IMST Merged File

2 Electronic product design and
development stages
OBJECTIVES
2.1 Explain the concept of product development with a block diagram.
2.2 Give classification of Electronic Products.
2.3 Explain the Techno Commercial Feasibility of a product.
2.4 Explain customer requirements
2.5 Explain R&D prototype Assessment of reliability.
2.6 Explain factors for reliability of equipment.
2.7 Explain quality considerations.
2.8 List reasons for failure of an electronic product
2.9 Explain Bath tub curve
2.10 Explain the concept of ergonomic and aesthetic considerations of pilot production
2.11 Explain Product packaging and storage
2.12 Estimate power supply requirements of an electronic product
2.13 List two types of power supply protection devices
2.14 Define noise reduction.
2.15 Explain grounding, shielding and guarding techniques
2.16 Explain Thermal management
2-2 Electronic Product Design and Development Stages
2.0 Introduction
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Every electronic product consists of many components that can be interconnected
so that some specific functions can be performed. These products have to be developed
systematically. The development can be carried out at various module levels. The
modules have to satisfy the specific task or function. At the end of the development, the
verification is done. The different methods to work out are:
• Functional analysis
• Synthesis
• Verification of decision
• Documentation
The main tasks at each module level are discussed here.
a) Functional Analysis:
Hardware and software are integral parts of every electronic product. The
specific requirements of a product to be carried out are assigned to either hardware or
software. At the same time, the human interface to the system plays an important role.
The environmental conditions, in which the product works, also decide the types of
components to be used for the hardware. These components are cascaded such that the
required targets can be achieved. The main aim of all these activities is to reduce the
complexity of the product.
b) Synthesis:
Synthesis is the process of testing and verifying the functional requirements of a
product. The test can be physically carried out on a bread board or simulated.
c) Verification and Decision Making:
Based on the test report, the verification to meet the requirements has to be
validated. From this report of verification, final decision of product development can be
taken.
d) Documentation:
Documentation is the heart of any product development. The detailed
explanation of product can be given by different forms of documents – brochures and
user manuals – where the following details are discussed in a user-friendly manner:
• Different test performed
• Test results
• Verification
• Maintenance
Product development is a process within organizations. As a process it takes a
series of inputs and, within a given set of constraints, produces a set of outputs. Fig. 2.0
depicts this general process form. The inputs can be in the form of raw materials,
Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies
Electronic Product Design and Development Stages 2-3
components, people skills, time, money and so on. These basic inputs are transformed
by the process which operates with a set of constraints which would include the
company procedures and practices, the quality system, the human resources system, and
so on. The end result is the output, the final product, the service provided, or whatever
the process output happens to be.
Fig. 2.0 The general product development process

Product developments take place in the organizational environment present at
the time. This necessarily imposes constraints on the development. Some of these
constraints are:
• Available budget
• Company development practices and procedures
• The quality system
• Available development time
• Reporting requirements
• Available resources
2.1 Explain the concept of product development with a

block diagram.
Fig. 2.1 Concept of Product Development

Based on the requirements of the product, the cost analysis is carried out.
• This will give aMicrosoft
rough idea of the feasibility of the product at a particular specific
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cost.
• The functional analysis gives the verification of the requirements.
• Different mathematical analysis’s, simulation, using software or prototyping will
provide inside details of the product. At each stage, the drawbacks have to be
worked out and can be reduced, so that the product of suitable requirements will
be available at the lowest possible cost. The product has to satisfy certain
requirements that are given in table 2.1.
• The prototype testing will give the idea about satisfaction of the requirements to
the designer. Depending on the actual use of the product, it can be tested under
laboratory conditions as well as field trials. The field trials are necessary, because
many times the product run satisfactorily under laboratory conditions may have
some issues when tested at actual working environment.
• After verification of the test, the process of assembling the components of
subsystems is carried out to have the complete system.
Different types of Examples
requirements
Human factor and user • The product must be easy to use
interface
Performance of the • Dynamic range

product • Speed of operation (lag characteristics)
• Throughput
• Error rate
• Power dissipation/consumption
• Efficiency
• Size
• Weight, etc.
Reliability and Estimation of availability
maintainability
Safety and failure • Safety of the operator
modes • Failure modes and failure effect
• Critical failure analysis and diagnostics
Logistic support • Guidance for servicing

• Precautions while handling the product
Operating conditions Testing of product under various conditions

(environmental testing) of temperature, pressure, relative humidity,
vibrations and shock
Table 2.1: Different types of product requirements
2.2 Give classification of Electronic Products.

• Electronic products can be categorized on the basis of applications. Three major
categories are:
1. Consumer products
2. Industrial products
3. Military products
• All the product categories have different performance parameters.
• A comparison of parameters are shown in table given below.
S.No Parameters Consumer Industrial Military
Products Products Products
1. Cost Low Moderate High
2. Performance Good Better Highest
3. Cost to performance ratio Low Moderate High
4. Reliability Not good Good Highly
reliable
5. Competition Highest Few Rare
competitors
6.. Operating temperature 0 to 70 0 C − 25 to 850 C − 55 to
range 1250 C
2.3 Explain the Techno Commercial Feasibility of a

product.
• The techno-commercial feasibility study gives idea about the technical and
commercial aspect of a product.
• Techno-commercial feasibility is the feasibility of the technical specifications of the
product at a mutually agreed cost. The technical specifications of the product are
decided by the customer, manufacturer and the designer.
• The designer estimates the probable cost of development of the product for the
given specifications. If the customer is agreed on the cost, then the further
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development activities are initiated.
• The R and D designer prepares a bill of material (abbreviated as BOM) of the
product, which can be handed over to the costing department.
• The costing department works out on the probable selling cost of the product by
considering the different factors such as cost of the material, purchasing, labor cost,
manufacturing overheads, cost for warranty/guarantee, different taxes to be paid
and profit margin.
• Once the management approves the proposed selling price, the same can be
communicated to the customer in the form of quotations that include the details
such as specification and model number of the product, price/quantity, discount
on bulk purchasing, various taxes (such as VAT) and delivery period. The
customer prepares a Purchase Order (abbreviated as PO) and sends it to the
manufacturer. This completes the different activities of techno-commercial
feasibility.
• Techno-commercial feasibility of any product includes following main types of
document:
1. Technical specification of product
2. Design approach
3. Bill of material and overheads
4. Final cost estimation
Example 1.1: Manufacturing of DC regulated power supply with specifications as
under:
1. Output voltage =  5V
2. Load regulation =  0.5%
3. Protection for device = Fold back at 110% line filters, Transzorbs
4. Display = 7 – segment LED
5. Expected cost per unit Rs. 1000/-
It is a conventional type of power supply with necessary protections.
Bill of Material
S.No. Component Component Quantity Total
Specification Price
1. Mains 6 – 0.6 01 100/-
transformer
2. Diodes 1N4007 06 18/-

3. Capacitors 3300 μF/16V 07 150/-

100 μF/16V
0.01 μF/16V
4. Resistors 100 K, 10 30/-

10 K/1W ,
100Ω / 2W
5. Regulators 7805 7905 02 25/-
6. Transistors 2N2222, 04 40/-

BC546
7. LED display LT547 02 200/-
8. Glass fuse --- 01 10/-
and holder
9. Transzorb 320V 01 30/-
10. PCB with Glass Epoxy 01 50/-
mountings 10  10 cm
11. Cabinet --- 01 200/-
Total 853/-
• If other overheads are considered as upto Rs. 100/-, the cost per unit goes upto
Rs. 1000/-. The cost per unit can be further reduced in mass production.
2.4 Explain customer requirements

• Definition 1: Customer requirements refer to the specifications or features of a
product or service that are deemed necessary by customers. These requirements
motivate customers to buy a product or service.
• Definition 2: A customer requirement is a requirement that is derived from a
sales order, quotation, or service order and to which details on the anticipated
availability date of products required to fulfill the requirement may be added.
• It contains the quantities of products required at specific dates as well as
information about which products will be available or delivered in which
quantities at which dates.
• The marketing, or sales, department after interacting with the customers can find
out the requirements that can be translated into technical specifications by joint
meeting of the customer, manufacturer and the design team.

• Customer Requirements are the certain specific expectations of product features
or characteristics with expected quality and value that should be present in a
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product for it to be deemed useful and desirable by the customer.
• The following are the some of the customer requirements
1. Price
• The price of a product or service can affect customers' purchasing decisions, as
each customer has unique budget allowances or constraints. They may compare
prices between competitors to determine which offers the best deal or decide
whether they are willing to pay for quality versus convenience.
• Companies must understand their customers to set the right price or discounts.
However, these companies must also price their product or services high enough
to ensure they make money.
• Example: A haircare company might offer a bundle of three products for a
discount. While the customer saves money because the bundle costs less than
buying products separately, the company increases its revenue because the value
of their purchase ends up being larger.
2. Quality
• The quality of a product or the materials used to manufacture it can impact
purchasing decisions.
• A customer may consider a high-quality product to be one that lasts a significant
amount of time, rather than one that breaks easily.
• Quality can also depend on the customer's preferences.
• Example: Customer may prefer buying organic foods because they believe those
foods have benefits that create a higher quality product.
3. Functionality
• Every product or service has a purpose, which is its function. Often, customers
require products and services that solve specific problems or meet specific goals
or desires.
• Example: A customer may want to purchase a couch that they not only can sit
on but can also convert into a bed for sleeping. Functional requirements are an
essential component of software development—these requirements define what
the system does.
4. Reliability
• When customers purchase something, they want the ability to rely on it to
perform its intended function.
• Along with reliability, customers seek durability. They expect that the product
or service will last a reasonable lifespan or throughout continued use.

• Companies looking to provide reliability often need to test their products and
services to ensure they can withstand potential challenges. For example, when a
customer purchases a car, they expect they can drive it often and in all types of
weather.
• Therefore, car manufacturers perform tests to ensure their models can handle
varying temperatures and road conditions.
5. Performance
• Customers not only require that a product or service performs its intended
purpose but also that it does it well.
• The definition of good performance varies, but examples may include its speed
or accuracy when conducting tasks.
• Customers also purchase products specifically to improve the performance of
another product.
• Example: A person who plays video games on their computer can buy a new
graphics card to enable higher video quality.
6. Risk reduction
• When making purchases, some customers consider risk—for example, they want
to ensure that they will not lose money.
• To ease such concerns, many companies offer and promote return or guarantee
policies. These policies may help attract customers and make them feel more
comfortable making a purchase.
• Example: A shoe company might provide customers a 30-day window to try
their purchase. If the customer determines they do not like the shoes, they can
return the product and receive their money back.
7. Safety
• Safety can be an important consideration for customers, as they want to ensure
the product does not cause harm to them or those around them.
• Companies can promote products by confirming they meet relevant safety
regulations or standards.
• Example : They want a toy that does not have sharp edges or small pieces that
pose a choking hazard.
8. Design Appearance
• Design can often serve as an umbrella for other requirements, such as experience
or accessibility.
• Design may refer to ease of use.
• Example: A collapsible umbrella might be more attractive to customers because
it takes up less space and is easier to carry.
• Appearance can also play a critical role in design requirements. If a customer
finds a website visually appealing, for example, it can make them more likely to
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continue visiting and using it.
9. Privacy
• A common customer requirement when purchasing or using services is privacy.
• Companies often provide terms and conditions to inform customers of how their
data will or will not be used.
• To meet customers' requirements, some companies may even promote their
commitment to privacy or provide additional privacy options.
• Example: A social media site may allow its users to disable the use of
personalized ads.
2.5 Explain R&D prototype Assessment of reliability.

• The reliability is the ability of a unit to maintain its quality under specified
conditions for a specified time.
• Reliability is a measure of ability of a component, product or system to perform
its required function in an adequate manner for a specified life-cycle (period).
2.5.1. Important of Reliability
• Only reliable products are required by the consumer. The importance reliability
is mentioned here:
• Failure of product/system may cost lives or damage property
• Cost of repairing (at customers place) is much greater than cost of rejecting at the
factory.
• If product fails frequently, confidence of consumer reduces.
• Faulty product is a waste of money, time and cause inconvenience to the
consumer.
2.5.2. R&D Prototype Assessment of Reliability
• The prototype based on paper designed is prepared, which is called R&D
prototype.
• The prototype is tested for technical and functional abilities of the product.
Depending on applications, the field trials can be carried out. By referring to the
results obtained, changes, if any, required need to be carried out.
• The prototype in which such changes are incorporated is called engineering
prototype, which can also be tested again. If the design engineer is satisfied with
the test results obtained, then the documents can be forwarded to the production
department.

• A system cannot work satisfactorily over a long period of time because of the
finite value of failure rate of the components. It is not possible to manufacture
each component perfectly, since due to some other factors, the component is
likely to fail.
• The component manufactured by any manufacturer will definitely fail after some
operations or period, since the failure of component may result in system failure.
To avoid this, components are manufactured with the best reliability (R=100%
ideally, but above 98.99% practically).
2.6 Explain factors for reliability of equipment.
Fig. 2.6 Factors affecting reliability

• Various factors contribute for the reliability of a product, these factors are:
1. Design and development of product
2. Production conditions
3. Packaging and storage
4. Transportation
5. Operating conditions

• The overall reliability depends on the reliability of each stage. Appropriate
scheme to achieve a good reliable product is the basic task of the development
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process. The block diagram, as shown in fig. 2.6, shows the different factors
affecting the reliability.
• Several factors affect the reliability of a product. The following are the some
important factors
1. Poor design
• Sometimes the cause for failure may be due to poor design. The error may have
occurred for example due to too small margins of safety or due to too optimistic
design.
• Such mistakes may occur if the use environments and requirements are not
adequately known.
2. Manufacturing defects and mistakes
• For complex products manufacturing may require lots of different steps and
processes.
• These can significantly stress the products and some failures may be caused
already during manufacturing of the product.
• For example, processing may cause internal stresses or thermal damage to the
product, which results in a failure immediately or later in the hands of customer.
• Human errors may also happen in the manufacturing line, especially, if the
process control is poor, which may cause poor reliability to the product.
• For example, plastics with same name may have very different properties.
3. Quality problems
• Sometimes certain batches of products have large number of failures even
though most of the products manufactured are functioning fine.
• This may be due to a quality problem. Quality problems may be caused due to
manufacturing errors, but also due to differences between supply batches.
• For example, the properties of materials may vary markedly, and this may cause
problems for some batches.
• Therefore, properties of materials should be occasionally measured for quality
control.
4. Environmental conditions
• The environment in which the product is used or stored has naturally a
considerable effect on the reliability.
• For example, high temperature, temperature changes, high humidity or corrosive
environments tend to cause failures.

• These are important factors to consider, when reliability testing method is
chosen or when reason for failure is investigated.
• When environmental factors are considered, often use conditions are thought.
• Products are also exposed to environments which are present during
their transportation and storage.
• This might mean hot temperatures due to being stuck in a shipping container in
direct sunlight, resulting in much higher thermal exposure that was designed for
the use environment.
5. Overstress
• Overstress often causes rapid and surprising failures. In overstress a critical limit
of material, structure or component is exceeded which leads to failure.
• Overstress can be any kind of stress, such as too high temperature, too quick
temperature change, too humid or dry environment, exposure to chemicals
which can break for example polymer chains in plastics, exposure to highly
corrosive environments etc.
• Overstress may occur in manufacturing if for example chosen processing
temperature exceed the thermal limits of some material present in the product.
Another cause for overstress is misuse.
• The product may be stored in wrong conditions or the customer may be handling
the product incorrectly, for example using it in conditions exceeding the
specifications of the product.
6. Wear
• Wear means that a failure occurs because products, their materials, and
components age and therefore lose their original properties. All products wear in
time.
• The process is slow, and therefore failures due to wear develop slowly over time.
• Wear causes lots of different failure mechanisms depending on the materials,
structures, and conditions.
• For example, solder joints tend to crack due to fatigue or plastic casings become
fragile and crack due to prolonged exposure to increased temperatures or UV.
When a failure due to wear occurs in the end of useful lifetime of a product, it is
not reliability issue but a part of the normal lifecycle of a product.
2.7 Explain quality considerations.

2.7.1. Quality
The term quality can be defined in a number of different ways. Some of the most
common definitions are as follows:
• Quality is defined as the ability of the system to perform the intended function.
• Quality is fitness for use.
• Quality of a product/system
Microsoft Wordis the fitness of that product/system for meeting its
intended use, as required by the customers.
• The term “quality” is not concerned with the time and environments, the main and
fundamental goal is customers satisfaction.
2.7.2. Quality Characteristics
Quality characteristics may be one or more elements, which define the intended
quality level of a product or service. It is divided into the following types:
• Structural Characteristics: Includes elements such as the length/weight of a part,
i.e. size.
• Sensory Characteristics: Includes the taste of food (good/bad), the smell of a
sweet fragrance, and the beauty of a product.
• Time Oriented Characteristics: Includes parameter such as a warranty, reliability
and maintainability.
• Ethical Characteristics: Includes honesty, courtesy, friendliness etc.
2.7.3. Advantages
The advantages of quality control system are:
• The quality of products and services is improved.
• The system is continually evaluated and modified to meet the changing needs of
the customer.
• A quality control system improves productivity, which is one of the main goals of
all the organizations.
• Quality control practices reduce costs in the long run.
• With improved productivity, the lead time on the production of parts and
subassemblies is reduced, which may result in an improvement in meeting
customer due dates.
2.7.4. Comparisons of Reliability and Quality of Instrument
S.N Reliability Quality
1. Reliability of a unit (i.e. product) is Quality of a device is the degree of
the probability that a unit performs conformance to applicable
its intended function adequately for specifications and workmanship
a given period of time under the standards.
stated operating conditions or
environment.
2. Reliability is related with design of a Quality is associated with

unit/product. manufacturing of a unit.
3. Reliability depends on time and Quality is not related with time or

environmental conditions. environmental conditions.
4. Reliability can be between 0 and Quality cannot be defined by
100%. numerical value between 0 and 100%.
5. Reliability can be increased by It is impossible to construct good
adding one or more similar quality system from poor quality
components in parallel. elements.
6. Reliability is related with the No such relation exists.
probability.
2.8 List reasons for failure of an electronic product

• A failure is defined as a partial or total loss or change in those properties of a
device that affects its expected functioning.
• Reasons for Failures
1. Poor or incorrect design
2. Lack of maintenance
3. Wrong application of manufacturing techniques
4. Improper manufacturing process
5. Improper installation of system
6. Overload or electrical overstress
7. Complexity of equipment
8. Human errors
9. Mishandling of equipment/product
10. No quality control
11. Poor maintenance and repairing
12. Improper storage and transport
2.9 Explain Bath tub curve

• Bathtub Curve is generally graph that is used to graphically demonstrate run-to-
failure maintenance strategy.
• This curve simply represents overall life cycle of assets and failure rate of overall
population of assets over time.

• Bathtub curve is usually considered to be one of most useful and essential
graphical representations of reliability of assets.
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• Assets are usually equipment, components, or parts of equipment, etc.
• With help of such graph, one can determine and predict when failure usually
happens and then identify root causes.
• After identifying root causes, one can prevent failure from occurrence by simply
fixing root causes. It is being named bathtub curve simply because curve
resembles longitudinal section of bathtub.
• Basically Bathtub curve is divided into three different sections namely
1) Infant Mortality Failure Section:
2) Normal Life Failure Section:
3) Wear-out Failure Section:
Fig: Bath Tub Curve

1. Infant Mortality Failure Section
• Infant mortality section is simply referred to as early failure period.
• By seeing curve, one can easily understand that in this section, asset is beginning
with its usage for first time.
• Initially, failure rate i.e. probability of failure occurrence is very high and with
increasing time, there is a gradual decrease in failure rate.
• In this section, failures are usually occurred due to manufacturing defects,
installation issues, design issues, material defects, or improper start-up
procedures, etc.

2. Normal Life Failure Section
• Normal life section is simply referred to as usual life period or steady-state
operation. It can also be said that this section represents normal operating life of
assets.
• By seeing curve, one can easily understand that in this section, asset is still
experiencing failure but at normal and low rate. In this section, failures are
usually occurred due to overloading, hidden defects, collision with other objects,
mistakes of personnel, etc
• Failure occurrence generally depends upon function and condition of particular
asset. Therefore, for different asses, failure rate can be different. In this period or
section, an asset can be remaining unchecked for some time as chances of failure
occurrence is low during this period and therefore resources can be used
wherever required. Failure rate is almost constant in this phase. One can say that
failures generally occur due to random events.
3. Wear-out Failure Section
• Wear-out section is simply referred to as aging period. By seeing curve, one can
easily understand that in this section, there is gradual increase in failure rate of
assets with increasing time.
• Number of failures occurrence experienced by assets generally increases with
time.
• In this section, failures are usually occurred due to fatigue, wear, gradual
deterioration, corrosion, etc.
• This period simply represents end of life cycle of assets.
2.10 Explain the concept of ergonomic and aesthetic

considerations of pilot production
2.10.1. Ergonomic
• The term ergonomics is the combination of two words, “ergon” (means work) and
“nomous” (means natural), derived from the Greek word.
• Definition 1: It is defined as the relationship between man & Machine and the
application of anatomical, physiological & Psychological principles to solve the
problems arising from man-machine relationships.
• Definition 2: Ergonomics is defined as the scientific study of the man-machine-
working environment relationship and the application of anatomical,
physiological, and psychological principles to solve the problems arising from the
relationship.

• In short, ergonomics is related with the human factors. It is a branch of science,
dealing with the Man-Machine-Environment (in short, MME) that deals with the
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relationship between machine and operator to get the maximum output from the
MME system with less human cost.
• Ergonomics data provides a rough baseline, or starting point, for interface design.
Note: Usernomics is the another term used for ergonomics.
2.10.2. Importance of Ergonomics
• Ergonomics assist products easy to learn, easy to use, aesthetically pleasing, and
marketable. The user Interface design and usability testing be used for designing
both hardware and software products. Wide ranges of products are covered
including web-based and application software, consumer products,
communication systems, and vehicles such as automobiles and aircraft.
• The ergonomics is also useful in making workplace safe, efficient, and in
compliance. The Ergonomics Engineers apply a rigorous and systematic technique
to ensure a hazard-free and worker-safe environment.
• Ergonomics involves evaluate, design, and training of people to create an active
safety program in workplace environments including the office, manufacturing
floor, ware hours, and vehicles.
2.10.3. Ergonomic and Aesthetic Design Considerations
• Advancement in technology encourages engineers and designers to take the
challenge of developing new products for the benefit of human being. While
developing the product, they must take utmost care to design the product
properly.
• The designers and engineers should realize that they have to apply equal amount
of in-depth knowledge based on the users, while designing any machine, products
or tools. In ergonomics terms, machine, products and tools are used
synonymously. The human interface should influence the development of the
product.
2.10.4. Example: Man-Machine-Environment System
• A system is an entity that exists to carry out some purpose, and the basic of
ergonomics is a system design comprising of “man”, “machine” and
“environment” (see fig. 2.10(a)).
• Ergonomics is the science dealing with the user-product-environment (abbreviated
as UPE), as shown in fig. 2.10(b). The different physical, anatomical, physiological,
emotional and psychological limits of human being are the important parameters
to be considered for this kind of interface.

Fig. 2.10(a) Man-Machine-Environment System
Fig. 2.10(b) Input applied by Operator, Output will be given by the Machine
• The main aim is to design a safer and better UPE system, following the natural
limits/laws of a human being. It helps from the misuse of human energy, while
operating any product, or working under certain environmental conditions.
2.11 Explain Product packaging and storage

• Electronics packaging is the key to the success of modern day electronics.
Tremendous growth in component technology has shrinked the package size.
• This reduction in size, weight and volume of electronics packages has opened up
many new application areas such as automotive, medical, home security and
consumer appliances.
• Packaging, or enclosure, is a mechanical structure, support and orientation of
components, which can be provided to an electronic product. The physical
constraints of size, weight and volume can be decided based on:
1. Need of the customer
2. Requirements of the system
3. Thermal management (or cooling requirement)
4. The working environment
• The physical environment is the main factor to be considered, while making
selection of packaging.
• In case of consumer products, cost is the prime requirement to be considered,
whereas in case of industrial and medical products, the main focus is on the
support, robustness, safety and reliability.
• Also, certain regulations and standards must be followed in case of all products.
2.11.1. Functions of Packaging
• To provide electrical connections
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• To provide mechanical support to the product.
• To facilitate assembly operation.
• To distribute power to all component and chip circuits.
• To protect the circuit from environmental and mechanical damage.
• Shielding from external electromagnetic radiation and interference.
• Preventing harmful radiation going out of box.
• To remove heat generated from ICs and other components.
• To allow removal and replacement of failed components.
• To facilitate electrical and functional testing of the circuit.
2.11.2. Objectives of Packaging
• Physical Protection: Objects enclosed in a package should be protected from
shock, environmental/physical conditions, such as vibration, compression and
temperature.
• Barrier Protection: Products need to be protected from oxygen, water vapor,
dust, etc. In order to keep the contents clean, fresh and safe for the intended shelf
life is the primary function of barrier protection. Some packages contain oxygen
absorbers, which help extend shelf lives. The modified atmospheres or controlled
atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages.
• Containment or Agglomeration: Small objects are grouped together in one
package in order to safeguard efficiency.
• Information Transmission: Packages and tables contain some information that
communicates how to use, transport, recycle and dispose of the package or
product. In case of food, medical and chemical products, the typical information
such as manufacturing date, expiry data, etc. must be printed.
• Marketing: The packaging and labels are used by manufacturer to attract and
encourage potential buyers of the product. Package design plays an important role
in marketing the product. Marketing communications and graphic designs are also
applied to the package of the product.
• Security: Packaging plays an important role in ensuring the security of product
during shipment. Packages can be made with an improved tamper resistance to
deter tampering and have temper-evident features to help indicate tampering.
Protection against theft can be done by using RFID devices.
• Convenience: Packaging also gives convenience in distribution, handling,
display, sale, opening, reclosing, use and reuse.

• Portion Control: Single–serving, or single–dosage, packaging has a precise
amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities can be divided into
packages that are in more suitable size for individual households. It helps control
of inventories.
2.11.3. Storage:
• Definition: The marketing function that involves holding goods between the time
of their production and their final sale is called as Storage.
• It bridges the gap between the time when goods are produced and the time when
these are ultimately consumed as there is always a time gap between production
and consumption.
2.11.4. Importance of storage can be recognized with the
various benefits/functions it provides:
1. Creation of Time Utility
• There are products which are produced continuously throughout the year while
consumption is seasonal. Storage enables goods to be made available to buyers
whenever they are in demand.
2. Finance Function
• Storage helps to obtain or raise loans by providing collateral security of the goods
stored.
3. Creation of Form Utility
• Certain commodities improve in quality or desirability while in storage, e.g., curing
of tobacco, liquor etc. Thus, storage created form utility in certain goods.
4. Stabilising Prices
• Another function of storage is to stabilise prices by making the goods available in
the market whenever there is demand.
5. Regular Production
• Storage performs the function of smoothing out irregularities in production. In the
present age of competition, every manufacturer tries to produce in anticipation of
demand so as to provide free supply in the market well in time.
6. Ability to Face Natural Calamities
• Storage enables the society to face natural calamities such as floods, famine,
drought etc. In such emergencies, commodities can be made available from the
storage.
7. Reduction of Risk
• Storage reduces the risk of owner of goods as the owner of goods can store
merchandise with reputed warehouses which absorb a part of the risk.

8. Saving in Transportation Costs
• Storage allows accumulation
Microsoft Wordof stocks to be transported in bulk quantities so as to
reduce the transportation costs.
2.11.5. Need for storage is highlighted by the following
reasons:
• The need for storage arises mainly because of the time gap between production and
consumption of goods.
1. In the present competitive world, production is carried on in anticipation of
demand and not necessarily for immediate sale. Thus, the producer has to make
sufficient arrangements for the storage of goods.
2. Many commodities are consumed regularly throughout the year while their
production has seasonal character. Such commodities have to be kept in storage
in the season when they are available in plenty to be used or sold on demand.
3. Some commodities have regular production but seasonal consumption. Such
commodities also need storage for the period when there is no demand.
4. Certain commodities have to be stored to improve their quality such as curing of
tobacco, liquor etc.
5. Raw materials have to be stored to enable continuous production without
stoppage.
6. Storage of goods is a necessity during depression when there is little demand
and prices are going down.
7. Middlemen have to keep stock of goods to enable them earn profits by storage
of goods and making the goods available on demand.
8. Storage is needed to adjust demand and supply of goods in the market.
2.12 Estimate power supply requirements of an

electronic product
• All electronic devices and product requires electrical power for its operation.
Both AC and DC power sources are available. For determining the total electrical
power capacity needed, it is necessary to understand the amount of power
required by the circuit.
• Every electronic device and the product require electrical energy, such as AC or
DC power. The main AC power supply used is 230V AC mains, while many
products require DC power that can be obtained by conversion process.
• Efficiency is the main goal in power supply design. Energy efficiency is a very
important consideration in the design of power supplies.

• The losses in the conversion of power from a primary source into other form are
necessarily estimated to meet specific system load requirements. If losses are
more, then it will be a costly affair to the customer.
• Hence various efforts can be worked out to improve the efficiency due to which
the transition from linear regulators to high-frequency switching technologies,
i.e. switch-mode power supplies (SMPS), can be done.
• The sizes of power supply used should be based on the power requirements of
all the system components. Hence while choosing the correct power sources and
size, we need to understand the power requirements of the device in the product.
• The basic unit of power measurement is watt. For a power source, the two
ratings are important:
(a) Steady state wattage
(b) Surge wattage.
• If it is required to operate sensitive devices such as microprocessors,
microcontrollers and memories, from a power supply, the designer should place
an excellent surge protection in the equipment. When a large devices turns on,
there is no way that a small power supply will be able to keep power stable
during the surge.
• The four operating conditions of power supply are:
1. Standby (or off) Mode
• It is the lowest power/non-user-controlled mode.
2. Sleep Mode
• It is an automatic, but user-defined, low-power mode with fast wake up.
• The sleep mode can be automatic or user-defined to occur after a period
of inactivity. There may be multiple levels of “sleep” within a given
system.
3. Idle Mode
• In this mode, the unit is fully operational but inactive. The idle mode
defines the condition when a user leaves the system in the middle of a
project.
• It is a subset of the active mode and is proposed with both an efficiency
limit and a time limit before automatically switching to a sleep.
4. Active Mode
• In active mode, a power unit does some useful work, depending on use,
the power required is high compared to other modes.

2.13 List two types of power supply protection devices

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• Protection devices useful for the protection of circuits. Usually, this protection is
from extreme voltage or current. To mention, circuit protections are the electrical
device that prevents the devices from the flow of unnecessary currents as well as
the short currents.
• Different power supply protection devices are
1. Line filters
2. Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV)
3. Transzorbs (TVS=Transient Voltage Suppressors)
4. Fuses
5. Circuit Breaker
6. PolySwitch
7. RCCB
8. Inrush Current Limiter
9. Gas Discharge Tube
10. Lighting Arrester
2.14 Define noise reduction.

2.14.1. Noise in Electronic Circuits
• Any electrical signal present in a circuit other than the desired signal is known as
noise.
• Noise is also defined as an undesired electrical activity coupled from one circuit
to other circuit. If a noise voltage causes an improper operation of the circuit, it is
called interference. Noise cannot be eliminated completely but can be reduced in
magnitude.
• In order to reduce the noise from the circuit or the equipment, a proper care
should be taken during design phase only. Once you are aware of noise present
in the system, then you must give thought on what are the causes for the noise.
• The different noise sources are:
1. Power lines
2. Motors
3. High-voltage equipment
4. Discharge and sparks
5. High current equipment

2.14.2. Noise Reduction

• Definition: Noise reduction is the process of removing noise from a signal. In
order to minimize the effects of noise, the following methods are most widely
used:
1. Shielding: Provides a metallic enclosure to a radiating element
2. Grounding: Uses suitable grounding techniques, depending on the type of
circuit.
3. Filtering: Process filters out the noise.
4. Insulation: Provides a suitable insulation so that noise cannot be coupled.
5. Impedance level control: Matching of impedance between two circuits.
6. Proper cable selection
7. Frequency cancellation techniques
2.15 Explain grounding, shielding and guarding

techniques
2.15.1. (A) Grounding
• The grounding is one of the primary and basic method of minimizing unwanted
noises and pickups, proper grounding, cabling, or the combination of both, will
reduce a number of noise problems. The grounding provides safety as well as
signal reference.
• A fundamental property of any electronic circuit is that the voltages present within
it are referenced to a common point called as ground. This point may also be a
connection point for the power to the circuit and it is then called the 0V. When we
talk about 5V supply or a − 12V supply, each of these is referred to the 0V.
• At the same time, ground is not the same as 0V. A ground wire connects
equipment to earth for safely reasons and does not carry a current in normal
operation. But the word “grounding” is used in usual sense, to include both safety
earth of signal and power return paths.
(B) Use of Grounding
• Grounding minimizes the voltage differential between the measuring instrument
and a reference point
• The main purpose of grounding is to provide:
➢ Overvoltage protection
➢ Voltage stabilization
➢ Current path

(C) Types of grounding
• The grounding isMicrosoft
divided Word
into two types:
(1) Safety Ground
(2) Signals Ground
a) Single point ground
b) Multiple point ground
c) Hybrid point ground
• The ground which is connected to the earth through a low impedance path is
called an earth ground. The safety grounds are at the earth potential, whereas the
signal grounds may or may not be at the earth potential.
Symbol Function Application
Safety ground Connection to an electrical ground
structure.
Signal ground Connection to chassis that does not conduct
current.
Signal return Conductor for return current for signal or
power.
2.15.2. (A) Shielding

• Definition: Shielding of cable protects signal wires from noise pickup or to prevent
power or signal wires from radiating noise. The noise pickup may be through magnetic
flux, electric field or electromagnetic wave propagation.
• A shield is a metallic partition placed between two regions, used to control the
propagation of electric and magnetic field from one region to the other, and the
shielding is a process of limiting the flow of electromagnetic field between two
locations, by separating them with a barrier made up of a conductive material.
(B) Functions of Shielding
As the main and important functions of shielding, it reduces the:
• Capacitive interference signal to the ground since it affects the measuring circuits.
• Electrostatic interference
• Magnetic field
• Shielding prevents noise energy from coupling between circuits or suppresses it.
The energy coupling may be the magnetic flux, electric field or electromagnetic
wave propagation.
• An electromagnetic shielding used to block radio frequency electromagnetic
radiation is also known as a RF shielding.

• It provides protection only for the specific equipment contained within the shield.
That is, shielding the noise source is more efficient than shielding the receptor.
• A shield may be used to keep the electromagnetic radiation out of region.
The designer must analyze each component of the system to find out whether any
radiations are possible at any level within the system.
(C) Types of Shielding
Different shielding techniques are:
• Inductive shielding
• Capacitive shielding
• Electromagnetic shielding
2.15.3 Guarding Techniques
Fig. 2.15.3. Use of guarding for (a) inverting configuration (b) voltage follower circuit (c)
non inverting configuration (d) IC pins
• Guarding technique accepts that there will be some degree of leakage to the high –
impedance node, but minimizes the current flow to it by surrounding it with a
conductive trace that is connected to a low-impedance point at the same potential.
• If the voltage difference between two nodes is forced to be very low, the apparent
resistance between them is magnified. The electrical connections and printed circuit
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layouts for the guarding for the basic op-amp configurations are as shown in
Fig.2.15.3.
• The guard ring will essentially absorb the leakage from other tracks, reducing that
reaching the high-impedance point that is high-input impedance of op-amp.
• In case of a double-sided board, the guard should be on both sides. Though the
guard virtually eliminates surface leakage, it has less effect on bulk leakage through
the board. With respect to surface resistance, the width of the track is not important.
The wider guard will improve the effect on bulk resistance.
• Need of guarding should be estimated during the initial design stages of the
product so as to reduce the interference of leakage with the actual circuit
performance.
• Fig. 2.15.3.(b) shows a component under test. R1 with R A and R B forms a parallel-
path shunting resistance.
• A measurement across points P1 and P3 will gives incorrect value of R1 . The
unknown resistance R1 must be isolated with R A and R B before its resistance may
be measured accurately.
• This may be carried out by one of the method of guarding by connecting P2 to a
guard point G that is at an earth potential. In this way, the effect of R A and R B is
negligible with virtually all the current flowing from R1 going to op-amp.
• The loading effect of R A is negligible, because of very low resistance of power
supply providing the stimulus voltage R B is earthed at virtual earth and thus
taking no current. In practice, parallel paths are more complex, and guarding may
not be as simple as shown in Fig.2.15.3(a).
Fig. 2.15.3. (b) Guarding

2.16 Explain Thermal management

• A thermal management system involves controlling temperature through
technology. This technology is based on thermodynamics and heat transfer.
• It is the nature of electronic component that they dissipate power when in operation
any flow of current through a non-ideal component will develop some power
within the component, which in turn causes rise in temperature.
• This rise may be a fraction of degree Celsius, when less than milli-watt is dissipated,
extending to several watts when dissipation is in watts.
• Since excess temperature may kill components, some method must be found to
maintain the component operating temperature at a reasonable level. This is known
as thermal management.
• The thermal management is as important as the electronic design. Easy electronic
circuit generates heats. Since the conversion efficiency of all devices is less than
100% i.e. there is some loss in the process of conversion. This loss in the energy is
called thermal or heat energy dissipation.
• The transfer of thermal energy within electronics circuit is measured in terms of
power.
• Heat generated or dissipated = Input power – Output power
Pd = Pin − Pout
• The efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power and is
given by,
P
η = out
Pin
• Therefore,
Pd = (1 − η)Pin
• The two main effects of heat/temperature increment on a product are:
1. Change of operation in case of temperature sensitive devices.
2. The reliability decreases with thermal stress

3 Electronic Product testing &
Documentation
OBJECTIVES
3.1 Explain the importance of product testing and Environmental testing
3.2 Explain Dry heat testing, Vibration testing, random testing and Bump testing
3.3 Explain Temperature extreme testing for linear and step stress profiles
3.4 Explain Vibration & temperature cycling
3.5 Explain EMI and EMC compliance testing standardization
3.6 Explain UL and CE Certification of industrial electronic products.
3.7 Explain the importance of documentation
3.8 List types of documentation.
3.9 Explain types of documents
3.10 List rules for preparation of effective document
3.11 Explain PCB documentation
3.12 Explain Assembly and fabrication related documentation for Laminate grade
3.13 Explain the preparation a manual document
3.14 Explain the details of service manual
3.15 Explain test report/manuals
3.16 Explain product documentation, Bill of materials, Production test specifications
3-2 Electronic Product Testing & Documentation
3.0 Introduction
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The theory is that since the advent of mass production manufacturers produce
branded products which they assert and advertise to be identical within some technical
standard.
Product testing seeks to ensure that consumers can understand what products will
do for them and which products are the best value. Product testing is a strategy to
increase consumer protection by checking the claims made during marketing strategies
such as advertising, which by their nature are in the interest of the entity distributing the
service and not necessarily in the interest of the consumer. The advent of product testing
was the beginning of the modern consumer movement.
Product testing might be accomplished by a manufacturer, an independent
laboratory, a government agency, etc. Often an existing formal test method is used as a
basis for testing. Other times engineers develop methods of test which are suited to the
specific purpose. Comparative testing subjects several replicate samples of similar
products to identical test conditions.
Product testing is any process by means of which a researcher measures a
product's performance, safety, quality, and compliance with established standards. The
primary element which constitutes an objective comparative test program is the extent to
which the researchers can perform tests with independence from the manufacturers,
suppliers, and marketers of the products.
3.1 Explain the importance of product testing and

Environmental testing
• Testing is an essential part of developing a quality product.
• It helps manufacturers create products that are reliable within certain technical
standards.
• In other words, testing is a necessary step for product development teams to go
through to provide high quality products that last. Perhaps most importantly,
product testing can ensure that an item is safe for general use.
• Product testing, also called consumer testing or comparative testing, is a process of
measuring the properties or performance of products.
• Testing of any consumer product, raw materials and parts is a necessary requirement
in providing total quality assurance to clients and ensuring the overall safety of
products.
3.1.1. Importance of Product Testing

➢ Help solve problems with current product.
➢ Help identify potential cost savings in products.
Electronic Product Testing & Documentation 3-3
➢ The types of damage to products found from consumer usage.
➢ Determine or verify that, the requirements of a specification.
➢ Provide standard data for other scientific, engineering, and quality assurance
functions.
➢ Decide if a new product development program is on track: Demonstrate proof of
concept.
➢ Validate suitability for end-use.
➢ Provides a basis for technical communication.
3.1.2. Importance of Environmental Testing
• Environmental testing is used to test the products in their defined operating
environments, so that they will perform as specified.
• The tests simulate the actual conditions of a product in a closed space. The test
consists of simulating the environment interms of a climate conditions and
mechanical conditions encountered during actual operation and transportation.
• The following are various environmental test methods:
• Dry heat test
• Solar radiation test
• Vibration test
• High – temperature test
• Temperature cycling
• Bump test
• Humidity test
• Altitude test
• Special tests such as:
➢ Salt spray and salt fog
➢ Icing/freezing rain
➢ Explosive atmosphere
➢ Fluid compatibility
➢ Combined environment
➢ Sand and dust
➢ Fungus test
➢ Wind and rain exposure
• These tests include dry test, humidity, damp heat (dry heat + humidity), vibration
testing, bounce, drop and impact testing etc. These tests are required to be performed
in standard laboratories that are authorized to issue compliance certificates based on
results of various tests performed on the product.
• Organizations such as defense, avionics and industries like oil and natural gas,
where safety and reliability are critical, compulsorily perform environmental testing.
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For some manufacturers, environmental testing is a customer’s requirement.
• The environmental stress testing is necessary to assess component, product and
system level reliability for products including information technology equipment,
telecommunications devices, electronics and industrial equipment. The
environmental stress test team includes experts in reliability engineering who
provide consultation on test plan development and methodology.
• The electronic devices are tested to the environmental conditions outlined in MIL-
STD 810 and the IEC 60068 (formally known as IEC 68) family of standards.
• The three most typical environmental stresses are temperature, humidity and
vibration. The tests consists of simulating the environment in terms of climatic
testing viz.dry heat, humidity, damp heat (dry heat + humidity) vibration testing,
bounce impact testing etc.
• These tests provide a confidence to designers that the product will work reliably in
its intended environment. Nowadays manufacturers are providing warranty of 7 to
10 year for electronic products, it would be highly risky to offer such extended
warranties without test data to back them up.
3.2 Explain Dry heat testing, Vibration testing, random

testing and Bump testing
3.2.1. Dry Heat Testing
• Dry heat tests are applicable to both heat-dissipating and non heat-dissipating
product components.
• The main objective of the dry heat test is limited to the determination of the
ability of components, equipment or other articles to be used, transported or
stored at high temperature.
• These dry heat tests do not guarantee the ability of specimens to operate during
the temperature variations.
• This test is carried out in a dry heat chamber with mono-block construction.
These chambers are created with multi-layered insulation with double vapor
barrier having low K factor, high density and of non-hygroscopic in nature.
• The air circulation within the chamber is of forced type.
• The dry heat tests are divided as per the heat-dissipating and non heat-
dissipating product components.
• After this test, the test report is given in the following format:
1. Test Equipment
• Test Site (Name of Lab)
• Programmable Temperature and Humidity Chamber
• Product S/N
2. Lab Environmental Conditions
• Ambient Temperature
• Relative Humidity
3. Test Method/Specification
• Reference to IEC Standard Number ……… Testing Procedures
• Operating Temperature
• For a Period of ………… Hours
• Testing Software
• Quantity
• Testing Period
3.2.2. Vibration Testing
• Vibration is one of the more common mechanical stress environments. It is used
extensively in the development of aerospace, automotive, industrial and portable
products to name a few. In the lab, it is commonly created using an electro-
dynamic shaker.
• Essentially a highly controlled, very powerful speaker, the electro-dynamic
shaker can simulate the vibration that one feels while in a car on a washboard
road. It does this not by producing audible noise, like a home stereo, but rather
by causing a large plate (the armature) to move up and down in a magnetic field.
• Vibration testing is the shaking of a product of package to determine its ability to
survive in real world conditions.
3.2.3. Random Testing
• Let us consider the vibration that is experienced by a package in transit. Also
consider the vibration that one can feel while driving in a car downward road.
Both of these are the examples of a random vibration.
• As opposed to limiting vibration to a single frequency, all frequencies within a
given range are applied at the same time (relatively speaking) at an intensity that
one can specify. This intensity profile is designed to mimic those vibration forces
that the product would experience in an actual operation or use.
• A sample of such a profile is discussed below. It is noticed that it is a series of
frequency break points. For each frequency, there is a corresponding intensity
2
value known as power spectral density (PSD) measured in g /Hz .
a) Random vibration Profile:
• The most common source of vibration profile is the real world. If someone wants
to test a product for a vehicular application, then with the help of an
accelerometer, it can record the actual vibration.
• This information is used to develop a simplified profile that encompasses the
original vibration patterns.
• If it is difficult to get real-world vibration data, then with the help of frequency
range and acceleration, one can create a simple profile using the conversion of
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2
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PSD, expressed in g /Hz with the help of start and end frequencies.
• Random testing can be used to duplicate transportation vibration, seismic
vibration and operating vibration. Many products and packages undergo a
vibration testing at either extremely hot or extremely cold temperatures.
3.2.4. Bump Testing
• Bump testing is a method of simulating the physical environment during the product
transportation. Bump is the name given to the forces experienced by a product as it is
bounced on a hard surface.
(or)
Bump testing, a part of vibration testing, simulates the physical environment that is
experienced during the product transportation. The force experienced by a product, as
it is bounced on a hard surface, is called a bump.
• The typically range of peak bump is 40 mm and duration about 10 msec. A practical
bump test may consists of subjecting product to 4000 bumps of a given amplitude and
shape in quick succession.
• A bump is characterized by its amplitude, duration and shape is shown in Fig.3.2.4(a).
Fig. 3.2.4(a) Characteristic curve of a bump
3.3 Explain Temperature extreme testing for linear and

step stress profiles
3.3.1. Temperature Extreme Testing
• It examines at what temperature i.e. at cold or a hot, will a device cease to
function properly.
• This can be done with a slow linear profile, or normal step-stress profile.
• As the temperatures of interest are the extremes, test efficiency is improved by
stabilizing the device and then ramping or stepping from there.

(A) Linear Stress Profile

• Fig. 3.3(a) shows a linear profile, with time on x-axis and temperature on y-axis.
It shows:
a. Rapid ramp to region of interest
b. Stabilization soak
c. Slow ramp or rapid ramp through expected failure point
Fig. 3.3(a) A linear profile

(B) Step Stress Profile
• A step-stress profile is as shown in figure. 3.3(b).
It shows
a. Increases temperature instantaneously
b. Allows for a soak at each temperature of interest to fully confirm operation
at each temperature.
Fig. 3.3(b) A step-stress profile
3.4 Explain Vibration & temperature cycling

3.4.1. Vibration Cycling
• The simplest procedure for vibration testing involves placing the product or
package on a vibration testing table that is driven so that the surface of the table
vibrates, performing vibration testing on a package or product to simulate one of
three following environmental conditions:
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1. Transportation Environment: Packages and products experiencing
vibration during transportation via truck, air or rail.
2. Operating Environment: Many circuits or products experiencing vibration
in their daily working life, like electronic circuits in vehicles and aircraft.
3. Storage Environment for Sensitive Products: Some products sensitive to
vibrations due to nearby machines, passing vehicles, etc.
• There are five types of vibration test techniques. They are:
➢ Sinusoidal testing
➢ Swept sine testing
➢ Random testing
➢ Testing with mechanical shocks
➢ Bump testing
3.4.2. Temperature Cycling
• Temperature cycling is the process of cycling through two temperature extremes,
at relatively high rates of change. It is used to age products through fatigue. As
components heat up and cool down, they expand and contract. This causes failure
over time.
• With the evaluating designs, it is used in manufacturing to screen products to catch
early-term, latent defects. This is known as environmental stress screening (ESS),
but it is also referred to as burn-in testing. Fig.3.4 shows time on x-axis and
temperature on y-axis, with the following profile exists in each interval of one
cycle:
➢ During Interval I: High temperature stabilization soak
➢ During Interval II: Transition to low temperature
➢ During Interval III: Low temperature stabilization soak
➢ During Interval IV: Transition to high temperature
• Repeat the above cycle.
• Temperature cycling is a type of environmental testing.
• It consists of changing the temperature between predetermined extremes for
multiple cycles.
• While temperature cycling is considered more effective than burn-in. Air flow is
important, especially for higher power devices. Good air flow maximizes heat
transfer and ensures the actual product temperature follows the chamber air
temperature. It also prevents the formation of hot/cold spots.

Fig. 3.4. Temperature cycling
3.5 Explain EMI and EMC compliance testing

standardization
3.5.1. (A) EMI Compliance Testing
• EMI is defined as an electromagnetic energy that interrupts and designed
performance of electronic equipment. In other words, electrical circuits, carrying
rapidly changing signals, has a byproduct of their normal operation that induces
unwanted signals (interference or noise) to other circuits.
• Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) is a process by which disruptive
electromagnetic energy is transmitted from one electronic device to another via
radiated or conducted paths or both.
• The radiated path of EMI involves radio wave coupling and conducted path
involves hard wire.
• EMI has become major problem for circuit designers and it is likely to become
more severe in the future.
• These interrupts obstruct the effective performance of other circuits. It can be
induced, unintentionally, as a result of spurious emissions and responses,
Intermodulation products etc.
(B) EMI Sources

Various EMI sources are listed below:
• Power lines (surges and fluctuations)
• Electric motors
• Microwave ovens
• High current equipments e.g., discharge machines
• Lightning
• Electronic gadgets, e.g. mobile
Microsoft Word phones, computers, CD players, video cameras
• Electrostatic discharge (ESD)
• RF heaters
• Industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) equipment
• HVAC transmission line
• Automotive ignition
• Fluorescent lamps
• Hospital / diathermy equipment
• Communication transmitters
(C) Effects of EMI

• The effects of EMI are extremely variable in character and magnitude ranging from
simple annoyance to catastrophe. Some examples of the potential effects of EMI
are:
➢ Interference to television and radio reception
➢ Loss of data in digital systems or in transmission of data
➢ Production delay of equipment (showing subsystem or system level EMI)
➢ Malfunction of medical electronic equipment e.g. neonatal monitor, heart
pace maker.
➢ Malfunction of microprocessor control system
Fig. 3.5 Possible sources of ambient noise and how they may be coupled into a receiver

3.5.2. EMC
• Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is defined as the ability of an equipment, or
system, to work satisfactorily in an electromagnetic environment without
introducing intolerable electromagnetic disturbances in that environment.
• The electromagnetic environment is composed of both radiated and conducted
energy. Because, it is nearly impossible to predict actual interference of the field, so
it is very difficult to get rid of noise sources completely.
• The goal of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing is the correct operation, in
the same electromagnetic environment, of different equipment that employs
electromagnetic phenomena and the avoidance of any interference effects.
• But, it can be minimized to a certain level by use of some devices like a power line
filter.
• Thus special design techniques, or solutions, adopted to minimize field
interferences and subsequent reduction in the noise due to it is known as EMC and
compliance.
• In the defense application, areas of various equipments or circuits get crowded in a
small space and have to be electromagnetically compatible such as radar, radio
transmitters, computer controlled weapon system, power generating stations and
telephones.
• The interface caused to any of them will lead to disaster. So, some standards for
EMI or EMC must be followed in defense.
• A third-party organization should test the electromagnetic compatibility (EMI,
EMC standards) of electrical products and certifies that products are both
protected from the interference environment and ensures that they do not pollute
the environment with unwanted electromagnetic emissions.
Comparison of Conducted EMI and Radiated EMI
S.No. Conducted EMI Radiated EMI
1. Conducted EMI is caused by electric Radiated EMI is caused by electromagnetic

current. field.
2. Conducted interference is coupled Radiated interference is coupled near field

either inductively or capacitively. (separately) and far field (plane wave).
3. Any electrical or electronic device Interference with equipment are coupled

can generate conducted through power cable.
interference.
4. Example: Electric motors, vehicle Example: Television sets, telephone cables,
ignition, high-voltage power lines. cell phones, transmitters.

3.6 Explain UL and CE Certification of industrial electronic

products. Microsoft Word
3.6.1. (A) UL Certification

• Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL) is an independent products safety
certification organization that tests products for compliance to specific safety
standards.
• In order to meet our customer’s safety requirements, hope industrial systems
certifies all display products to meet one or more of the categories.
• This is one of the most common UL Marks. If a product carries this Mark,
Underwriters Laboratories found that samples of this product met UL’s safety
requirements.
• These requirements are primarily based on UL’s own published standards for
safety.
• This type of Mark is seen commonly on appliances and computer equipment,
furnaces and heaters, fuses, electrical panel boards, smoke and carbon monoxide
detectors, fire extinguishers and sprinkle systems, personal flotation devices like
life jackets and life preservers, bullet resistant glass, and thousands of other
products.
• UL Marking is a certification from Underwriter Laboratories Incorporation.
• It is a well-known testing lab that develops standards and test procedures as well
as it evaluates products, components, materials and systems for compliance to
specific requirements, and permits acceptable products to carry a UL certification
mark, as long as they remain compliant with the standards.
Fig.(a) UL mark
(B) Several Categories of UL Certification
The following are several categories of UL certification:
• Products under its listing service are said to be “UL Listed”, identified by the
distinctive UL mark.
• In some cases, a component may be “UL Recognized”, meaning UL has found it
acceptable for use in a complete UL listed product.
• Some products may be “UL Classified” for specific hazards or properties.

• This certification mainly deals with product safety and utility. A manufacturer of a
UL-certified product must demonstrate compliance with the appropriate safety
requirements, many of which are developed by UL.
• A UL mark is used in Canada and USA with “CE’ marking below UL certification.
3.6.2. CE (Conformance European) Certification
• The European Commission describes the CE mark as a “passport” that allows
manufacturers to circulate industrial products freely within internal market of the
EU (European Union).
• The CE mark certifies that the products have met EU health, safety and
environmental requirements that ensure consumer and workplace safety.
• All manufacturers in the EU and abroad must affix the CE mark to those products
covered by the “New Approach” directives in order to market their products in
Europe.
• Once a product receives the CE mark, it can be marketed throughout the EU
without undergoing further product modification.
• In order to indicate that the protection requirements of the EMC directives have
been met, a manufacturer requires to do the following:
1. Issue declaration conformity.
2. Affix the CE mark on the apparatus as shown in Fig.(b).
Fig.(b) The CE Mark

• The CE mark should be atleast 5 mm in height and be affixed, “visibly, legibly and
indelibly”. Affixing this mark indicates conformity not only with EMC directive
but also safety directives.
• The CE marking, also known as CE mark, is a mandatory conformity mark on
many products placed on the single market in the European countries. The CE
marking certifies that a product has met EU consumer safety, health or
environmental requirements.
• In order to use the CE mark on a product, the manufacturer must draw up a
Declaration of Conformity (DoC) in which the manufacturer attests conformity
with all.

3.7 Explain the importance of documentation

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• Documentation is an integral part of any product development. It provides the
information for understanding the product, its capabilities and utilities.
• Documentation is essential for operation, repair, maintenance, servicing and
upgradation of a product.
• Good documentation cannot help poor products, but poor and inadequate
documentation can destroy a good product. Documentation also reduces the
burden of legal liability by giving warning information regarding hazardous
operation, modes of failures and operation limitations.
• Good documentation creates a favorable perception of the product, while poor
documentation slights your product by creating a perception of lesser quality.
3.7.1. Importance of Documentation
1. To specify procurement and scheduling.
2. To build and inspect finished good to the original engineering
specifications.
3. To ensure consistent quality.
4. To produce milestones for manufacturing.
3.7.2. Purpose of Documentation
1. Cost and schedule estimation
2. Building specification
3. Inspection detailing
3.8 List types of documentation

• A well-explained and well-presented technical documentation of a product is
produced for every electronic equipment or device.
• Presently, manufacturer provides drawings and diagrams as a part of
documentation for both electronic and mechanical parts of the product.
3.8.1. Types of Documents
1. Proposal document
2. Engineering note book (or) Engineering dairy
3. Documents regarding drawings and schematics
4. Documents regarding software source listings
5. Brochures
6. Presentation document
7. Manual
8. Memos
9. Electronic files

3.9 Explain types of documents

1. Proposal document
• A proposal document is an initial document, which is to be prepared with respect
to funding. The main intention of writing a proposal is to follow the rules of the
funding agency.
• Many times the proposal consists of a set of documents which begins with a cover
letter, followed by an abstract, brief introduction of the organization, objective of
the proposal, description of the project, schedule of the project, estimate of the
project, terms and conditions, future modifications, if any, and appendices.
2. Engineering note book (or ) Engineering dairy
• An engineering notebook is the groundwork document for developing a good
product. It contains the overall list to start the design, reasons for designs, expected
test and experimentation list, record all circumstances and equipments used for
each test and experiment, the results of experimentation and tests.
• It is a very useful document for future modifications. It is a document in the form
of log book, which is written in sequence, i.e. having entries moment to moment, as
well as day to day.
3. Documents regarding drawings and schematics
• A project drawing and schematic documents is an important document that
contains records related to project drawings and schematics required in the entire
project development.
• Also, it includes the revision number and the name of the responsible authority. It
is one of the documents which get updated continuously.
4. Documents regarding software source listings
• In the development of many products, software is one of the most essential and
supporting item. Hence documentation and record of software development is
equally important. There are different formats and methods for preparing,
presenting, recording and maintaining the development of software.
5. Brochures
• A brochure is a document used to introduce product or equipment to either
customers or users. Each manufacturer or the company decides the format of the
brochure suitable to their type of product.
• This document is in compact form, providing the entire details of the product,
creating the first impression in the customer’s mind.
• Because of this, it is prepared from professionals who involved in the development
of brochures.

6.Presentation document
• A presentation isMicrosoft
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a communication document that covers specific details
of a product.
• Clarity as well as simplicity in information is very important. This document
should be prepared in a specific format or outline.
7.Manual
• A manual is the most integral part of a product.
• This document contains table of contents, organizational details, product details in
a modular form and written in a clear, concise language, proper schematic
diagrams, supporting sketches and tables, index, supporting cross-references,
appropriate binding suits to the overall product presentation. It specifies the user
or customer the overall information and utility of the product.
8.Memos
• A memo is a document, typically used for communication within a company.
• Memos can be as formal as a business letter and used to present a report.
• Before writing a memo, outline the purpose for it, and decide, because the memo is
the best communication channel
9.Electronic mail
• Because of revolutions in the IT, computer, communication and network fields,
business are fast becoming paperless.
• Electronic files can be easily created, stored and quickly accessed. Such files
contain business correspondence, records, software programs, diagrams, pictures,
photographs and illustrations.
• For data storage, we can use either magnetic tapes or CDs. Nowadays, pen drives
and other large volume storage devices can be used effectively.
• Recording of data is important and must be taken care of, as there are chances of
losing data from records, because of power failure.
3.10 List rules for preparation of effective document

• It is important to first identify the purpose of a document. Once the purpose is
known, then important is an appropriate style of writing.
• All communications must be in a simple language. The overall format should be
uniform, so that the document can be understood easily.
• Use available resources, such as drawings, tables, charts, references, etc., while
preparing a document. Also, use proper tag related to records of time, page,
schedule, etc., in the document. Thus a document must be short, simple but
should be most effective.

• The following visual techniques are used in preparing an effective document:
1. Line Drawings: Drawings are used for instructional purposes that
emphasize specific points. Line drawings are widely used in the manuals.
Line drawings require lesser memory for storage and can be easily
reproduced using computer.
2. Photographs: Photographs provide easy understanding of product or
equipment because of realistic in nature. The main drawback is they are
costly and more difficult than line drawings. Sometime details in
photograph are difficult to understand.
3. Charts: Charts may be either quantitative or directive bar chart, while pie
charts are qualitative and explain the comparison between the elements.
Flow charts or ASM charts are directive and define the flow of sequence of
operation and action. They are popularly used in software documentation.
4. Tables: Tables are used for quantitative analysis and give comparative
information in a compact form. Tables provide exact details like numbers
and they are more quantitative than charts.
5. View Graphs: Combination of text and visuals are used to strengthen the
message of a technical details or talk. Use proper and effective short forms
because simplicity is very important. Also the viewers memory is short
memory, and it saturates early.
3.11 Explain PCB documentation
• The main task in the PCB design process is the creation of accurate PCB
manufacturing drawings.
• An effective document will enable the manufacturer to prepare consistent and
accurate PCBs. Thus PCB documentation is an important part of the electronic
product design chain.
• The most accurate and detail documentation will produce less manufacturing
mistakes. It also improves the repeatability of the product and makes final
inspection easier with less product rejection.
• Today’s PCB documentation problems include use of various supporting tools
for extensive data translation with some constraints. Also maximum time is
utilized in preparing the requisite documents.
• A solution to the product design varies from company to company. Though
some problems exist, it is still important to use PCB documentation.
• A standard PCB documentation consists of the following information:
1. Front Cover: It consists of product title, version number, company details,
etc.
2. Content: It is the list of all topics discussed in the document.
3. Circuit Diagram, Schematic Diagram: Such diagrams are supported with
soft copy in a CAD format. This may be a single-page or multiple-page
document. The schematic diagram should contain the requirements for the
layout design. Heat-producing components must be placed away from
heat-sensitive components. The signal characteristics will decide track
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width and ground-line width, consideration of input and output
connectors.
4. Bill of Material: It includes parts list with quantity and cost.
5. Fabrication Drawing: This document shows dimensional specification of
PCB, for example, board material, board dimension, hole location, plating,
test requirements etc.
6. Assembly Drawing: This is also called a silk screen, indicating the
assembled PCB drawing with electrical and mechanical parts.
7. Art Work: It is exactly a scaled configuration of PCB showing PCB
interconnects called tracks. It includes all solder pads and conductor in
respect of location, dimensions and clearances along with identifying
symbols. For reliable production of PCB, most artworks are prepared with
the 2:1 scale.
8. PCB Layout: A PCB layout is supported with soft copy in a CAD format.
9. Actual Size of PCB Information: It is a schematic diagram in actual size,
showing all PCB components.
10. Part Details: It has number abbreviations, package size and lead spacing.
11. Drilling Diagrams: It has positioning and size of hole in PCB.
3.12 Explain Assembly and fabrication related
documentation for Laminate grade
• Laminate: Laminate is an insulating base prepared using a layer of glass fabric
impregnated with resin, either with epoxy or polyamide material, and it is
pressed under a proper controlled heat.
• The properties of laminates vary from grade to grade, depending upon resins
and fillers.
• The electrical, mechanical, chemical and thermal characteristics are of laminates
mainly depends upon the selection of the resin.
3.12.1. The properties of laminates are
1. Dielectric constant
2. Dielectric strength
3. Dissipation factor
4. Arc resistance
5. Loss factor
6. Absorption of water
7. Tensile strength
8. Compression

9. Environmental resistance
10. Flammability characteristics
11. Copper adhesion
12. Heat resistance
13. Machinability
• The electrical and mechanical properties of laminates are affected by
environmental factors such as humidity, temperature, corrosive atmosphere, etc.
The above important properties of laminates commonly used for PCB
construction.
3.13 Explain the preparation a manual document
• Consider a manual for a product air conditioner. Let us discuss how the user
manual describes the details of the product.
• At the beginning of the user manual for the air-conditioner, a table of contents is
given, so that user can refer to the specific topic.
1. Table of Contents: A sample format of the table of content is shown in Fig.3.13.
Contents Page
number
• Features 1
• Safety Precautions 2
o Installation Precautions
o Operation Precautions
• Name of Each Part 3–4
o Indoor Unit
o Outdoor Unit
o Accessories
o Remote Control
• Preparation Before Operation 5
o Indoor Unit
o Remote Control
• How to Operate 5–6
• Setting the Timer 7
• Convenience Operation 7

o Powerful Mode Operation
o Economy Mode Operation
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o Quiet Mode Operation
• Care and Maintenance 8
o Cleaning the Indoor Unit and Remote Control
o Cleaning the Air Filter
o Cleaning the Front Panel
o Air Purifying Filters
o Pre-Season Inspection
o When the Air-Conditioner is Not Used for an Extended
Period of Time
o Recommended Inspection
• Helpful Information 9
• Energy Saving and Operation Hints 9
• Troubleshooting 10
o Normal Operation
o Abnormal Operation
o Call the Dealer Immediately
• Product Specification and Reference 11
Fig.3.13 A sample table of contents
3.14 Explain the details of service manual

• A service manual helps in debugging faults. Commonly occurring faults of
corresponding remedy are given in a tabular form.
• A service manual contains the following documents:
1. Title of product and title of manual
2. Information of product and its specifications
3. Table of contents
4. Service notes
5. Product part information
6. Detailed panel layouts
7. Clear product assembly description with the help of diagrams
8. Disassembly steps

9. Servicing tests
10. Circuit block layouts
11. Special circuit / IC diagrams
12. Expected test point results
13. Supporting diagrams
14. Input or output electrical drawings
15. Control drawings
16. Cable and conduit schedules
17. Rack settings and input or output designations
18. Interconnection diagrams
19. Hardware or software factory acceptance
Let us discuss how a service manual describes the details of the product by
considering manual format.
• Service manual format for a product: Consider a product portable minidisc
decoder. Let us discuss how the user manual describes the details of the product.
• Title of product and title of manual: Title of the product is mentioned as shown
in Fig. 3.14(a).
• Information of product and its specifications:
Fig. 3.14(a) Title of the product
3.15 Explain test report/manuals

• A test report should contain all the details of a product like dimension, test
carried out and its result, accuracy of measurement. It consists of the following
information:
1. Title of manual
2. Table of content
3. Scope of the test
4. Background of the test
5. Definition or the objective of the test
6. List of equipments required

7. Specific environment requirement and test setup
8. Well-defined test procedure
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9. Performance test reporting
10. Final test report
11. Test report review
12. Compliance test report
3.16 Explain product documentation, Bill of materials,

Production test specifications
• The BOM is produced by the engineering department and is used by the
production and purchasing departments. Its ownership rests with engineering.
Therefore, any changes to the BOM must be done with the consent of
engineering.
• The BOM defines all necessary components required for assembly of the product.
Basically, the BOM is a collection of part numbers; each part number identifies a
component.
• These components can be electronic devices or mechanical items such as
brackets, screws, washers, labels, and packaging material.
• In the entire product development, there are different components and sub-
assemblies required.
• To monitor the overall material stock, a well-managed bill of material system is
required. It is a systematically presented form of part list of the concern product.
• Thus it provides a strong platform for product development. It also helps in
evaluating an accurate cost and product efficiency.
• A bill of material, well known as a BOM, is useful in maintaining the control of
each phase in the manufacturing process by providing bills of material for design
as well as planning purposes.
• Also, it helps in providing timely part usage report and query of material cost. It
is possible to keep track and coordination with all departments involved in the
manufacturing process.
• A bill of material is nothing but a systematic part list of the product. With the
help of the following small circuit example, it is possible to get the ideal of bill of
material.

Example 1: Prepare a bill of material for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.16.
Fig. 3.16 The circuit for example 1

Solution: To obtain the bill of material, we need to have (a) a list of electronic parts and
(b) the component list.
a) Electronic parts
R1 470R C4, 10 μF 25 V
R2 100K D1, D2, 1N4007

R3 1M5 D3 BZX79C10
R4 1K D4 TIC206M
C1 330 nF 400 V Q1 BC557
C2 100 μF 25 V IC1 7555 or TS555CN CMOS Timer
C3, C5 10 nF 63 V IC SW1 SPST mains suited switch
b) The component list is shown in the following table

S.N Name of Component Quantity
1. Resistor 470 Ω 1
2. Resistor 100 kΩ 1
3. Resistor 1.5 MΩ 1
4. Capacitor 330 nF 400 V 2
5. Capacitor 100 μF 25V 1
6. Capacitor 10 nF 63V 1

7. Capacitor 10 μF 25V 1
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8. Diodes 1N4007 2
9. Zener diode BZX79C10 1
10. Triac TIC206M 1

11. Transistor BC557 1
12. TIMER IC 555 1

13. Switch SPST 1
c) Bill of materials is shown in the following table

S.N Name of the Quantit Per unit rate Total Cost
Component y (Rs.) (Rs.)
1. Resistor 470 Ω 1 0.20 0.20
2. Resistor 100 kΩ 1 0.40 0.40
3. Resistor 1.5 MΩ 1 0.60 0.60
4. Capacitor 2 1.50 3.00

330 nF 400 V
5. Capacitor 100 μF 25V 1 5.50 5.50
6. Capacitor 10 nF 63V 1 2.00 2.00
7. Capacitor 10 μF 25V 1 4.50 4.50
8. Diodes 1N4007 2 2.00 4.00

9. Zener diode 1 8.50 8.50
BZX79C10
10. Triac TIC206M 1 18.00 18.00
11. Transistor BC557 1 5.00 5.00
12. TIMER IC 555 1 14.00 14.00
13. Switch SPST 1 3.00 3.00

14. PCB(including 1 550.00 550.00

artwork and layout)
15. Miscellaneous items 1 10.00 10.00
such as nuts, spacers,
etc.
Total Cost = Rs. 578.70

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2 Electronic product design and

Fig. 2.0 The general product development process

2.1 Explain the concept of product development with a

Fig. 2.1 Concept of Product Development

Performance of the • Dynamic range

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Operating conditions Testing of product under various conditions

2.2 Give classification of Electronic Products.

2.3 Explain the Techno Commercial Feasibility of a

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

3. Capacitors 3300 μF/16V 07 150/-

4. Resistors 100 K, 10 30/-

5. Regulators 7805 7905 02 25/-

6. Transistors 2N2222, 04 40/-

2.4 Explain customer requirements

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

2.5 Explain R&D prototype Assessment of reliability.

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2.6 Explain factors for reliability of equipment.

Fig. 2.6 Factors affecting reliability

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

2.7 Explain quality considerations.

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

3. Reliability depends on time and Quality is not related with time or

2.8 List reasons for failure of an electronic product

2.9 Explain Bath tub curve

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

Fig: Bath Tub Curve

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

2.10 Explain the concept of ergonomic and aesthetic

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

Fig. 2.10(a) Man-Machine-Environment System

2.11 Explain Product packaging and storage

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

2.12 Estimate power supply requirements of an

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

2.13 List two types of power supply protection devices

2.14 Define noise reduction.

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

2.14.2. Noise Reduction

2.15 Explain grounding, shielding and guarding

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2.15.2. (A) Shielding

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Fig. 2.15.3. (b) Guarding

2.16 Explain Thermal management

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

3.1 Explain the importance of product testing and

3.1.1. Importance of Product Testing

3.2 Explain Dry heat testing, Vibration testing, random

Fig. 3.2.4(a) Characteristic curve of a bump

3.3 Explain Temperature extreme testing for linear and

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications Industrial Management & Smart Technologies

(A) Linear Stress Profile

Fig. 3.3(a) A linear profile

Fig. 3.3(b) A step-stress profile

3.4 Explain Vibration & temperature cycling

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Fig. 3.4. Temperature cycling