32.Racket Sport

32
RACKET SPORTS
Peter O’Donoghue1, Olivier Girard 2 and Machar Reid3,4
1cardiff metropolitan university, uk
2aspetar – qatar orthopaedic and sports medicine hospital, doha, qatar

3tennis australia
4university of western australia, australia
Summary
Performance analysis research has been carried out on the four main racket sports: tennis,
squash, badminton and table tennis. This chapter surveys the research that has been completed
since the last main reviews of science and racket sports by Hughes (1998), Lees (2003) and
O’Donoghue (2004). Analysis of shot technique has been carried out using kinetic and kin-
ematic analyses, with methods following advances in technology. Technical effectiveness is
a broader analysis of tennis performance, assessing winner-to-error ratios and percentages of
different point types that are won. Point sequences have been used to investigate momentum,
stationarity and independence of points. Tactical analysis has been applied in racket sports using
modern eye-tracking systems, as well as more broadly by examining point profiles. The physical
demands of racket sports can be estimated using observational techniques, rally and rest timings,
heart-rate responses, blood lactate concentration and perceived exertion.
Copyright © 2013. Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved.
Introduction
There are four main racket sports (tennis, badminton, squash and table tennis), with some other
racket sports being played to a lesser extent. Racket sports can be played with a net dividing the
players or, in the case of squash, with the players moving in a common court area. The common
aspects of racket sports are that shots are played by competitors in alternation, forming rallies.
There are singles and doubles games in all four main racket sports. The purpose of this chapter
is to review performance analysis research in racket sports. There have been previous reviews
of notational analysis and performance analysis in racket sports (Hughes, 1998; O’Donoghue,
2004) and a review of science and racket sports that includes performance analysis research
(Lees, 2003). The current chapter covers recent contributions that have been made since these
reviews were completed.
The review is structured into four parts to deal with four of the purposes of performance
analysis that are relevant to the study of racket sports. Technique analysis is concerned with
mechanical aspects of technique and how skills are performed. Technical effectiveness, on the
other hand, is concerned with outcomes of skills performed, irrespective of how correctly a skill
404
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Racket sports
has been performed. Tactical analysis is concerned with strategies and tactical decisions that are
manifested in observable patterns of play. Finally, physical aspects of performance can be inves-
tigated through analysis of rally lengths and estimates of game intensity. Direction for future
research efforts in performance analysis of racket sports is given at the end of the chapter.
Technique analysis
Performance analysis typically involves analysis of data gathered during actual sport competi-
tions. However, there are occasions where detailed analysis of technique requires data collection
during controlled laboratory experiments. Such research still falls under the umbrella of per-
formance analysis of sport where the techniques being investigated are key aspects of the sport
that cannot be studied to the required level of detail during actual competition (O’Donoghue,
2010: 2). This section covers the main research developments in technique in racket sports.
The studies reviewed have to manage the balance between the need for experimental con-
trol and the need for ecological validity in order to investigate relevant aspects of racket sport
skills. There are numerous biomechanical principles, yet those proposed to be most relevant to
understanding stroke technique are the stretch–shorten cycle, the use of coordinated segment
rotations (kinematic chain principle) and the distance over which racket speed can be developed
(Elliott, 2006). Two- and three-dimensional videography, force plate/plantar loading analysis
and electromyography have been employed to critique the biomechanics of different strokes.
Kinematic analyses of racket sport skills have generally shown that segment endpoint veloci-
ties increase in proximal to distal fashion. This has been demonstrated to characterise the tennis
serve and groundstrokes (Reid and Elliott, 2002; Reid et al., 2008), the squash forehand (Elliott
et al., 1996) and the table tennis forehand (Iino et al., 2008; Iino and Kojima, 2009), and it is
only long axis (or more specifically internal rotation) of the upper arm that has been reported
to occur out of sequence (Takahashi et al., 1996). It is intuitive that there are some similari-
ties in the kinematic sequencing that epitomises the stroke production of the different racket
sport skills. However, the disparate dimensions of the court as well as differences in equipment
(inertia of racket and ball/shuttlecock) presumably contribute to subtle variation in each of the
shot’s swing shapes and associated joint coordination. For example, where Iino et al. (2008) and
Iino and Kojima (2009) have focused on the role of wrist flexion in the table tennis backhand
and forehand, tennis studies have generally attended to whole-body kinematics to inform a
coach’s view of how end-point velocity is developed from the ‘ground up’. Kinematic analysis
has provided evidence that, while tennis players reproduce broad techniques when returning
serve, they also adapt technique to deal with specific serve return situations (Gillet et al., 2010).
Landlinger et al. (2010) used kinematic analysis to show that level of player was a further source
of variability in forehand technique in tennis.
Evaluations of the kinetics of stroke or movement production in racket sports have employed
force transducers, force platforms and three-dimensional modelling techniques. Researchers
have often focused on kinetics, which explain the forces that produce movement, to better
understand the relationship between stroke production and injury. The type of serves or hitting
stance of groundstrokes are known to produce higher trunk and upper-limb loading conditions
(Bahamonde and Knudson, 2003; Reid et al., 2008). The generation of ground reaction force,
which helps to account for players’ lower limb drive to the ball and plays an important role
in the production of all strokes and movements, has been shown to increase with expertise in
specific racket sport skills (Girard et al., 2005). In badminton, Kuntze et al. (2010) investigated
the kinematics and ground reaction forces of three common types of lunges: the kick lunge, the
step-in lunge and the hop lunge. The results suggested that the step-in lunge may be beneficial
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for reducing the muscular demands of lunge recovery, while the hop lunge allows higher posi-
tive power output. Where ground reaction forces provide insights into a player’s lower-limb
drive, the use of pressure insoles provides researchers and coaches with more specific data to
describe the interaction between the shoe and the surface on which racket sport players com-
pete. By using pressure insoles divided into nine areas, Girard et al. (2007a) reported that hard
versus clay courts induced higher loading in the hallux and lesser toe areas but lower relative
load on the medial and lateral mid-foot in competitive players during tennis-specific move-
ments. In-shoe loading patterns in each foot (back and front) were also shown to differ between
two types of tennis serve (first and second serve) and two service stance styles (foot-up and foot-
back techniques) (Girard et al., 2010a). Interestingly, the type of court surface was observed to
have a significant effect on plantar pressures characterising the first serve in tennis. Compared
to hard courts, a reduced asymmetry in peak and mean pressures between the two feet was
found on clay, suggesting a greater need for stability on this surface (Girard et al., 2010b). The
differences in loading patterns are important for understanding potential injury mechanisms and
designing appropriate preventive strategies.
Information concerning the timing and magnitude of muscular activity during the differ-
ent phases of a particular movement can be gained from electromyography (EMG) recordings.
Recent efforts have been made to include EMG data during tennis strokes, such as the serve
(Girard et al., 2005), the forehand (Rogowski et al., 2011) and the volley (Chow et al., 2007),
while the research attention afforded to the other racket sports has been less extensive. Indeed,
the work of Sakurai and Ohtsuki (2000) represents one of very few studies to have examined
the EMG characteristics of a badminton stroke, the smash. In comparing the smash of skilled
and unskilled players, they revealed similar proximal upper-limb EMG patterns but with sig-
nificantly more variability in the distal upper-limb EMG characteristics of the unskilled players.
Although trunk (Chow et al., 2003) and lower-limb (Girard et al., 2005) muscular activity levels
have been investigated, most of the EMG analyses of tennis strokes have focused on the muscles
of the hitting arm and shoulder region (Rogowski et al., 2011; Seeley et al., 2008; Wei et al.,
2006). Pre- and post-impact activation of five upper extremity muscles in the tennis volley were
compared across conditions of ball speed and ball type in a group of 24 recreational tennis play-
ers (Chow et al., 2007). In this study, oversize tennis balls did not significantly increase upper
extremity muscle activation compared to regular size balls during a tennis volley. Of further
interest was the highest post-impact activation observed in the extensor carpi radialis, which is
indicative of vigorous wrist stabilisation that may irritate players with lateral epicondylalgia.
To this end, EMG can also inform sports medicine professionals and coaches about the injury
potential of different players or techniques.
Technical effectiveness
Technical effectiveness provides an abstract portrayal of the performance of skills within sport
using positive-to-negative ratios, percentage of successful executions and, specifically in racket
sports, winner-to-error ratios. This type of analysis does not go into mechanical detail of the
skills that are applied, but technical effectiveness can be used in a complementary fashion with
technique analysis, as described by Bartlett’s (2001) unified approach. The simplest type of
technical effectiveness examines point outcomes. For example, Gale (1971) proposed the model
shown in equation (32.1) for the probability of winning a point. In this equation, p1 and p2 are
the probabilities of the first and second serves being played in, respectively, while q1 and q2 are
the conditional probabilities of the point being won by the server given that the first or second
serve is in, respectively.
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P = p1.q1 + (1 − p1).p2.q2 (32.1)
O’Donoghue (2009a) applied this equation to published statistics for 427 completed women’s
singles matches in the 2007 and 2008 Australian and US Open tournaments. This analysis
showed that 242 of the 854 serving performances would have won more points if the second
serve was played like the first serve, 265 would have been more effective if the first serve was
played like the second serve and two performances would have been more effective if the first
serve was played like the second serve and vice versa. This left a minority of 345 of 854 serving
performances where the observed strategy was the most effective for winning points on serve.
Models for the probability of winning service games in tennis have been used to investigate
different scoring systems (Croucher, 1982, 1998). These models are based on the assump-
tions of stationarity and independence of points. Stationarity means that the probability of
winning a point is the same irrespective of the score within the game. Independence means
that the probability of winning a point is the same no matter what happened in the preceding
points. Recently, Knight and O’Donoghue (in press) challenged the assumption of stationarity,
finding that players were significantly more likely to win break points than non-break points
when receiving serve. However, O’Donoghue and Brown (2009) were unable to challenge
the assumption of independence of points when they analysed 26 serving performances from
13 men’s singles matches of over 200 points played at Grand Slam tournaments. This research
suggests that momentum in tennis is a misperception of players, coaches, spectators and com-
mentators. There has been some speculation about momentum in squash (Davies et al., 2008;
Hughes et al., 2006); however, these studies failed to use inferential statistical procedures to
demonstrate that there were more longer sequences of winning (or losing) points than would
be expected by chance.
In tennis, the effectiveness of net play and baseline play has been analysed using the percent-
age of points won in Grand Slam singles tennis (O’Donoghue and Ingram, 2001). Stroke effec-
tiveness has been analysed in table tennis (Djokic, 2002), squash (Brown and Hughes, 1995) and
badminton (Cabello-Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003; Oswald, 2009) by counting win-
ners, faults and unforced errors. This is very challenging and requires knowledgeable observers
to classify errors during data collection. The percentage of unforced errors is a valid perform-
ance indicator in all racket sports when the data are reliable. However, at the elite level, some
errors may appear to be unforced but observers need to take into consideration the quality of
the shot that a player is trying to return. It was for this reason that O’Donoghue and Ingram
(2001) decided to classify point outcomes as winners or errors without distinguishing between
forced and unforced errors.
Tactical analysis
Technique analysis can be thought of as investigating whether a skill is being performed cor-
rectly. Tactical analysis, on the other hand, is concerned with whether the correct skill is being
performed. Irrespective of the quality of execution of a skill, tactical analysis is concerned with
the decision to select the skill rather than the other options that may have been available in
the given situation. Performance analysis typically uses observational techniques, which cannot
directly observe the strategy decided prior to a match or moment-to-moment tactical decisions
that are made within a match. However, patterns of play in sports allow inferences to be made
about the strategies and tactics adopted by players. The types of events performed, the location
of events and timings of events all give indications of strategic and tactical decisions that are
made by players.
407
In racket sports, tactics can be inferred from player positioning (Underwood and McHeath,
1977), point profiles (O’Donoghue and Liddle, 1998), rally duration (O’Donoghue and Ingram,
2001; Ming et al., 2008), shot types (Oswald, 2009) and shot placement (Hughes and Clarke,
1995). Service strategy is an important aspect of table tennis that has been analysed by examining
the use of forehand and backhand serves, direction of serve, application of spin and depth of serve
(Drianovski and Otcheva, 2002). Service placement has also been used as an indicator of strategy
in tennis, with players showing a tendency to serve to the backhand of both right-handed and
left-handed opponents (O’Donoghue, 2009b). Unierzyski and Wieczorek (2004) found that
serve placement may also be influenced by court surface, with fast tennis courts favouring serves
to the ‘T’, while slower courts favour more serves played to wide areas to open up the court.
The profile of shots played is also an indicator of strategy. This was one of the indicators of
strategy that showed similarities in 21 and 15-point (11-point for women) badminton matches
(Ming et al., 2008). Another indicator of strategy is the proportion of points of two or more
shots where players attack the net (O’Donoghue and Ingram, 2001). The exclusion of aces,
double faults, serve winners and return winners means that only those points where players had
an option to approach the net were considered.
Player movement is dictated by tactical concerns, with squash players seeking to position
themselves around the ‘T’ in between shots to give the optimal chance of reaching whatever
shot the opponent plays. Vučković et al. (2009) used the SAGIT/Squash player-tracking system
to compare the movement patterns of squash players in a world team championship with play-
ers in Slovenian national championships and a local recreational tournament. The system uses
image-processing techniques to analyse play filmed by a camera located on the ceiling of the
squash court. The clearest finding of this study was that players at higher levels of the game spent
more time in the ‘T’ area when the opponents were playing shots than players at lower levels.
Furthermore, winning players in Slovenian national championships and the local recreational
tournament spent more time at the ‘T’ than losing players at these tournaments. A later paper
by Vučković et al. (2010) revealed limited reliability of the SAGIT/Squash system; however,
much of the measurement error reported may be systematic error that can be corrected during
analysis, rather than random error.
Although much tactical analysis research in racket sports has been done using data from
actual competition, there is still scope for controlled experimental investigation in the study of
decision making and tactics in racket sports. An example in table tennis used kinematic analysis
as well as line of gaze to investigate visual and motor behaviour during forehand strokes (Rod-
rigues et al., 2002). Mobile eye-tracker technology was used with an image mixer to present
the eye image, the player’s view and an observer’s view of forehands played. A serving player
fed balls consistently, with pre-, early and late cues indicating the target location that forehands
were to be played to. ‘Quiet eye’ was defined as the duration of final fixation on a crucial loca-
tion before the initiation of action. This study showed that lower-skilled players had a later
‘quiet eye’ onset during missed shots than successful shots, while higher-skilled players had
similar ‘quiet eye’ onset between missed shots and successful shots.
Tactical analysis can be limited when using event frequencies and summary data for whole
performances. Temporal analysis is concerned with sequences of events and probabilities of
options being chosen in different situations. One example of such research in table tennis is
the Markov chain model of table tennis strokes developed by Pfeiffer et al. (2010). This model
showed states within rallies and the events which resulted in state transitions. The model cov-
ered game actions, stroke position, the direction shots were played and detail of the technique
used. The temporal information was displayed in the form of transition matrices and state
charts.
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Physical aspects of play

The physical demands of racket sports can be investigated using observational methods to evalu-
ate movement characteristics as well as estimates of game intensity, including heart-rate response
.
(HR), measures of oxygen consumption (VO2), blood lactate concentration ([La]) and rating
of perceived exertion (Fernandez Fernandez et al., 2006; Gomes et al., 2011). The average
physiological responses to tennis match play have been reported to be rather modest, with mean
.
exercise intensities of 60–70 per cent VO2max and 60–80 per cent HRmax. In general, [La] values
.
do not exceed 4 mmol.l–1. In squash, the mean intensity is higher: 70–85 per cent VO2max and
80–90 per cent HR max with [La] up to 8–9 mmol.l–1 (Girard et al., 2007b). Game intensity in
.
badminton (75–85 per cent VO2max; 75–90 per cent HRmax; 3 <[La] < 6 mmol.l–1) is generally
lower than in squash but higher than in tennis (Faude et al., 2007). To date, the limited data
available during table tennis match play in internationally competing juniors have demonstrated
.
low cardiorespiratory and metabolic demands (VO2 = 26 ml.kg–1.min–1; HR = 126 beat.min–1;
[La] = 1.1 mmol.l–1) (Sperlich et al., 2011). Thus the physical and physiological demands in
racket sports can vary to a large extent and can be influenced by a multitude of factors, such as
the style of the player, the gender, the level and style of the opponent, the surface, the equip-
ment (i.e. missile and racket characteristics) and the environmental factors (i.e. temperature
and humidity) (Fernandez Fernandez et al., 2006). In tennis, being female, slower surfaces,
type 3 balls, longer match duration and baseline play increase the aerobic demands, whereas
being male, fast surfaces, type 1 balls, shorter match duration, serve and volley play increase the
anaerobic demands.
The duration of competition in racket sports varies from 30 to 60 minutes in squash and
badminton to more than five hours in tennis, but average durations of 30–90 minutes are com-
mon in all racket sports. A broad analysis of the demands of racket sports can be done using
rally times and inter-rally breaks; this has been done in tennis (O’Donoghue and Ingram, 2001),
badminton (Cabello-Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003) and squash (Girard et al., 2007b).
In most high-level matches, the rallies last on average between 2 and 20 s and the work-to-rest
ratio between 1:1.1 and 1:1.5. Nevertheless, match activity varies widely across racket sports. In
Grand Slam tennis, the mean duration of rally and resting periods are approximately 4–8 s and
20 s, respectively (O’Donoghue and Ingram, 2001). Rally times have been found to be longer
(9 s) in regional and national level tennis tournaments but resting periods are still about 20 s
(Torres-Luque et al., 2011). The average effective playing time ranges usually between 10 per
cent and 30 per cent of the game duration, whereas, in squash, the point duration is longer (10–
20 s) and the resting period is shorter (7–8 s), so the effective playing time is 50–70 per cent (Gir-
ard et al., 2007b; Montpetit, 1990). The mean rally length fails to portray the demands of a game
as there can be a full range of rally lengths. For example, in international badminton singles, the
mean rally duration has been measured at 6.4 s (Cabello-Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003).
However, only 61.7 per cent of rallies were between 3 s and 9 s in duration. Similarly, the mean
rest duration in international badminton was measured at 12.9 s but only 48.6 per cent of rests
were between 9 s and 15 s (Cabello-Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003).
A tennis player typically runs an average of 3 m per shot and a total of 8–12 m in the course of
a point, completing 300–500 high-intensity efforts during a best-of-three set match (Fernandez
Fernandez et al., 2009). The number of directional changes in an average point is four. About
80 per cent of all strokes are played within 2.5 m of the player’s ready position, while about 10
per cent of strokes are made with 2.5–4.5 m of movement. Liddle et al. (1996) used notational
analysis to estimate that male badminton players cover 18.6 m during a singles rally and 9.5 m
during a men’s doubles rally. Distances covered in squash can now be measured using automatic
409
player-tracking systems such as SAGIT/Squash (Vučković et al., 2010). The reliability of this
system has been reported without breaking the error down into systematic bias and random
error components. It is therefore difficult to assess whether SAGIT/Squash is sufficiently reli-
able for different types of study, but further analysis of reliability data should be able to analyse
those types of study where the system can be applied.
The activity within rallies is difficult to characterise using the locomotive movement classes
typically used in time-motion studies of field games. Therefore, researchers have developed
more specific movement classifications to describe the activity within rallies in racket sports.
Richers (1995) introduced the concept of continuous footstep movements to study movement
within tennis rallies. She found that there were between five and six footsteps taken within
average footstep movements during rallies on clay, grass and cement surfaces. However, the 2.5
continuous footstep movements made per rally on grass was lower than the 3.6 movements on
clay and the 3.9 movements on cement. Robinson and O’Donoghue (2008) compared path
changes, accelerations and decelerations made by Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal on grass
and clay courts. This showed that there were more path changes of 45 to 135 degrees to the
left on grass than on clay. Clay-court play was characterised by more braking movements and
accelerations from a stationary state than grass-court play. This was because a player making
a shot on clay was able to move back to the centre of the baseline and pause before having to
decide where to move to play the next shot. On a grass court, the players often had to move
directly from one side of the baseline to the other without pausing in the middle. Experimental
research has shown that performing path changes during movements elevates the oxygen cost
of movements (Botton et al., 2011). Performing 50 path changes per minute involved a greater
oxygen cost than 33 path changes per minute, which in turn involved a greater oxygen cost
than 22 path changes per minute at a range of running speeds. Further, the concept of ‘veloc-
ity coupling’ behaviour, which is a perceptual motor behaviour that occurs during coincident
timing tasks such as racket sports, has been found to increase oxygen uptake, blood lactate
concentration, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion and perceived task difficulty in tennis
(Cooke and Davey, 2007).
Fatigue impairs racket sports performance and is manifested by mistimed shots, altered on-
court movements and wrong cognitive (i.e. tactical) choices. For example, Mitchell et al. (1992)
have reported that fatigue after a three-hour tennis match play is manifested by a decreased
velocity of the serve and longer time to complete tennis pattern shuttle-runs. Girard et al. (2006)
reported progressive reductions in maximal voluntary strength (10–13 per cent decrease in
quadriceps) and leg stiffness highly correlated with increases in perceived exertion and muscle
soreness throughout a three-hour tennis match, whereas explosive strength was maintained and
decreased only after exercise. Furthermore, a 16 per cent decrease in knee extensor isomet-
ric maximum voluntary contraction torque was observed after a one-hour squash match play
(Girard et al., 2010c). The aetiology of muscle fatigue in racket sports is a complex phenomenon
(i.e. distinction between temporary fatigue and fatigue occurring in the final stage of a competi-
tion) that involves impairment in both neural (suboptimal muscle activation) and contractile
(accumulation of metabolites) processes (Girard and Millet, 2008; Girard et al., 2010c). Hot
environments and dehydration worsen fatigue, whereas carbohydrate supplementation before
or during competitions may delay the development of fatigue (Hornery et al., 2007).
Future research directions

Further research in racket sport performance needs to take advantage of technological advances.
For example, the Hawk-Eye system (Hawk-Eye Innovations, Basingstoke, UK) is accurate
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ball-tracking technology that is applied during real matches rather than being restricted to con-
trolled experiments.
Because the segmental coordination of movement execution may be rearranged with fatigue
(Forestier and Nougier, 1998), future experiments should consider changes in kinematics,
kinetics or EMG signals of body segments involved in the kinetic chain to explain the decrease
in stroke effectiveness during prolonged match play. However, there is more to performance
analysis of sport than notational analysis and biomechanics. An expanded array of methods can
be used in performance analysis of sport (O’Donoghue, 2010: 2). There have already been
examples of other ways of analysing actual sports performance in racket sports. Buscombe et al.
(2006) analysed body language, demonstrating that opponent body language could affect the
perceptions of a player. Other research using new types of data from actual sports performance
includes the research of Poziat et al. (2009), who have analysed verbalisations made during table
tennis matches. There is other research into racket sports which is covered elsewhere in this
handbook. For example, squash has been used as an exemplar of sport as a dynamic self-organis-
ing system (McGarry et al., 2002). Feedback systems for table tennis have been developed using
ball impact detection technology (Baca and Kornfeind, 2009) and interactive video analysis of
shot types (Leser and Baca, 2009). Further development and evaluation of such systems in all
racket sports is another important area for future research.
Finally, the increasing interest in performance analysis in tennis must be expanded to the
other racket sports. Future experiments must be done in a context appropriate to game play
(specificity of the experimental situation) with, in parallel, a high level of standardisation and
reliability of the measures.
Concluding remarks
A considerable volume of research has been done in racket sports performance, with some of
the earliest notational analysis research being applied in squash (Hughes, 1998). However, as
sports science has emerged, more ambitious studies have used a greater variety of methods in
the investigation of different aspects of racket sports. These include kinematic analysis, ground
reaction force measures, plantar pressure data, physiological measures and player tracking data.
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