels in different cells. Hence, it is pseudostratified epithelium.
● It is present in ducts of parotid salivary glands and urethra of human males, trachea and large bronchi.
● It helps in protection, secretion, movement of secretion from glands, urine and semen in male urethra and mucus loaded
with dust particles and bacteria from trachea towards the larynx.

1.2.2. Compound Epithelium

Fig. 7.8: Compound Epithelium

● Compound epithelium is made of more than one layer (multi-layered) of cells and thus has a limited role in secretion and
absorption.
● Their main function is to provide protection against chemical and mechanical stresses.
● They cover the dry surface of the skin, the moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of salivary glands
and of pancreatic ducts
● It is found in the regions with rapid wear and tear i.e., where rapid replacement is needed
● Compound epithelium may be: stratified and transitional
Stratified Epithelium
● Stratified Epithelium has many layers of epithelial cells with the deepest layer made up of columnar or cuboidal cells.
Transitional Epithelium

Fig. 7.9: Transitional Epithelium

● Transitional epithelium consists of 4 to 6 layers of cells

● It contains cuboidal or columnar shaped cells, which are thin and stretchable and are called plastic epithelium
● Cells of inner most (basal) layer rest on underlying connective tissue
● It is found in the renal calyces, renal pelvis, ureters, urinary bladder and part of the urethra. Because of its distribution,
transitional epithelium is also called urothelium.
● It permits distention. The transitional epithelium of the urinary bladder can be stretched without being damaged. It is also
protective in function.
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ANIMALS TISSUES

Tissue Location Function

Simple Squamous Alveoli of the lungs, wall of the Gaseous exchange,
Epithelial Bowman's capsules, descending limbs protection, excretion,
of loop of Henle, membranous secretion of coelomic
labyrinth (internal ear), blood vessels, fluid.
lymph vessels, heart, coelomic
cavities,
Cuboidal Small salivary and pancreatic ducts, Protection,
thyroid follicles, sweat glands and secretion,
parts of membranous labyrinth, absorption,
proximal and distal convoluted tubule, excretion and
ciliary bodies, choroid and iris of eyes, gamete formation.
ovaries and seminiferous tubules

Columnar Stomach, intestine, gall bladder and Protection, secretion and

bile duct, also form gastric glands, absorption
pancreatic glands and intestinal glands

Ciliated Ciliated columnar: respiratory tract, Maintains flow of

fallopian tube, ventricles of brain, mucus or liquid or
central canal of spinal cord, tympanic suspended particles or
cavity of middle ear and auditory tube bodies constantly in one
Ciliated cuboidal: certain parts of direction
nephrons of the kidneys

Pseudostratified Pseudostratified columnar: Human Protection,

male and duct of parotid salivary gland secretion,
Pseudostratified cuboidal: Trachea and movement of
large bronchi secretion from
glands, urine and
semen in male
urethra and mucus
trachea towards the
larynx.

Compound Stratified Stratified Keratinized Epidermis of the skin of land Protection against
Epithelium Squamous vertebrates chemical and
Non Oral cavity (buccal cavity), tongue, mechanical stresses
keratinized pharynx, oesophagus, middle part of
anal canal, lower parts of urethra,
vocal cords, vagina, cervix,
conjunctiva, inner surface of eye lids
and cornea of eye
Stratified cuboidal Sweat gland ducts, larger salivary and
pancreatic ducts
Stratified columnar Epiglottis, mammary gland, parts pf
urethra
Stratified ciliated Larynx and upper part of soft palate
columnar
Transitional Renal calyces, renal pelvis, ureters, Permits distention
urinary bladder, and parts of urethra and helps in
protection.
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ANIMAL TISSUES

1.2.3. Glandular Epithelium

● Some of the columnar or cuboidal cells get specialized for secretion and are called glandular epithelium. This glandular
epithelium forms glands.
Types of glands:

On the basis of number of cells

● Unicellular Glands: They consist of isolated glandular cells. E.g.- Goblet cells
● Multicellular Glands: They consist of clusters of cells. E.g.- Salivary glands

Fig. 7.10: Unicellular and multicellular glands

On the basis of the mode of pouring of their secretions

Fig. 7.11: Exocrine and Endocrine Glands

● Exocrine Glands: Exocrine glands secrete mucus, saliva, earwax, oil, milk, digestive enzymes and other cell products. These
products are released into blood through ducts or tubes. E.g.- Mammary glands, sweat glands

● Endocrine Glands: In contrast, endocrine glands do not have ducts. Their products are called hormones are secreted directly
into the blood. E.g.- Thyroid, Thymus, Adrenal gland.

● Heterocrine or Mixed Gland: They have both exocrine part and endocrine part. The former sends its secretion by way of a
duct and latter releases its secretion directly into blood and lymph. E.g.- Gonads and pancreas.
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On Basis of Mode of Secretion:

Fig. 7.12: Glands on the basis of mode of secretion

● Merocrine Glands: In these glands, the secretion is discharged from the cells by simple diffusion, so that there is no loss of
cells or their parts. E.g.- Goblet cells, sweat glands, salivary glands, intestinal glands.
● Apocrine Glands: In these glands, secretory products accumulate in the apical part of the cells. Later, this part breaks off
from the cells and is discharged as secretion. E.g.- Mammary glands and axillary sweat glands.
● Holocrine Glands: In these glands, an entire cell, when filled with secretory products, disintegrates, and is discharged as a
part of secretion. E.g.- Sebaceous glands.

1.3 Sensory Epithelium

Fig. 7.13: Sensory Epithelium

● Sensory epithelium is modified columnar epithelium with supporting spindle shaped cells.
● It has fine sensory hair on the free surface of the cell which is connected with nerve fibers.
● It is found in retina, nasal cavity (Schneiderian membrane for smell function), tongue (gustatory epithelium), organ of Corti
in cochlea of internal ear (statoacoustic epithelium), brain and central canal of spinal cord.
● It is also called neurosensory epithelium.
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ANIMAL TISSUES

1.4 Cell Junctions

Tight junction (Zona occludens/Occluding junction):

Fig. 7.14: Tight Junction

● Plasma membrane in the apical parts of the adjacent epithelial cells become tightly packed together or are even fused to
form tight junctions.
● They check the flow of materials between the cells. E.g., Distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of nephron, blood
brain barrier.
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ANIMALS TISSUES

Gap Junction:

Fig.7.15: Gap Junction

● These are meant for the rapid transfer of ions, small molecules, and sometimes big molecules between adjacent cells. E.g.-
Intercalated disc in the cardiac muscle is modified gap junction.
Adherens Junctions:

Fig.7.16: Adherens Junction

● They perform cementing functions to keep neighboring cells together.
● These junctions are of three types:
Zonula adherens:
● There is a dense plaque-like cytoplasmic side of each plasma membrane from which fine microfilaments extend
into the cytoplasm. They probably serve an anchoring function.
Desmosomes (Macula adherens):

Fig. 7.17: Desmosomes

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ANIMAL TISSUES

● These are like zonula adherens but are stronger and are disc like junctions. They serve as anchoring functions
between two cells.
Hemidesmosomes:

Fig.7.18: Hemidesmosomes

● They are similar to desmosomes, but the thickening of cell membrane is seen only on one side. They join epithelial
cells to the basal lamina of the basement membrane.
Interdigitation:

Fig.7.19: Interdigitation
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ANIMALS TISSUES

● In interdigitation, finger-like processes of the plasma membrane of one cell enter into cytoplasm of adjacent cells. E.g.,
Placenta.
Intercellular Bridges:

Fig.7.20: Intercellular Bridges

● A slender cytoplasmic strand from one cell connects the adjacent cell like a bridge. Such a connection is called an
intercellular bridge. E.g., Connection between Sertoli cells and sperms.

2. Connective Tissue
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ANIMAL TISSUES

● Connective tissue is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue of the body. It is formed by mesoderm of
the embryo.
● They are named connective tissues because of their special function of linking and supporting other tissues/organs of the body
● They range from soft connective tissues to specialized types, which include cartilage, bone, adipose, and blood.
● In all connective tissues except blood, the cells secrete fibers of structural proteins called collagen or elastin.
● The fibers provide strength, elasticity and flexibility to the tissue.
● These cells also secrete modified polysaccharides, which accumulate between cells and fibers and act as matrix
(ground substance).
● Connective tissues are classified into three types:
● Loose connective tissue
● Dense connective tissue
● Specialized connective tissue.
● Components of connective tissue are:
● Matrix: It is mainly a mixture of carbohydrates and proteins. The most common mucopolysaccharide ground
substance is hyaluronic acid.
● Connective tissue cell: There are different types of cells.

Cells Function

Fibroblast cells Produce fibers and matrix

Adipose cells Stores fat

Plasma cells Synthesize antibodies

(Cart-Wheel cells)

Mast cells Produce

● Histamine: Acts as a vasodilator to dilate the walls of blood vessels in inflammatory and
allergic reaction.
● Heparin: Checks clotting of blood inside blood vessel
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ANIMALS TISSUES
● Serotonin: Acts as vasoconstrictor to arrest bleeding and to increase blood pressure

Macrophages Ingest cell debris, bacteria, and foreign matter

(Histocytes or
Clasmatocytes)

Mesenchyme Give rise to various types of connective tissue cells

Chromatophores Impart color to the animals

Lymphocytes Ingest cell debris, bacteria, and foreign matter

● Connective tissue fibers: They are made up of proteins. They are of three types:
● Collagenous or collagen fibers (collagen protein)
● Elastic fibers (Elastin protein)
● Reticular fibers (Reticulin protein)

2.1 Types of Connective Tissue

● Loose connective tissue:
● Loose connective tissue has cells and fibers loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground substance, for example, areolar and
adipose tissue

Areolar connective tissue:

Fig. 7.21: Areolar Connective Tissue

● It is spongy, highly vascular and made up of all cell types and fibers.
● It is the most abundant type of connective tissue
● It has cells and fibers loosely arranged in a semi-fluid ground substance, called matrix.
● It is found beneath the epithelium of skin, hollow visceral organs and on walls of arteries and veins.
● Functions:
● Forms packaging between different tissues.
● Providing support to tissues.
● Protects and nourishes the organs.
● Support framework for epithelium.
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ANIMAL TISSUES

Adipose connective tissue

Fig. 7.22: Adipose Tissue

● Adipose tissue is another type of loose connective tissue located mainly beneath the skin.
● The cells of this tissue are specialized to store fats.
● The excess of nutrients which are not used immediately are converted into fats and are stored in this tissue.
● It is modified areolar tissue containing all types of fibers and specialized cells called adipocytes. These cells are also called
signet ring cells.
● Adipose Tissue prevents the heat loss and forms shock absorbing cushions around kidneys and eyeballs.

FUN FACT

In different animals, fat reserves stored in adipose tissue are found in the form of blubber of whale and elephant, hump of camel
and fat bodies of frog.

Blubber of whale Hump of Camel

Dense connective tissue:

● Fibers and fibroblasts are compactly packed in the dense connective tissues. Orientation of fibers show a regular or irregular
pattern and are called dense regular and dense irregular tissues.
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ANIMALS TISSUES

(a) (b)
Fig. 7.23: (a) Dense Regular (b) Dense irregular connective tissue.

● Dense regular connective tissue: Fibers and cells are compactly packed. The collagen fibers are present in rows between
many parallel bundles of fibers. It is of two types:

Fig. 7.24: Tendons and Ligaments

● Tendons: Tendon consists of parallel bundles of collagenous fibers which are present between rows of fibroblasts. It
connects skeletal muscles to bone.
● Ligaments: It mainly consists of elastin fibers with some collagen fibers. It connects one bone to another bone.

Tendon Ligament
1. It is made up of white fibrous tissue. 1. It is made up of yellow elastic tissue with
some collagen fibers.

2. Fibroblasts lie in almost continuous rows. 2. Fibroblasts lie scattered.

3. Tendon connects a skeletal muscle to a bone. 3. Ligament connects a bone to another bone.

4. It is tough and inelastic. 4. It is strong but elastic.

● Dense irregular connective tissue: It has fibroblasts and many fibers that are oriented differently. E.g.- Skin
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ANIMAL TISSUES

Specialized Connective Tissue:

● Cartilage, bones and blood are various types of specialized connective tissues.
Cartilage:
● It is a soft and pliable skeletal tissue. It is found abundantly in the vertebrate embryos because most of the bone forming
skeletons of adults are cartilaginous in the early stage.
● Cartilage is surrounded by a thin sheath of collagen fibers called perichondrium. Components of cartilage are:
Cells:

Fig. 7.25 Chondrocyte

● Chondroblast cells are mesodermally derived cells that differentiate to form chondrocytes by the process
of chondrogenesis.
● Cartilage cells are called chondrocytes which are present in fluid filled space called lacuna. Generally, 2-3 chondrocytes are
present in one lacuna.
Ground substance:
● Matrix consists of chondrin protein and glycosaminoglycan (mucopolysaccharide) called chondroitin sulphate secreted by
chondroblasts that become embedded in the matrix as chondrocytes.
Fibers:
● The fibers in the cartilage connective tissue include collagen and elastic fibers.
● Cartilage is avascular i.e., blood vessels reach only till perichondrium. The matrix serves as a route for the diffusion of
substances between surrounding blood vessels and chondrocytes.
● The growth of cartilage is always from the periphery, and it is unidirectional.
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ANIMALS TISSUES

Types of Cartilage are as follows:

Type Features Location Diagram

Hyaline cartilage Also called glass Larynx, tracheal

cartilage as matrix is rings, bronchi,
translucent, elastic nasal septum, at
with less fibers. the end of ribs
Initial skeleton of (costal ridge), and
the articular
foetus
surface of long
bones

Fig.7.26: Hyaline Cartilage

Yellow Matrix contains Ear pinna,

Fibrocartilage numerous yellow external auditory
elastic fibers canal, eustachian
tubes, epiglottis,
Fibrocartilage tip of nose.

Fig. 7.27: Yellow Fibrocartilage

Fibrocartilage White Matrix is firm with Present in the

Fibrocartilage abundant white intervertebral disc
fibers. and also in pubic
symphysis (helps
Strongest cartilage
in humans in parturition)

Fig.7.28: White Fibrocartilage

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ANIMAL TISSUES

Calcified cartilage Matrix contains Absent in

granules of calcium humans, found in
carbonate due to pectoral girdles of
which this cartilage frogs and
is hard and inelastic vertebrates of
sharks.

Fig.7.29: Calcified Cartilage

Bone: It is the one of the hardest tissues in the body and forms the main endoskeleton of the vertebrate body. Matrix consists of
both the organic (35-40%) and inorganic substances (65-70%).
Structure of bone
● Periosteum is a thick and tough sheath that envelops the bone whereas the endosteum covers the bone marrow cavity.
Cells:

(a)

(b)
Fig.7.30: (a) Lamellae in bone matrix (b) Osteocytes

● Bone cells are called osteocytes. They are stellate shaped cells with numerous protoplasmic projections.
● Each osteocyte is surrounded by fluid filled space, bone lacuna which leads into radiating channels called canaliculi which
contain the protoplasmic extension of osteocytes.
● Osteoblast cells are bone forming cells present in the periosteum. These cells differentiate to form osteocytes by the process
of osteogenesis and also form fibers and matrix.
● Osteoclasts are bone cleaning cells. These are polymorphic cells formed by fusion of monocytes. They destroy the bone
matrix.
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ANIMALS TISSUES

Matrix

Fig. 7.31: Section of bone

● Matrix is hard and non-pliable rich in calcium salts such as calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate and, also
magnesium phosphate.
● Matrix is composed of ossein protein. Matrix is arranged in the form of concentric rings called lamellae.
● Haversian canal (osteon canal) is present only in mammalian bone and is the characteristic feature of long mammalian bones.
● Each Haversian canal contains blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerve supply. The adjacent Haversian canals are
interconnected by transverse channels called Volkmann’s canal.
● Bone marrow cavity is present inner to the endosteum of long bones. It contains a soft and semi-solid fatty neurovascular
tissue called bone marrow.
● Functions of bone
● It is the main tissue that provides structural frame to the body.
● Bones support and protect softer tissues and organs.
● Limb bones, such as the long bones of the legs, serve weight-bearing functions.
● They also interact with skeletal muscles attached to them to bring about movements.
● The bone marrow in some bones is the site of production of blood cells
● Bone helps to maintain a constant level of calcium in the blood

Bone Cartilage
1. It is hard. 1. It is soft.
2. The Matrix has an inflexible material, the ossein. 2. The matrix has a flexible material, the
chondrin.
3. Matrix always contains calcium salts. 3. Calcium salts may or may not be
present in the matrix.
4. Matrix occurs in lamellae. 4. Matrix occurs in a homogenous mass
(i.e., lamellae are absent).
5. Osteocytes give off protoplasmic processes. 5. Chondroblasts do not have
protoplasmic processes.
6. Lacunae give off canaliculi. 6. Lacunae do not have canaliculi.
7. Outer and inner layers of osteoblasts of a bone 7. Such layers of chondroblasts are not
produces osteocyte. present.
8. Bones have rich blood supply. 8. Cartilages do not have rich blood
supply
9. Bone marrow is present that produces blood 9. Such structure is absent.
corpuscles.
10. Growth in bone is bi-directional. 10. Growth in cartilage is unidirectional.
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ANIMAL TISSUES

FUN FACT

If a bone is dried, its organic matter is destroyed, and inorganic part is left behind, hence called dried bone. If a bone is kept
in dilute HCl for some time, its inorganic part is dissolved and the organic part is left behind, hence called decalcified bone.

Dried Bone Decalcified Bone

Blood
● Blood is a fluid connective tissue containing plasma, red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC) and platelets.
● It is the main circulating fluid that helps in the transport of various substances.
● It is motile connective tissue consisting of fluid matrix and free cells.
● It is devoid of fibers and the matrix is also not secreted by the cells. It transports materials from one place to another.

3. Muscular Tissue
● Muscular tissue develops from the mesoderm of embryo except for the muscles of the iris of the eye, myoepithelial cells of
salivary, mammary, and sweat glands which arise from ectoderm of the embryo.
● Their action moves the body to adjust to the changes in the environment and to maintain the positions of the various parts of
the body.
● Muscles play an active role in all the movements of the body.

3.1 Characteristics of Muscular Tissue

Fig. 7.32: Section of Muscular Tissue

● Each muscle is made of many long, cylindrical fibers arranged in parallel arrays. These fibers are called myocytes
or sarcocytes.
● These fibers are composed of numerous fine fibrils, called myofibrils. These myofibrils are present in cytoplasm
called sarcoplasm.
● Each muscle fiber has two types of myofilaments which are formed of contractile protein. These myofilaments are:
● Thick myofilaments made up of myosin
● Thin myofilaments made up of actin
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ANIMALS TISSUES

● Each myocyte is externally covered by a membrane called sarcolemma.

● The sarcoplasm consists of endoplasmic reticulum called sarcoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria called sarcosomes.
● Special properties of muscular tissue are
● Contractibility: Muscle fibers contract (shorten) in response to stimulation, then relax (lengthen) and return to their
uncontracted state in a coordinated fashion.
● Excitability: It is due to energy stored in electrical potential difference across plasma membranes.

3.2 Types of Muscle

● Muscles are of three types:

Fig. 7.33: Types of Skeletal muscles

● Skeletal muscles
● Smooth muscles
● Cardiac muscles

Skeletal Muscles:
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ANIMAL TISSUES

Fig. 7.34: Skeletal muscles

● They are also called striated or striped muscles.

● Fibers are long, cylindrical, unbranched, thread-like cells, showing alternate light and dark cross bands under light microscope.
Therefore, they are called striped muscle fibers
● Most of these muscles are attached to bones and accomplish a range of movements. Therefore, they are called skeletal muscles.
● Skeletal muscles usually work under the control of will or consciousness. Hence, they are called voluntary muscles. However,
striated muscles of the middle ear, blinking and swallowing work at unconscious level.
● Each muscle fiber is an elongated cell surrounded by sarcolemma.
● Just beneath sarcolemma in each muscle fiber there are nuclei that occur at regular intervals at the periphery of the cell. Thus,
they are multinucleated or syncytial in nature.
● Each muscle fiber has one contractile unit which is called sarcomere.
● These muscles are found in limbs.
● Functions:
● Skeletal muscle function in pairs to bring about the coordinated movement.
● It is directly involved in the breathing process.

Smooth muscle:

Fig. 7.35: Smooth muscles

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ANIMALS TISSUES

● Smooth muscle cells have a smooth non-striated appearance.

● The smooth muscle fibers taper at both ends (fusiform) and do not show striations.
● Cell junctions hold them together and they are bundled together in a connective tissue sheath.
● The wall of internal organs such as the blood vessels, stomach and intestine contain this type of muscle tissue. Smooth
muscles are ‘involuntary’ as their functioning cannot be directly controlled. They have a single nucleus placed at the center.
Hence, they are uninucleate.
● We usually are not able to make it contract merely by thinking about it as we can do with skeletal muscles. They do not
work under conscious control. Hence, they are called involuntary muscles.
● They are found in the posterior part of the oesophagus, stomach, intestine, lungs, urinogenital tract, urinary bladder, blood
vessels, iris of eye, dermis of skin and arrector pili muscle of hair.

Cardiac Muscles

Fig.7.36: Cardiac Muscles

● It is a contractile tissue present only in the heart.
● Cell junctions fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac muscle cells and make them stick together.
● Communication junctions called intercalated discs at some fusion points allow the cells to contract as a unit, i.e., when one
cell receives a signal to contract, its neighbors are also stimulated to contract.
● These cell junctions in the form of intercalated discs fuse the plasma membranes of cardiac muscle cells and make them stick
together.
● Fibers faintly striated, cylindrical and branched. They have some lateral branches, known as oblique bridges, to form a
contractile network.
● Each cardiac muscle cell covered by sarcolemma. Sarcolemma invaginated at intervals to form transverse tubules
or T-system
● Nucleus is single, large and centrally placed.
● Sarcosomes are large and abundant and myoglobin content is also very high.
● Cardiac muscles are myogenic, i.e., they generate their own impulse Cardiac muscle activity is not under the control of will.
Hence, they are involuntary.
28
ANIMAL TISSUES

Striated Non-striated Cardiac

1. They are present in the limbs, body They are present in the They are present in the
walls, tongue, pharynx and beginning of oesophagus (posterior part only), wall of the heart,
oesophagus. urinogenital tract, urinary pulmonary veins and
bladder, vessels, iris of eye, superior vena cava.
dermis of skin, and arrector pili
muscles of hair.
2. Cylindrical. Spindle shaped. Cylindrical
3. Fibers unbranched. Fibers unbranched. Fibers branched.
4. Multinucleate. Uninucleate. Uninucleate.
5. Bounded by sarcolemma. Bounded by plasmalemma. Bounded by sarcolemma
6. Light and dark bands present. Light and dark bands absent. Faint light and dark
bands present.
7. No oblique bridges and intercalated No oblique bridges and Oblique bridges and
discs. intercalated discs. intercalated discs
present.
8. Nerve supply from central nervous Nerve supply from autonomic Nerve supply from the
system. nervous system. brain and autonomic
nervous system.
9. Blood supply is abundant. Blood supply is scanty. Blood supply is
abundant.
10. Very rapid contraction. Slow contraction. Rapid contraction.
11. They soon get fatigued. They do not get fatigued. They never get fatigued
12. Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary

● Functions of muscles:
● It brings about movements of the body parts and locomotion of the individual.
● Muscles are responsible for peristalsis in tubular viscera, heartbeat, production of sound etc.
● Facial expression also depends upon muscles.
● It supports the bone and other structures.
● Muscles are required for delivering the baby
 29
ANIMALS TISSUES

4. Neural Tissue

Fig. 7.37 Cells in neural tissue

● Neural tissue exerts the greatest control over the body’s responsiveness to changing conditions.
● Neurons, the unit of the neural system, are excitable cells.
● The neuroglial cell which constitutes the rest of the neural system protect and support neurons.
● Neuroglia makes up more than one half the volume of neural tissue in our body.
● When a neuron is suitably stimulated, an electrical disturbance is generated which swiftly travels along its plasma
membrane.
● Arrival of the disturbance at the neuron’s endings, or output zone, triggers events that may cause stimulation or inhibition of
adjacent neurons and other cells.
● On the contrary to epithelial tissue, nervous tissue has the minimum capacity of regeneration. It is because the neurons do
not divide due to lack of centrosome.
30
ANIMAL TISSUES

EXERCISE (Basic Exercise) 6. Basement membrane is derived

Introduction to animal tissues, Simple from______.
epithelial tissues
(a) Ectoderm
1. Inner lining of the intestine is made up
(b) Endoderm
of:
(c) Epidermis
(a) Simple squamous
(d) Epidermis and connective tissue
(b) Simple cuboidal
7. Epithelial tissue is characterized by each
(c) Simple columnar
of these traits, except that:
(d) All of the above
(a) it lacks blood vessels
2. Epithelial tissue with thin flat cells
(b) it functions in secretion,
appearing like packed tiles is present in:
absorption, and excretion
(a) Inner lining of the cheek
(c) epithelial cells are loosely packed
(b) Inner lining of the stomach
and have much intercellular material
(c) Inner lining of fallopian tubes
(d) it is anchored to a basement
(d) Outer surface of ovary
membrane
3. Cells of peritoneum comprise:
8. Microvilli, which function to increase
(a) ciliated epithelium
surface area, are more likely to be found
(b) squamous epithelium
in:
(c) columnar epithelium
(a) compound cuboidal epithelium
(d) glandular epithelium
(b) simple squamous epithelium
4. Germinal epithelium of the ovary is
(c) transitional epithelium
formed of:
(d) simple columnar epithelium
(a) columnar epithelium
9. Epithelium that appears layered due to
(b) squamous epithelium
the varying levels at which nuclei are
(c) stratified epithelium
found in cells, but in reality is not layered,
(d) cuboidal epithelium
is:
5. Endothelium lining a blood vessel is
(a) transitional epithelium
formed of
(b) pseudostratified columnar
(a) ciliated epithelium
epithelium
(b) columnar epithelium
(c) stratified squamous epithelium
(c) cuboidal epithelium
(d) stratified columnar epithelium
(d) simple squamous epithelium
 31
ANIMALS TISSUES

10. Which of the following is not one of the

15. If the cuboidal epithelium turns out to
four major types of tissues?
have microvilli on it, what will it be
(a) epithelial
called?
(b) connective
(a) Ciliated columnar epithelium
(c) nervous
(b) Pseudo ciliated epithelium
(d) skeletal muscle
(c) Brush-bordered epithelium
11. The cells lining blood vessels and the
(d) Ciliated squamous epithelium
lung alveoli are classed as _____
Compound epithelial tissues,
epithelium.
Introduction to connective tissue
(a) columnar
16. Which of the following function of
(b) stratified squamous
compound epithelium is minimal?
(c) simple squamous
(a) Protection
(d) cuboidal
(b) Secretion
12. The term _____ refers to the fact that
(c) Absorption
an epithelial tissue has only one layer
(d) Both (b) and (c)
of cells.
17. Which tissue links and supports
(a) stratified
other tissues or organs of the body?
(b) cuboidal
(a) Epithelial tissue
(c) simple
(b) Connective tissue
(d) pseudostratified
(c) Neural tissue
13. One of the main functions associated
(d) All
with simple squamous epithelium is
18. Compound epithelium, in which the cells
(a) diffusion
of superficial layers are polygonal
(b) active transport
and flattened in outline, is:
(c) secretion
(a) Stratified Squamous epithelium
(d) absorption
(b) Stratified Cubical epithelium
14. Where is ciliated epithelium found?
(c) Stratified Cuboidal epithelium
(a) Bronchioles
(d) Stratified Ciliated epithelium
(b) Fallopian tubes
19. Matrix and ground substance in
(c) Both
connective tissue is made up of __
(d) Lungs
(a) thick proteins
(b) elastin proteins
32
ANIMAL TISSUES

(c) modified polysaccharides (c) Stratified squamous epithelium

(d) modified triglycerides (d) Transitional epithelium
20. ______________ cells produce 25. Connective tissue proper does not
components of basement constitute:
membrane and growth factors for (a) Lymph (b) Reticular
glandular epithelium: (c) Areolar (d) Mucoid
(a) Neuroepithelial cells 26. _____________ epithelium contain thick
(b) Pigment epithelial cells cementing layers of lipid which check
(c) Myoepithelial cells loss of water through evaporation:
(d) Germinal epithelial cells (a) Keratinised Stratified Ciliated
21. The sheath enclosing the several epithelium
bundles of muscle fibres is (b) Keratinised Stratified Columnar
a_______________ tissue sheath? epithelium
(a) epithelial (b) connective (c) Keratinised Stratified Cuboidal
(c) both (d) neural epithelium
22. Transitional epithelium is called (d) Keratinised Stratified Squamous
__________ because it occurs in the epithelium
urinary tract. 27. Stratified cubical epithelium is found
(a) Ureothelium in:
(b) Uricothelium (a) epidermis of salamanders
(c) Urothelium (b) epidermis of lizard
(d) Ureticothelium (c) Both (a) and (b)
23. In the transitional layer of keratinised (d) None
Stratified Squamous epithelium, the 28. Hyaline and calcified cartilages are a
Stratum granulosum is granular due to part of:
(a) Keratikinin + keratin filaments (a) Connective tissue
(b) Keratohyalin + keratin granules (b) Epithelial tissue
(c) Keratokinin + keratin granules (c) Squamous tissue
(d) Keratohyalin + keratin filaments (d) None
24. Which epithelium is plastic epithelium? 29. Stratum basale constitutes:
(a) Pseudo stratified epithelium (a) Stratum corneum and Stratum
(b) Stratified cubical epithelium lucidum
 33
ANIMALS TISSUES

(b) Stratum granulosum and Stratum (b) Monolocular fat cells with a

corneum number of large fat globules

(c) Stratum germinativum and (c) Plurilocular fat cells with single

basement membrane large central fat globule

(d) Stratum spinosum and Stratum (d) Monolocular fat cells with single

lucidum small central fat globule

30. ___________ epithelium is non- 34. Which of the following statements are

ciliated and capable of stretching? incorrect?

(a) Pseudostratified A. Reticulin fibers are not digested

(b) Transitional by pepsin

(c) Columnar B. Old and mature fibroblasts are

(d) Cuboidal known as fibrocytes

Classification of connective tissues, C. Undifferentiated reserve cells

Proper connective tissues present in connective tissue are

31. Where is the excess unused nutrition Plasmacytes

stored in our body? D. Histiocytes are rounded or oval

(a) Areolar tissue cells having filopodia

(b) Adipose tissue (a) A, B and D

(c) Mucoid tissue (b) C only

(d) Reticular tissue (c) C and D

32. In white fibrous connective tissue, (d) A, C and D

collagen bundles are arranged in 35. Diagram given below describes:

___________ series
(a) Alternate
(b) Parallel
(c) Random
(d) Both (a) and (b)
33. In brown fat, the adipocytes are:
(a) Plurilocular fat cells with a
number of small fat globules (a) Yellow fibrous sheet
(b) Dense regular connective tissue
34
ANIMAL TISSUES

(c) Dense irregular connective tissue (d) inelastic cord of high tensile
(d) White fibrous sheet strength

36. Mummies of several hundred years ago 40. Proteinaceous fiber in areolar tissue that

have been found to have intact blood is formed rapidly in the region of injury

vessels largely due to the resistant nature is:

of ___________ fibers present in (a) White collagen fiber

their walls (b) Yellow elastin fiber

(a) Stem cell fibers (c) Reticulin fiber

(b) White collagen fibers (d) Fibrous fiber

(c) Yellow elastin fibers 41. Matrix of areolar tissue is made of

(d) Mast cell fibers glycoproteins and

37. ___________ connective tissue is heteropolysaccharides known as

present as a covering of testes and (a) Fibronectinoglycans

penis: (b) Glucosaminoglycans

(a) Dense irregular (c) Meroaminoglycans

(b) Dense regular (d) Glycosaminoglycans

(c) Yellow fibrous 42. Chordae tendineae that holds the

(d) White fibrous bicuspid and tricuspid valves of heart

38. Pigmented connective tissue occurs in all in their position are part of

except (a) Dense irregular connective tissue

(a) Iris of eye (b) Loose irregular connective tissue

(b) Arachnoid layer of brain (c) Dense regular connective tissue

(c) Choroid of eye (d) Loose regular connective tissue

(d) Piamater 43. Which one of the following possess

39. Tendon is: semi-fluid ground substance?

(a) elastic cord of high tensile (a) Areolar tissue

strength (b) Adipose tissue

(b) inelastic cord of low tensile (c) Blood

strength (d) Both (a) and (b)

(c) elastic cord of low tensile strength 44. Mast cells secrete:
(a) Haemoglobin (b) Hippurin
(c) Myoglobin (d) Histamine
 35
ANIMALS TISSUES

45. ___________ fibers pick up silver stain 48. Bone is mostly made of:
and are called argyrophilic fibers (a) Sulphur and calcium
(a) Myofibrils (b) Calcium and magnesium
(b) Yellow fibers (c) Iron and phosphorous
(c) Reticulin fibers (d) Calcium and phosphorous
(d) White fibers 49. Which portion of cartilage provides it
Skeletal connective tissue- Cartilage, with solidity, pliability and resistance to
Skeletal connective tissue- Bone 1 compression?
46. Intervertebral discs are made up of: (a) Collagen fibers
(a) Hyaline cartilage (b) Calcium content
(b) Elastic cartilage (c) Ground matrix material
(c) Fibrocartilage (d) Chondrocytes
(d) Reticular cartilage 50. Where are osteocytes located?
47. Choose the correct labelling of this (a) In entire bone
diagram (b) At the corners of bone
(c) In lacunae
(d) None
51. Elastin fibers provide__________ to the
cartilage
(a) Only colour
(a) A. Perichondrium, B. (b) Only elasticity
Chondrogenic layer, C. Matrix, D. (c) Both colour and elasticity
Chondroblasts, E. Chondrocytes (d) Neither colour nor elasticity
(b) A. Chondrogenic layer, B. 52. Bone forming cells are called
Perichondrium, C. Matrix, D. (a) Chondrocytes
Chondroblasts, E. Chondrocytes (b) Osteocytes
(c) A. Perichondrium, B. (c) Chondroblasts
Chondrogenic layer, C. Matrix, D. (d) Osteoblasts
Chondrocytes, E. Chondroblasts 53. Choose the correctly matched pair
(d) A. Perichondrium, B. Matrix, C. (a) White fibro cartilage – Articular
Chondrogenic layer, D. cartilage
Chondrocytes, E. Chondroblasts
36
ANIMAL TISSUES

(b) White fibrous cartilage – (c) Cancellous bone

Eustachian tube (d) White fibrous cartilage
(c) Yellow elastic cartilage – Pubic 58. Supportive skeletal structure in the
symphysis hyoid apparatus is
(d) Calcified cartilage – Tracheal (a) Compact bone
ring of birds (b) Fibrous cartilage
54. The polymorphic cells which develop by (c) Cancellous Bone
fusion of monocyte type of (d) Hyaline cartilage
phagocytic cells developed by bone 59. The small mitotic cartilage cells are
marrow are: known as
(a) Chondrocytes (a) Chondrocytes
(b) Osteocytes (b) Osteocytes
(c) Osteoclasts (c) Chondroblasts
(d) Osteoblasts (d) Osteoblasts
55. Fluid filled spaces where 60. Which type of cartilage is found in the
chondrocytes reside are called: walls of the eustachian tube?
(a) Isogenous space (a) Hyaline cartilage
(b) Lacunae (b) Elastic cartilage
(c) Capsule (c) Fibrocartilage
(d) Matrix (d) All of the above
56. _________ is largely avascular and Skeletal connective tissue- Bone 2,
vascular supply is limited to outer Fluid connective tissue
sheath only 61. Blood cells are derived from:
(a) Cartilage (a) Red bone marrow
(b) Bone (b) Intracellular fluid
(c) Ligament (c) Yellow bone marrow
(d) Histiocytes (d) Lymph
57. As a constituent of pubic symphysis, it 62. Which of the following sentences are
allows for loosening of pubis to ease true?
pressure during parturition: A. Bone is the hardest tissue of the
(a) Hyaline cartilage body which forms the main

(b) Spongy bone endoskeleton

 37
ANIMALS TISSUES

B. Bone has an outer covering called 66. In spongy bone internal supply
as periosteum channels are absent in:
C.Haversian and volksmann’s (a) Trabeculae
canals are absent in bone (b) Canaliculi
D.Extracellular matrix is living (c) Lacunae
and marrow is non-living in bone (d) Matrix
(a) A and B 67. Diploic bone is a
(b) B and C
(a) bone having periosteum and
(c) C and D
endosteum
(d) A and D
(b) bone having lacunae and
63. The protoplasmic processes of
canaliculi
osteocytes contain:
(c) bone having compact and
(a) Tubulin microtubules and smooth
ER cancellous parts

(b) Actin microfilament and golgi (d) bone with red and yellow marrow
body 68. -------------- limits bone growth
(c) Tubulin microtubules and golgi (a) Endosteum
body (b) Periosteum
(d) Actin microfilament and smooth (c) Matrix
ER (d) Marrow
64. _______________ is the light- 69. Matrix is not secreted by the cells in:
weight bone in which matrix is made (a) Bone tissue
up of numerous thin, curved, intersecting
(b) Cartilage tissue
plates, bars and tubes
(c) Blood tissue
(a) Trabecular bone
(d) Adipose tissue
(b) Spongy bone
70. The growth of bone is bidirectional
(c) Compact bone
because of the presence of _______ in
(d) Both (a) and (b)
both periosteum and endosteum:
65. Erythrocytes and platelets are absent in:
(a) Ossein (b) Osteoclasts
(a) Bone marrow (b) Blood
(c) Osteocytes (d) Osteoblasts
(c) Lymph (d) Bone
38
ANIMAL TISSUES

ANSWERS KEY
EXERCISE (Basic Exercise)

1. c 25. a 49. c
2. a 26. d 50. c
3. b 27. a 51. c
4. d 28. a 52. d
5. d 29. c 53. d
6. d 30. b 54. c
7. c 31. d 55. b
8. d 32. b 56. a
9. b 33. a 57. d
10. d 34. c 58. d
11. c 35. c 59. c
12. c 36. c 60. b
13. a 37. a 61. a
14. c 38. b 62. a
15. c 39. d 63. d
16. d 40. a 64. d
17. b 41. d 65. c
18. a 42. c 66. a
19. c 43. d 67. c
20. c 44. d 68. b
21. b 45. c 69. c
22. c 46. c 70. d
23. d 47. b
24. d 48. d