學員筆記-cad Sua Ao Handbook 2023 en Cn (6) (2)

Small Unmanned Aircraft
(SUA) Advance Rating

Theoretical Knowledge
Student Handbook (PTT)
Co-organiser :
DNT FPV TECHNOLOGY CO LTD

香港 FPV 無人機協會
Small Unmanned Aircraft (SUA)
Advanced Rating Training
SECTION 01 :
Legislation and
Publications
Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions Spare Time Study Centre
DNT FPV Technology Co Ltd. 1
2
HELLO!
I am Sky Yeung
This is Chaiman of
DNT FPV Technology Co Ltd
If you have any question about this section,
feel free to contact at :
Whatsapp : 53993993
2
Abbreviations
▸ A Alpha (ICAO)
▸ A/A Air-to-air (ICAO)
▸ A/C Aircraft
▸ ABT About (ICAO)
▸ ABV Above (ICAO)
▸ ACCEL Accelerate
▸ ACT Active (ICAO)
▸ AC Advisory Circular
▸ AD Aerodrome (CFMU / ICAO)
▸ ADIZ Air Defense Identification Zone (ICAO)
▸ ADS-B Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ICAO GNSS)
▸ AGL Above Ground Level (ICAO)
▸ AGN Again (ICAO)
▸ AIP Aeronautical Information Publication (AIS)
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Abbreviations
▸ AIS Aeronautical Information Service (ICAO)

▸ ALRT Alert
▸ ALT Altitude (ICAO)
▸ ALTM Altimeter
▸ AMD Amend/-ed (ICAO)
▸ AMSL Above Mean Sea Level (ICAO)
▸ ANS Answer (ICAQ)
▸ AOA Angle of attack
▸ AOB Angle of Bank
▸ ATC Air Traffic Control
▸ ATCS Air Traffic Control Service
▸ ATS Air Traffic Services (ICAO)
▸ ATZ Aerodrome Traffic Zone (ICAO)
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Abbreviations
▸ BFR Before (MET)

▸ BGNG Beginning (MET)
▸ BVR Beyond Visual Range
▸ CAD Civil Aviation Department
▸ CAVOK Clouds and Visibility OK (METAR)
▸ CG Center of Gravity
▸ CTL Control (ICAO)
▸ DGCA Director-General of Civil Aviation
▸ EASA European Aviation Safety Agency
▸ ESC Electronics Speed Controller
▸ eSUA Electronic Portal for Small Unmanned Aircraft
▸ EVLOS Extended Visual Line of Sight
▸ FC Flight Controller
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Abbreviations
▸ FIR Flight Information Region (ICAO)

▸ FIS Flight Information Service (ICAO)
▸ FPV First Person View
▸ GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System (ICAO)
▸ GPS Global Positioning System
▸ HJ Sunrise to Sunset (ICAO)
▸ IATA International Air Transport Association
▸ ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
▸ IFR Instrument Flight Rules (ICAO)
▸ LAT Latitude (ICAO)
▸ METAR Meteorological Aerodrome Report / Meteorological Terminal Air Report
▸ MSL Mean Sea Level (ICAO)
▸ MTOM Maximum Take-Off Mass = MTOW
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Abbreviations
▸ NOTAM Notice to Airmen (AIS)

▸ OM Operations Manual (ITRM)
▸ PIC Pilot In Command
▸ QFE Atmospheric Pressure at Aerodrome (field) Elevation (or at runway threshold) (ICAO)
▸ QNH Atmospheric Pressure at mean sea level
▸ RFZ Restricted Flying Zone
▸ SPECI Aviation Selected Special Weather Report (ICAO)
▸ TAF Terminal Area (Aerodrome) Forecast T A F Decoder
▸ TKOF Take-Off (ICAO)
▸ TTF Trend Forecast (MET)
▸ TWY Taxiway
▸ SRD Safety Requirements Document
▸ SUA Small Unmanned Aircraft
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Abbreviations
▸ UAS Unmanned Aircraft System

▸ UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (AIP)
▸ UTC Universal Coordinated Time
▸ VFR Visual Flight Rules (ICAO) Flight is conducted under this rules
▸ VLOS Visual Line of Sight
▸ VO Visual Observer
▸ Z Zulu (ICAO)
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International Aviation Regulatory Bodies
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

The international Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations.
It was established in April 1947.
ICAO is not a global regulator. Their vision is achieve the sustainable growth of the global
civil aviation system. Its headquarters is located in Quartier International of Montreal,
Quebec, Canada.
The ICAO core function is to maintain an administrative and expert bureaucracy supporting these
diplomatic interactions, and to research new air transport policy and standardization innovations as directed and endorsed by
governments through the ICAO Assembly, or by the ICAO Council which the assembly elects.
The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air navigation, its infrastructure,
flight inspection, prevention of unlawful interference, and facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international civil aviation.
ICAO defines the protocols for air accident investigation that are followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to
the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation. 9
European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
The European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) is an agency of the European Union (EU).
The idea of a European-level aviation safety authority goes back to 1996, but the agency
was legally established only in 2002. It began its work in 2003.
The responsibilities of the agency include the analysis and research of safety parameters, authorizing foreign operators,
and advising the European Commission on the drafting of EU legislation. It also implements and monitors safety rules (including
inspections in the member states), gives type certification of aircraft and components, and approves organizations involved in the
design, manufacture and maintenance of aeronautical products.
In additional, EASA is responsible for new type certificates and other design-related airworthiness approvals for aircraft, engines,
propellers and parts.
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Hong Kong Civil Aviation Department (CAD)
The Civil Aviation Department (CAD) is the civil aviation authority of Hong Kong,
headquartered at Hong Kong International Airport.
Established in 1946, the CAD moves with the times and unswervingly strives to maintain
a safe, efficient and sustainable air transportation system over some 70 years. From
here you can learn about our work in different respective areas.
The CAD was also responsible for managing the former Hong Kong International Airport at Kai Tak, until it
was retired and replaced by the new Hong Kong International Airport managed by the Airport Authority.
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The Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC)
The Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC) is the Chinese civil aviation authority under
the Ministry of Transport. It oversees civil aviation and investigates aviation accidents and incidents.
On November 2, 1949, shortly after the founding of the People's Republic of China, the
CCP Central Committee decided to found the Civil Aviation Agency under the name of
the People's Revolutionary Military Commission, and under the command of
the People's Liberation Army Air Force, to manage all non-military aviation in the country,
as well as provide general and commercial flight services.
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Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA)
The Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) is a government body that regulates aviation safety in Australia.
We license pilots, register aircraft, oversee aviation safety and promote safety awareness.
We also make sure that the aviation community and the public use and administer
Australian airspace safely.
In July 1995, we were established as an independent statutory authority. We operate within a

legislative framework made up of acts, regulations, associated legislative instruments and guidance material.
The Civil Aviation Act 1988 describes our role. The Act also forms the basis of the Civil Aviation Safety Regulations. These
regulations are broken into parts, which may have an associated Manual of Standards, as well as supporting guidance materials.
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Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is the largest transportation agency of the U.S. government
and regulates all aspects of civil aviation in the country as well as over surrounding international waters.
Its powers include air traffic management, certification of personnel and aircraft, setting standards for
airports, and protection of U.S. assets during the launch or re-entry of commercial space vehicles.
Powers over neighboring international waters were delegated to the FAA by authority of the International Civil Aviation
Organization.
Created in August 1958, the FAA replaced the former Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and later became an agency within
the U.S. Department of Transportation.
.
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Civil Aviation Authority (CAA)
A civil aviation authority (CAA) is a national or supranational statutory authority that oversees the regulation
of civil aviation, including the maintenance of an aircraft register. It was established in 1972.
Its areas of responsibility include:

Supervising the issuing of pilots' licenses, testing of equipment, calibrating of navaids, and many other
inspections (Civil Aviation Flying Unit).
Managing the regulation of security standards, including vetting of all personnel in the aviation industry
(Directorate of Aviation Security).
Overseeing the national protection scheme for customers abroad in the event of a travel company failure
(Air Travel Organizers' Licensing – ATOL).
We provide permission for operators looking to use drones for commercial purposes, as well as providing advice to the
general public and industry on how to fly drones safely and reduce any risk to aviation.
We support the potential for innovative use of drone technology, but our focus is on ensuring that any risks these future uses
pose to aviation are managed effectively and proportionately. 15
.
Remote Pilot licensing, Classifications of SUA
Small Unmanned Aircraft (SUA) Categorization

With reference to ICAO's guidance for regulating SUA operations through a risk-based approach,
SUA operations are categorized into the following:
(a). Weight of SUA 小型無人機重量
(b). Operational Risk Level 操作風險水平
There are three categories of SUA:
(a). Cat A1: does not exceed 250g at all time during the flight
(b). Cat A2: does not exceed 7kg but exceeds 250g at any time during the flight
(c). Cat B / Advance operating : exceeds 7kg at any time during the flight
.
SRD Table 2
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Remote Pilot licensing, Classifications of SUA
Based on the weight of the SUA, SUA within Hong Kong are categorised as follows :
(a) Category A1 SUA (“Cat A1 SUA”)

if its weight does not exceed 250 grams (“g”) at all times during the flight;
(b) Category A2 SUA (“Cat A2 SUA”)
if its weight exceeds 250 g at any time during the flight but does not exceed 7 kg
at all times during the flight;
(c) Category B SUA (“Cat B SUA”)
if its weight exceeds 7 kg at any time during the flight but does not exceed 25 kg
at all times during the flight.
基於小型無人機的重量，在香港以內飛行的小型無人機分類如下︰
(a) 甲一類小型無人機在某次飛行期間的所有時間，重量均不超過 250克；
(b) 甲二類小型無人機在某次飛行期間的任何時間，重量均超過250克，但在該
次飛行期間的所有時間均不超過7 公斤；
(c) 乙類小型無人機在某次飛行期間的任何時間，重量均超過7公斤，但在該次
飛行期間的所有時間均不超過25 公斤。
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Cap. 448G Civil Aviation (Small Unmanned Aircraft) Order
Small Unmanned Aircraft (SUA) Categorization

SUA are power-driven aircraft weighing 25 kg or below which are operated
without any pilot onboard, which include drones, model aircraft (fixed wing or helicopters) etc.
To facilitate the development of the SUA sector, the Government has enacted the new
Small Unmanned Aircraft Order (“Cap. 448G”) which has commenced on 1 June 2022. To
allow the community to smoothly transit into the new regulatory regime, a six-month
grace period will be given to allow the public to familiarize themselves with the new
requirements and prepare for regulatory compliance under the new regime.
The exceptions are offences in relation to endangering acts, restricted flying zones
and enforcement which should take effect upon commencement of the SUA Order to
safeguard aviation and public safety.
All remote pilots and responsible persons (e.g. owners, operators etc) are encouraged to
get prepared for upcoming legal requirements such as registration, labelling, awareness/training,
insurance, CAD’s prior permissions etc.
https://www.cad.gov.hk/english/sua_overview_categorisation.html
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詳情請參閱小型無人機操作安全規定文件
https://www.cad.gov.hk/documents/Safety_Requirements_Document.pdf
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Categorization of SUA Operations and the Corresponding Regulatory Requirements
Operations of Category A1 or Category A2 SUA, within the applicable operating

requirements as specified by the CAD, are categorized as “Standard Operations”. Prior
permission from the CAD will not be required before such a flight. If an SUA is operated
for a flight in the form of “standard operations”, it must be operated in compliance with
all operating requirements applicable to the aircraft at all times during the flight,
pursuant to section 15(1) of the SUA Order. Please refer to Chapter 7 of this SRD for
more details on standard operations.
All other operations, namely operations of a Category B SUA, operations of a Category

A1/A2 SUA exceeding the applicable operating requirements as specified by the CAD
as “standard operations” (except wholly within an enclosed area), operations of an SUA
within a restricted flying zone (“RFZ”) (except wholly within an enclosed area) or
carrying any dangerous goods, are known as “Advanced Operations”. They involve
higher risks and hence, prior permission from the CAD will be required before such a
flight. Please refer to Chapter 8 of this SRD for more details on advanced operations.
Different categories of SUA operations are subject to the corresponding regulatory
requirements based on risk levels and details are stipulated in Table 2.
All SUA responsible persons, remote pilots or any other person who knowingly causes
or permits an SUA to be operated for flight shall refer to the details as set out in this
SRD for the operations of SUA in compliance with the SUA Order.
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Case 01. Suitable to fly ?
CASE Study 01
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Case 02. TASK
CASE Study 02
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Fly Unmanned Aircraft Safely
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SUA Registration and Labelling Process
https://esua.cad.gov.hk/web/
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SRD
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Visual Line of Sight
SUA shall be operated within visual line of sight (“VLOS”) at all times during its flight so that
the remote pilot is able to clearly see the SUA and the surrounding airspace at all times while it
is airborne. The key requirement of any flight is to avoid collisions and a VLOS operation
ensures that the remote pilot is able to monitor the aircraft’s flight path and so manoeuvre it
clear of anything that it might collide with.
A VLOS is defined as direct and unaided (other than by way of corrective lenses and sunglasses)
visual contact with the SUA and the surrounding airspace in which the SUA is operating. VLOS
can be maintained by:
(a) the remote pilot of the SUA, and/or
(b) a visual observer (“VO”), chosen by the remote pilot, who is at the same location as the
remote pilot, has good eyesight and is capable of communicating timely and effectively
with the remote pilot of the aircraft to avoid collision.
Note : VO is a person chosen by the remote pilot, who assists the remote pilot in keeping the
SUA in VLOS and safely conducting the flight by unaided visual observation of the SUA. Remote
pilots are responsible for ensuring that the VO is competent to undertake his duties.
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What is a Visual Observer?

VO is a person chosen by the remote
pilot, who assists the remote pilot in
keeping the SUA in VLOS and safely
conducting the flight by unaided visual
observation of the SUA. Remote pilots
are responsible for ensuring that the
VO is competent to undertake his
duties.
SRD 7.3.2
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Above ground Level (AGL)
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Height , Altitude, Elevation
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General Safety Guidelines for Flying UAS

Any person who operates a small unmanned aircraft (SUA) shall observe the regulatory requirements and operating
requirements stipulated in the Safety Requirements Document (PDF: 818KB). He or she should also take note the
following general safety guidelines when operating an SUA.
1. Where you cannot fly

(i) SUA shall not be flown in the Restricted Flying Zone (RFZ) as illustrated in the Drone Map except it is wholly
within an enclosed area. Remote pilot should check on the Drone Map prior to each flight for the latest RFZ
designation.
(ii) SUA shall not be flown over uninvolved people/structures/vehicles/vessels.
(iii) SUA shall not be flown over, or close to, any object, installation or facility that would present a risk to safety in
the event of damage due to any impact by the SUA.
Should there be any extraordinary circumstances requiring operations in the above area, a prior permission from the
Civil Aviation Department and/or relevant authorities, where appropriate, should be obtained. The permission might
be granted on a case-by-case basis in the condition that full justification and relevant safety mitigation measures are
in place.
Air Navigation (Flight Prohibition) Order (Cap. 448E). No aircraft, including UAS, may at any time operate within the
Prohibition Area at less than 4000 feet above mean sea level. For details, please visit our website
at: https://www.cad.gov.hk/english/flight_prohib_area.html.
Model aircraft shall not be flown in the vicinity of an airport and aircraft approach and take-off paths. These areas
include:
(i) Hong Kong International Airport;
(ii) North Lantau coastal area;
(iii) coastal areas from Tai Lam Chung to Tsuen Wan and Tsing Yi Island;
(iv) Victoria Harbour and its coastal areas; and
(v) Shek Kong area.
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2. Good Choice of Flying Sites
A good choice of flying site not only minimises the possibility of an accident but also enhances the pleasure of the
flying experience.
Here are some tips to help you choose a good site. A good site should be:
(i) clear of people, vessels, vehicles or structures;
(ii) away from helipads;
(iii) away from paragliding areas;
(iv) clear of any power sources such as power lines, transformer stations, pylons, and transmitter towers etc., which
might cause radio interference;
(v) flat enough to enable safe take-off and landing; and
(vi) free from visual obstruction, so that the operator can see
the SUA in flight at all times.
(vii) Always away from people and major outdoor events.
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操作小型無人機的一般安全操作指引
所有操作小型無人機的人士應遵守《安全規定文件》(PDF: 1.05MB)載列的規管要求和操作規定。他們亦應留意以
下一般安全操作指引：
1. 不得放飛的地方
除非該次飛行完全在圍封範圍内進行,小型無人機不得在限制飛行區内飛行。無人機飛行圖會清晰展示有關限制飛
行區。在放飛無人機前，遙控駕駛員應查閲無人機飛行圖，以了解最新指定的限制飛行區。
• 不得在《飛航(飛行禁制)令》下設立的飛行禁區（即竹篙灣一帶）放飛無人機。
• 不得在與沒有涉及該次操作的人員和不受遙控駕駛員控制的車輛／船隻／構築物的上空放飛小型無人機。
• 不得飛越或飛近任何與之碰撞時會產生危險的物體或設施。
如因特殊情況需要在上述地方放飛小型無人機，相關人士必須事先獲得民航處及/或有關當局的許可。如需申請許
可，有關人士必需提供充分理由和安全緩減措施，民航處會就許可申請作個別考慮。
2. 選擇合適的飛行地點
選擇適當的飛行地點不僅可以減低發生意外的可能性，更可提高飛行的樂趣。下列為選擇適當飛行地點的一些要
訣。
適當的小型無人機飛行地點須:
• 讓小型無人機操作者視野清晰無阻，能夠清楚看見飛行中的小型無人機；
• 地勢平坦，可讓小型無人機穩定地起飛/降落；
• 遠離人群、大型活動或賽事；
• 遠離車輛、船隻、構築物，尤其是公路、鐵路或主要幹道；
• 遠離直升機坪；
• 遠離滑翔傘場地；和
• 遠離一切可干擾無線電訊息的設施，例如電線、變壓站、高壓電線和變壓塔等。
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SUA Registration and Labelling Process - SUA Modification
小型無人機不得被大幅改裝至使人不能再合理認為該無人機是原本獲註冊的同一架無人機
SUA modification should not be in a substantial extent that the SUA can no longer be reasonably
。因此，如要改裝註冊小型無人機，小型無人機負責人或須註銷原本的註冊，再將無人機
considered to be the same originally registered SUA. Hence, the modification of a registered SUA
註冊為新的小型無人機。此規定適用於涉及以下方面的改動︰
may require the SUA responsible person to deregister the SUA and register it as a new SUA. This
applies if the alteration may change:
(a) 小型無人機的類型(例如由電池推動的小型無人機改為液體燃料推動的小型無人機、
由四旋翼直升機改為六旋翼直升機、由垂直起降飛機改為定翼機等)；
(a) the type of SUA (e.g. from battery-powered SUA to liquid-fuel powered SUA, from quadcopter
(b) 小型無人機的重量，以致改變小型無人機的分類(例如由甲二類小型無人機改為乙類
to hexacopter, from vertical take-off and landing aircraft to fixed wing aircraft, etc.);
小型無人機)；或
(b) the weight to an extent that will alter the Category of SUA (e.g. from Category A2 SUA to
(c) 原本／設計的飛行性能或特性。
Category B SUA); or
(c) the original/ designed flight performance or characteristics.
一般而言，(i)以相同設計的新部件更換已斷裂或損壞的部件，或
(ii)更換可替換部件或製造商指定的部件或該類小型無人機的特製部件，均屬可接受的改動
Generally speaking, replacement of (i) broken or damaged parts with new ones of the same
，無須重新註冊小型無人機。
design, or (ii) swappable components or components specified by the manufacturer or constructed
for the type of SUA are acceptable alternations NOT requiring re-registration of the SUA.
以下是小型無人機無須重新註冊的可接受改動例子(但未能盡錄)，以供參考︰
(a) 旋翼
Examples of acceptable parts replacement NOT requiring re-registration of the SUA are listed
(b) 旋翼防護罩
below (but not limited to) for reference:
(c) 電池
(a) rotor blade
(d) 可轉換的負載(例如攝影機、遙距感應器等)
(b) blade guard
(e) 可轉換的配件(例如攝影機鏡片和濾鏡、平衡環架、支架等)
(c) battery
(f) 起落架、旋翼臂、整流罩
(d) interchangeable payload (e.g. camera, remote sensor, etc.)
(g) 記憶儲存裝置(例如安全數碼記憶卡等)
(e) interchangeable accessories (e.g. camera lens and filters, stabilisation gimbal, mounts, etc.)
(h) 導航設備(例如全球衞星定位系統接收器
(f) landing gear, rotor arm, fairing
、天線等)
(g) memory storage devices (e.g. SD card, etc.)
(i) 安全或安全防護保障裝置(例如防撞燈等)
(h) navigational equipment (e.g. GPS receiver, antenna, etc.)
(j) 信號發射器和接收器
(i) safety or failsafe equipment (e.g. anti-collision light, etc.)
(k) 標記貼、配色
(j) signal transmitter and receiver
(k) decals, paint scheme
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Advanced Rating for Remote Pilots (RP)
 Safety Awareness 安全意識

Safety awareness is of paramount importance for all remote pilots, whether they be beginners or
experienced remote pilots, to recognize the risks and take appropriate measure to ensure that their
operation are conducted in a safe manner. To promote safety awareness of the remote pilots, during
the registration process, remote pilots would be required to go through a safety awareness
information package which covers topics including aviation knowledge, local regulations, know-how
on safe SUA operations and potential privacy issues raised by SUA operations.
 Persons requiring Advanced Rating
 Remote pilots, who wish to apply for the permission from DGCA民航處處長to conduct
advanced operations, shall have obtained an advanced rating specified in the Remote Pilot
issued by the CAD, indicating that such person has complied with the training and assessment
requirements set by the CAD. Note that the Remote Pilot Certificate for Remote Pilot is a
prerequisite for remote pilots to apply for the advanced rating and only remote pilots who
obtained such advanced rating will be able to apply for the permission for advanced
operations through their eSUA accounts.
 There is no requirement for the remote pilot to obtain the advanced rating, if the SUA
operation is to be conducted within the standard operating requirements of Category A1 or
A2 SUA where prior permission from DGCA is not required.
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Competency Training and Assessment for Advanced Rating
Competency Training and Assessment for Advanced Rating

Due to higher risks associated with advanced operations, remote pilots must be trained and assessed before flight to
ensure that they possess the knowledge and skills consistent with the risk level of the operation. To be qualified for
an advanced rating assignment on the Remote Pilot Certificate, the applicant is required to complete an approved
advanced competency training course and obtain a pass in both written examination on theoretical knowledge and
assessment on practical flying skills.
Upon a satisfactory completion of the training, remote pilots would receive a Training Certificates issued by the
providers of approved training course, which could be regarded as a proof of competency for the remote pilots in
support of their advanced rating application.
As a prerequisite for attending the competency training and assessment, remote pilots must present documented
evidence to the training organisations that they have logged at least two hours of flight experience at the time of
course enrollment.
遙控駕駛員要獲得編配進階等級，必須先完成獲批准的小型無人機訓練機構所舉辦的訓練課程及／或評核。訓練內容涵蓋進階操作的相
關範疇，包括使用操作手冊及／或檢查清單、風險評估、航空圖、飛機知識、情境意識、標準進階操作和緊急程序等。訓練的其中一環
是飛行評核，以核實遙控駕駛員的實際飛行技術。圓滿結業的遙控駕駛員會獲發訓練證書，該證書可作為遙控駕駛員申請進階等級編配
的能力證明。
遙控駕駛員參加能力訓練和評核的先決條件，是在整段訓練期間必須持有民航處發出的有效遙控駕駛員證書，並能向訓練機構出示文件記
錄，證明在過去12個月內錄得最少兩小時的飛行經驗。有關記錄一般以飛行記錄形式提交，具明駕駛員姓名、小型無人機類別，以及操
作日期、時間、地點和航程時間等基本資訊。
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CAD SRD Requirements for safe Operations of SUA
https://www.cad.gov.hk/chinese/sua_new.html
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Permission for conducting Small Unmanned Aircraft
Advanced Operations
Advanced Operations
https://www.cad.gov.hk/documents/AC-002_E.pdf
The following operations are classified as “Advanced Operations” and shall be subject to more stringent safety and regulatory requirements
specified in the SUA Order and the Safety Requirements Document (“SRD”) :
a) Operations of Category A1 or A2 SUA that exceed the applicable operating requirements, except wholly within an enclosed area; (section 15(2)
of the SUA Order)
b) Operations of Category B / Advanced SUA; (section 11(1)(g) of the SUA Order)
c) Operations of any SUA within a Restricted Flying Zone (RFZ), except wholly within an enclosed area; and (section 18(1) of the SUA Order)
d) Operations involving carriage of dangerous goods. (section 20(1) of the SUA Order)
(a) 超出小型無人機操作安全規定文件所詳述的適用操作規定(在圍封範圍內除外)的甲一類或甲二類小型無人機操作；

(b) 乙類小型無人機操作；
(c) 在限制飛行區(完全在圍封範圍內除外)內飛行的任何小型無人機操作；以及
(d) 在飛行中須運載危險品的任何小型無人機操作。
Such advanced operations shall only be conducted upon prior permission from the Civil Aviation Department (“CAD”) in accordance with section 37
of the SUA Order.
48
Advanced Operations
Advanced Operations - Applicability

Depending on the nature and complexity of the advanced operations, and capability and experience
of the SUA operator, permissions granted under section 37 of the SUA Order may be of the
following types :
a) cover a specific type of advanced operations only (e.g. SUA night operations only) for a
specified period of time;
b) cover a specific range of advanced operations for a specified period of time; and
c) event-based for the duration of the event. This will not only provide flexibility to the industry 可獲考慮的小型無人機進階操作類型如下：
and permission holders to meet the different SUA operational needs in a timely manner, but a) 小型無人機夜間操作(AC-003)
also ensure that a system is in place to maintain aviation and public safety b) 小型無人機延伸視線操作(AC-004)
c) 以小型無人機作建築物測量／檢驗(AC-005)
The types of SUA advanced operations that may be considered for the purposes of point A, B above
d) 以小型無人機作空中測量或空中拍攝 (AC-006)
are as follows :- e) 重型小型無人機操作(AC-007)
a) Night Operations (AC-003)
b) Extended Visual Line of Sight Operations (AC-004)
c) Building Survey / Inspection Operations (AC-005) Following types of operations will normally only be
considered on an individual event basis for the purposes
d) Aerial Survey or Aerial Photography Operations (AC-006)
a) Drone Show (AC-010) a) 無人機匯演活動 (AC-010)
e) Heavy SUA Operations (AC-007) b) Drone Racing (AC-011) b) 無人機競速比賽活動 (AC-011)
49
Advanced Operations
Advanced Operations – Operations Manual

The applicant is required to submit the completed application form and the Operations Manual (“OM”) which shall include, inter
alia, the following supporting information as part of the application:
Organisation Details Specific Types of Advanced Operations to be conducted

• Name of the organisation
• Registered address • Details of the proposed advanced operations
• Organisation contact • Justifications for conducting the operation
• Organisation registration document, • Additional forms and/or required information
e.g. Business Registration Certificate /document under the respective ACs of the specific
• Description of the organisation’s nature of work types of advanced operations
• Organisation structure
Details of the Accountable Manager List of Remote Pilots

• Contact details • Personal particulars
• Role in the organisation • Holder of valid Remote Pilot Certificate
• Resume (CV) with Advanced Rating issued by the CAD
• Qualifications and training records
50
Advanced Operations
Advanced Operations – Operations Manual 操作 - 操作手冊

All advanced operations shall be conducted in accordance with the flight plan, flight procedures, emergency procedures, risk
assessment and safety mitigation measures documented in the OM accepted by the CAD. The OM should be comprehensive
enough to incorporate all relevant procedures of each type of specified operation, and should be reviewed and updated from time
to time. In particular, the following information should be included as a minimum :
a) Organisational structure and procedures;

b) General and emergency procedures of flight operation;
c) General procedures of incident and accident reporting and handling;
d) Operating procedures in relation to each specific operation(s) intended to be conducted;
e) Risk assessment with risk mitigation procedures and measures in relation to each specific operation(s) intended to be conducted;
f) Safety assurance and quality assurance actions if appropriate. Descriptions of the required information are provided in the
Application Form
51
Advanced Operations
Advanced Operations – Safety and Quality Assurance

Safety Assurance
The Accountable Manager shall ensure that all SUA operations are conducted in a safe manner through effective management of
safety risks. Risk assessment shall be conducted prior to each flight for continuously ensuring and improving safety by identifying
hazards, ensuring the implementation of necessary mitigating measures and remedial actions. The Accountable Manager shall
ensure that the assessments are properly conducted by competent persons of its organisation and shall properly review Page 10
of 12 and document the assessment results. Relevant sections of the OM template (Appendix B) are useful tools for risk
assessment.
Quality Assurance
The Accountable Manager shall perform appropriate quality assurance actions for ensuring continuous compliance of applicable
regulatory requirements stipulated in the SUA Order, SRD, various ACs, conditions of the AOP and other documents published by
the CAD. To this end, the Accountable Manager shall, as a minimum, conduct a self-assessment covering all aspects of operations
at least once every six (6) months to identify any internal deficiencies and procedures that are not being properly implemented or
that require further enhancement. The Accountable Manager can develop their own self-assessment checklist based on the
sample provided in the sample OM (Form G of Appendix B). In addition, the Accountable Manager should perform on-site
supervision to ensure the compliance of the advanced operations regularly, if such flights were not operated by him personally.
52
Advanced Operations
Advanced Operations – Principles of flight
1. SUA together with payload should not exceed the weight limit of the specific aircraft category under section 3 Part 1 SUA
Order.
2. Don’t carry dangerous substances, gases or liquids as payload.
3. Objects or substances carried by SUA which could be dangerous in case ofa crash or an accident.
4. Flying with dangerous goods without a permit is prohibited.
5. Explosive, flammable, toxic, radioactive, corrosive or contagious substances, gases or liquids are dangerous goods.
6. Batteries can get overheated if are covered by the payload in a flight
53
Advanced Operations
Cap. 448G Civil Aviation (Small Unmanned Aircraft) Order 《小型無人機令》
▸ If a person commits an offence under the SUA Order, the
person is liable on conviction on indictment to a fine at level 6, i.e. $100,000, and to imprisonment for two years
▸ Depending on the types and seriousness of the offences and circumstances of the cases, enforcement agencies which
include the police officers and the authorised persons appointed under the SUA Order may take actions ranging
from issuance of warnings / safety direction, suspension or revocation of registration / permission /rating / approval,
etc. to prosecution in court
▸ For cases of minor technical breach, for example, failure to update personal particulars as required by the SUA Order, a
safety direction could be issued, under which the person concerned will be required to take the corrective actions in
accordance with the safety direction within a specified period of time
▸ Examples of corrective actions may include requiring the remote pilot to undergo appropriate training before he can
resume flying, or requiring the responsible person to upgrade the equipment of SUA to meet the required standard.
▸ Non-compliance with a safety direction will be an offence
54
Advanced Operations
Cap. 448A Air Transport (Licensing of Air Services) Regulation 《空運(航空服務牌照)規例》
▸ Cap. 448A governs the provision of scheduled and non-scheduled air services to and from Hong Kong
Cap. 448B Hong Kong Civil Aviation (Investigation of Accidents) Regulation 《香港民航(意外調查)規例》
▸ Cap. 448B provides for the investigation of accidents arising out of or in the course of air navigation which occur to civil
aircraft in or over Hong Kong or elsewhere to civil aircraft registered in Hong Kong Civil Aviation Ordinance and its Sub-legislation.
Cap. 448E Air Navigation (Flight Prohibition) Order 《飛航(飛行禁制)令》

▸ Cap. 448E provides for the establishment of prohibited airspace and the regulations of such airspace
▸ Cap. 448E for the prohibited areas is still applicable.
55
Advanced Operations - Insurance Requirement
Advanced Operations – Insurance Requirement

Pursuant to section 11(1)(c) and section 12 of the SUA Order, advanced operations as defined in Paragraph 8.1.1 of this SRD must
have in force a policy of insurance that insures against any liability that may be incurred in respect of the death of, or bodily injury
to, a third party –
(a) arising out of or caused by the operation of the SUA for the flight in Hong Kong; and
(b) arising out of any one event.
The insurance policy shall have a coverage of not less than is HKD 10,000,000 (i.e. HKD 10 million) in respect of the liability
described in above Paragraph
The insurance policy must be issued by an insurer authorised under the Insurance Ordinance (Cap. 41) as regulated by the
Insurance Authority (“IA”). A register of authorised insurers is available on IA’s website.9
In the case of a foreign body corporate who has already taken out an insurance policy with global coverage for SUA operations,
above may be inapplicable. Insurers not authorised under the Insurance Ordinance (Cap. 41) but regulated by other authorities
will be considered by the CAD on a case-by-case basis.
As a condition of permission for certain higher-risk operations (e.g. a large number of drones are required to be operated at the
same time in an event with spectators), the DGCA may require an amount of coverage in an insurance policy higher than HKD 10
million.
56
Advanced Operations - Safety equipment
Advanced Operations – Safety equipment of SUA

The equipage of appropriate safety systems in SUA would enhance operational safety, not only by providing essential safety features where
necessary but also enhancing the safety awareness of remote pilots. Under the SUA Order, Category A2 SUA, Category B SUA and all Categories
of SUA to be used for advanced operations shall be equipped, inter alia, with a safety system capable of performing all the functions specified in
section 11(1)(d) and 13 of the SUA Order, or in more technical terms, the flight log and geo-awareness functions. This requirement does not
apply to a flight wholly within an enclosed area.
Pursuant to section 11(1)(d) of the SUA Order, the basic equipage requirements for a Category A2 SUA, Category B SUA and all Categories of SUA to be used for advanced
operations include a safety system capable of performing all the specified functions in section 13 of the SUA Order that –
(a) is installed in, carried by or attached to the aircraft, the device used to control the aircraft for the flight, or a component associated with the aircraft or the device
(b) is in use with all the specified functions functioning at all times during the flight.
The functions so specified are :
(a) The functions of indicating the geographical location, flying altitude and flying speed of the aircraft (relevant information) in real time to the remote pilot of the aircraft
during the flight;
(b) The functions of giving alert to the remote pilot of the aircraft for the flight in real time in relation to any flying restriction as set in the safety system;
(c) The function of recording the relevant information during the flight;
(d) The function of recording the date on which and the time at which the relevant information is recorded;
(e) Any other function that the DGCA may, by notice published in the Gazette, considers it necessary in the interests of aviation safety or public safety.
57
Advanced Operations
Flight Log System 航拍機飛行紀錄

Safety systems with functions and features fulfilling the requirements specified in
paragraph 6.2.2 (c) and (d) above can be understood as having the flight log
system, which is a system capable of recording by reference to date and time, the
geographical location, flying altitude and flying speed of the SUA, using internal or
external memory onboard SUA or remotely at the ground station/ remote
controller.
Pursuant to section 14 of the SUA Order, information recorded by safety system,

or in more technical terms, flight data or flight log records, shall be kept for six 根據《小型無人機令》第14條，安全系統記錄與該
months beginning on the date on which the flight begins. According to industry 次飛行相關的資訊(專業術語即飛行數據或飛行日誌
practices and information, most SUA currently available in the market would have 記錄)，須自該次飛行開始當日起計，備存6個月。
the capability of storing and keeping such information in the memory devices of a 根據行業慣例和資訊，在正常情況下，市面上現有
safety system or flight log system for at least six months under normal 的小型無人機大多能夠在安全系統或飛行記錄系統
circumstances. Nonetheless, it is advisable for the responsible person and/or 的記憶裝置中儲存和保存此類資訊至少六個月。儘
remote pilot to check before each flight whether there is sufficient storage space 管如此，民航處建議負責人及／或遙控駕駛員在每
in the devices and to ensure that the data are properly maintained. 次飛行前檢查設備中是否有充足的儲空存間，並確
保數據妥善保存。
58
Reporting of Accidents and Incidents
To enhance safety, any person involved in SUA operations who has knowledge
of the occurrence of any accident or incident involving SUA of any weight in
Hong Kong, is encouraged to submit a report to the CAD within three calendar
days from the date of occurrence by email to sua@cad.gov.hk. Such persons
include (but are not limited to) the SUA responsible person and the remote
pilot. 為加強安全，任何相關人士如知道香港以內發生了任何小型無人機操作的
意外或事故，不論涉事小型無人機的重量，應在意外或事故發生後3個曆
The reportable occurrences include events such as: 日內，以電郵(sua@cad.gov.hk)向民航處呈報。該等人士包括但不限於小
(a) Any incident that injured or caused fatality to person(s); 型無人機負責人和遙控駕駛員。
(b) Any collision with or loss of separation from another aircraft;
(c) Flyaway or loss of command and control datalink – where that flyaway or 須呈報的事件包括以下例子︰
loss resulted in an event that was potentially prejudicial to the safety of (a) 任何造成人命傷亡的事故；
other airspace users or third parties; and (b) 任何與另一飛機相撞或未能保持距離的事故；
(d) Unintended contact between or loss of separation from the SUA and (c) 小型無人機「飛失」或指揮及控制數據鏈路中斷，以致或會危及其
persons, structures, vehicles, vessels, etc. (d) 他空域使用者或第三者的安全；以及小型無人機未能與人、構築物、
車輛、船隻等保持距離或發生非預定的碰觸或。
In case of an emergency which may immediately affect the safety of other
airspace users (e.g. a flyaway), please notify the Hong Kong Air Traffic Control 一旦發生會即時影響其他空域使用者安全的緊急情況(例如小型無人機
(Tel: 2910 6822) with the following information as soon as possible: 「飛失」)，請盡快致電2910 6822通知航空交通管制部並提供以下資訊︰
(a) Time of the occurrence; (a) 事故發生時間；
(b) Last known location/ altitude of the SUA; (b) 小型無人機最後為人所知的位置／高度；
(c) Direction where the SUA headed to; (c) 小型無人機當時的飛行方向；
(d) Remaining battery level/ flight time of the SUA; and (d) 小型無人機剩餘的電池量／飛行時間；以及
(e) Brief description of the SUA (e.g. brand, model, colour, size, types, etc.) (e) 小型無人機的簡單描述(例如品牌、型號、顏色、尺寸、類型等)。
59
Other publications for aircraft operations OFCA
OFCA's requirements on radio frequency OFCA對無線電頻率的要求
OPERATION IN THE 2.4 GHz BAND
The apparatus shall operate in the frequency band 2.400 - 2.4835 GHz using frequency hopping spread spectrum or digital modulation
techniques, and meet the technical requirements according to either one of the following paragraphs: (a) ETSI Standard EN 300 328
"Electromagnetic compatibility and Radio spectrum Matters (ERM) or (b) Code of Federal Regulations (USA)
OPERATION IN THE 5.8 GHz BAND
The apparatus shall operate in the frequency band 5.725-5.850 GHz using frequency hopping spread spectrum and meet the technical
requirements according to the Code of Federal Regulations (USA); Title 47 Telecommunication; Chapter 1 Federal Communications
Commission, Part 15 Radio Frequency Devices; Section 15.247
https://www.ofca.gov.hk/filemanager/ofca/en/content_401/hkca1039.pdf
60
Personal data (Privacy) Ordinance
Privacy intrusiveness of Drones 隱私侵犯
There is no universally accepted definition for drones but typically they cover aircrafts
that are either controlled autonomously by computers or by remote pilots.
Drones can be used in many ways that bring about great social and economic benefits,
such as land surveying, predicting weather patterns, fighting fires, as well as search and
rescue operations. They are also increasingly used in commercial operations
(such as shooting advertisement, TV and movie production); and for hobby or recreational
purposes.
The use of certain types of drones may be subject to regulation (including the need for a
permit) by the Civil Aviation Department and, if the remote control equipment is
modified to extend its control range, the Office of the Communications Authority in
Hong Kong.
https://www.pcpd.org.hk/english/resources_centre/publications/files/GN_CCTV_Drones_e.pdf
61
Personal data (Privacy) Ordinance
Privacy intrusiveness of Drones 隱私侵犯

Drones can perform as powerful surveillance tools when fitted with cameras.
The threats they pose to privacy are consistent with the use of CCTV. Hence the
above guidelines for CCTV apply equally to the use of drones fitted with cameras.
Furthermore, drones can be far more privacy-intrusive than CCTV in view of their
unique attributes: †Being small, portable, mobile and cheap, they can track an
individual’s activities more persistently over time and in places that are not
expected while covering a wider area;
They are a relatively covert form of surveillance as they are mobile and in practical
terms, it is difficult for the public to know who the operators are; and
When equipped with a full range of advanced surveillance technologies such as

telephoto lens and infrared sensors, they would acquire sophisticated abilities
such as capturing data from distances and through objects, and with a fine level
of detail.
62
Case 03. SUA Modification
4W + 3dB = 8W, 4W+6dB=16W,

4W+9dB=32W, 4W+12dB=64W
63
SECTION 02 :
Airspace in
Hong Kong
Classification of airspace and restrictions for all aircraft
The Air Traffic Management Division of Hong Kong Civil Aviation Department (CAD) is responsible for the provision of air traffic
control service, flight information service and alerting service within the Hong Kong Flight Information Region (FIR) as designated
by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The airspace covers a total area of 276,000 square kilometers extending
over the South China Sea.
Uncontrolled airspace is called Class G airspace, and all aircraft operating in this type of airspace use the “see and avoid” principle
to maintain separation from each other. This system relies on each pilot keeping a sharp lookout for other aircraft and
maintaining a listening watch on the appropriate radio frequencies to build up a mental picture of the traffic situation.
65
Within the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region, there are five major airports (namely, Hong Kong
International Airport (HKIA), Guangzhou Baiyun Airport, Macau International Airport,
Shenzhen Bao'an Airport and Zhuhai Airport) and all have experienced phenomenal growth in
air traffic volume. In order to ensure flight safety in the PRD airspace while supporting air
traffic growth, the Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC), the CAD of Hong Kong SAR
and the Civil Aviation Authority of Macao SAR (CAAM) jointly established a Tripartite Working
Group (TWG) in 2004 to formulate measures to harmonies airspace and air traffic
management (ATM) arrangements in the PRD region. The TWG drew up the "Pearl River
Delta Region Air Traffic Management Planning and Implementation Plan (Version 2.0)" (the
Plan) in 2007, based on the principles of joint airspace planning, use of common standards,
and harmonized flight procedure design. Under the Plan, the whole PRD airspace planning is
considered in a holistic manner, various measures are formulated to enhance overall airspace
and air traffic management efficiency. The overarching objective of the Plan is to optimize the
utilization and management of PRD airspace, in a safe and efficient manner, for the mutual
benefits of the five major airports in the PRD region. The TWG strictly adheres to the safety
regulations on airspace management set out by the ICAO, and makes a concerted effort on
the design of PRD airspace with an aim of ensuring that the use of airspace is optimized and
flight procedures of the major airports in the region are compatible with each other.
https://www.cad.gov.hk/english/airspace.html
66
香港民航處航空交通管理部是負責在國際民航組織所指定的飛行情報區內提供航空交通管制，飛行情報及飛機事故告警這三種服務。
它的管理範圍覆蓋南中國海之面積達276,000平方公里。
▸ 近年珠三角地區五大機場(即香港國際機場、廣州白雲機場、澳門國際機場、深圳寶安機場與珠海機場)的航空交通流量均有
顯著的增長。為保障珠三角空域的航行安全和配合航空交通的增長，在二零零四年，國家民航局、香港特區民航處及澳門
特區民航局三方組成「珠江三角洲地區空中交通管理規劃與實施專題工作組」(三方工作組)，制訂措施協調珠三角地區的空
域和空管安排。三方工作組在二零零七年共同制訂了《珠江三角洲地區空中交通管理規劃與實施方案(2.0版本)》(《方案》)，
根據統一規劃、統一標準、統一程序的原則，全盤考慮整個珠三角空域的規劃，制訂多項改善空域和空管效率的措施。
《方案》的首要目標，旨在以安全高效的方式，優化珠三角空域的使用和管理，達致珠三角地區五大機場互惠互利的局面。
三方工作組亦緊隨國際民航組織對空域管理的安全規定，在珠三角空域設計上共同努力，務求達至善用空域及讓區內主要
機場的飛行程序互相兼容等目標。
▸ 《方案》已涵蓋對珠三角空中交通未來需求的評估，以及空管環境和發展的分析，並就優化珠三角空中交通的管理和規劃，
提出一系列的措施，善用珠三角地區五大機場的發展機遇和協同效應。《方案》透過分析區內過去和未來預計的航空交通
量增長、各個機場的發展計劃，以及各個飛行情報區的空域結構，建議優化空域規劃、運行標準及程序等措施，以達至一
個更高效的空管運作環境，應付珠三角地區的長遠航空交通量增長需求。
▸ 為了平衡各方的需要，讓公眾以及航空業界知悉三方工作組的主要進展，三方政府不時公布《方案》內成功落實的措施，
其中已公布的包括：
▸ 在香港與廣州兩個飛行情報區之間增設兩個新空管移交點及相關航道，供飛越香港降落廣州和深圳的航班使用;
▸ 在香港與廣州兩個飛行情報區之間增設往來華東地區航道和多一個空管移交點，供來往港澳及華東地區的航班使用;以及
▸ 調整珠海空域結構及新增珠三角地區外圍航道。
▸ 落實《方案》是一項持續進行的工作。三方民航當局一直透過三方工作組的平台保持緊密聯繫，並在考慮當前的實際情況
下，繼續討論工作計劃，以循序漸進的方式提升空域的效率。民航處會繼續積極參與三方工作組的討論，務實進取地推進
《方案》內的優化措施。
67
68
Controlled airspace, however, falls into a number of different classes. It is

classified as Class A, Class C, Class D or Class E airspace.
Class A: This high-level en route controlled airspace is used predominately by

commercial and passenger jets. Only IFR flights are permitted and they require
an ATC clearance. All flights are provided with an air traffic control service and
are positively separated from each other.
Class C: This is the controlled airspace surrounding major airports. Both IFR and
VFR flights are permitted and must communicate with air traffic control. IFR
aircraft are positively separated from both IFR and VFR aircraft. VFR aircraft are
provided traffic information on other VFR aircraft.
Class D: This is the controlled airspace that surrounds general aviation and
regional airports equipped with a control tower. All flights require ATC
clearance.
Class E: This mid-level en route controlled airspace is open to both (FR and VFR
aircraft. IFR flights are required to communicate with ATC and must request
ATC clearance.
Class G: This airspace is uncontrolled. Both IFR and VER aircraft are permitted
and neither require ATC clearance. 69
國際民航組織(ICAO)把空域分為7大類，以英文字母A 至G 表示，大部分國家都會按這個分類將其空域劃分管理，具體分類如下：
Class A：
位於各類空域的最上層，範圍由18,000呎至FL600。在這範圍內的飛機必須採用儀表飛行規則(IFR)飛行，並服從航空管制人員(ATC)的各項指示。大家平日乘搭的客機，大部
分時間都在這空域內飛行。
Class B：
和Class A 空域一樣，ATC 會負責給予指示，以確保航空交通暢通，並保持飛機之間的安全間距。在這區域航行的飛機通常採用IFR，但在某些情況下，採用目視飛行規則
(VFR) 的飛機也可以進入，但必須先獲授權，並保持無線電通訊。
Class C：
IFR 和VFR 的飛行器均可按授權進入。ATC 會為飛機提供指示或情報，以維持它們之間的安全間距。
Class D：
IFR 和VFR 的飛行器均可按授權進入。ATC 只負責維持IFR 飛機之間的間距，其他的則會以交通情報的形式支援。惟在資源許可/ 按個別要求下，ATC 也會協助飛機在航路上
的衝突。
Class E：
IFR 和VFR 的飛行器均可進入，惟IFR 飛機需事先取得授權，VFR 的則不用。此區域只會維持有限度的航管服務，IFR 飛機之間的間距仍由ATC 負責，其餘資訊則會在資源許
可下提供。
Class F：
這類空域比較特別，可分為指導(Advisory)和限制(Restricted)兩類，主要針對特別飛行活動，如跳傘、滑翔風箏和軍事活動等，實施相關限制。當這些活動完成後，空域便
會回復至原來的類別。
Class G：
非管制空域，在此的飛行器，不受ATC 限制，但仍可接收其提供的飛行資訊。
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Flight information region
Flight information region

In aviation, a flight information region (FIR) is a specified region of
airspace in which a flight information service and an alerting service
(ALRS) are provided.
Smaller countries’ airspace is encompassed by a single FIR; larger

countries’ airspace is subdivided into a number of regional FIRs.
There is no standard size for FIRs — it is a matter

for the administrative convenience of the country concerned.
The Hong Kong FIR airspace covers the waters off Hong Kong to the
south, southeast and southwest.
The FIR code of Hong Kong is VHHK. 香港飛航情報區（VHHK）
VHHH : 香港國際機場（赤鱲角）的ICAO機場代碼
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Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) and AIP Supplements
An Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) is a publication issued by or with the authority

of a State and containing aeronautical information of a lasting character essential to air
navigation. (ICAO Annex 15 - Aeronautical Information Services)
The AIP contains details of regulations, procedures and other information pertinent to the
operation of aircraft in the particular country to which it relates. It is usually issued by or on
behalf of the respective civil aviation administration and constitutes the basic information
source for permanent information and long duration temporary changes.
The structure and contents of the document are standardized by international agreement
through ICAO. AIPs normally have three parts - GEN (general), ENR (en route) and AD
(aerodromes). The documents contain many charts; most of these are in the AD section
where details and charts of all public aerodromes are published.
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Make sure to get the latest information from following link :

https://www.ais.gov.hk/
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Aeronautical information Circulars (AIC)

航空資料通報
Aeronautical Information Circular (AIC) is a document containing

information on the long-term forecast of any major changes in
legislation, regulations, procedures or facilities;
information of a purely explanatory or advisory nature liable to
affect flight safety; and information or notification of an
explanatory or advisory nature concerning technical,
legislative or administrative matters.
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USE OF AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PRODUCTS in Hong Kong
In accordance with ICAO Annex 15, aeronautical information shall be provided in the form of aeronautical information products which
include the Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP), AIP Amendment, AIP Supplement, AIC, NOTAM and aeronautical charts.
Attention is drawn to the following ICAO standards as stipulated in ICAO Annex 15 Aeronautical Information Services:
A. AIP Amendment : Permanent changes to the AIP shall be published as AIP Amendments.
B. AIP Supplement : Temporary changes of long duration (three months or longer) and information of short duration which contains
extensive text and/or graphics shall be published as AIP Supplements.
C. NOTAM : A NOTAM shall be originated and issued promptly whenever the information to be distributed is of a temporary nature and
of short duration, or when operationally significant permanent changes or temporary changes of long duration are made at short notice,
except for extensive text and/or graphics.
D. AIC : An AIC shall not be used for information that qualifies for inclusion in AIP and NOTAM.
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航空情報服務
說起航空交通管制，很多人會馬上聯想起一群航空交通管制員於機場的航空交通管制塔和航空交通管制中心透過無線電指揮飛機安
全升降。但對於一個空中導航服務供應商而言，要安全地提供航空交通管制服務，背後還有一個十分重要的組成部份：航空情報服
務（Aeronautical Information Services)。
航空情報服務的目的，是「保證國際空中航行的安全、正常和效率所必要的資料的流通」。試想像一位來自外地的民航機師駕駛飛
機在甚麼資訊都沒有的情況下飛抵香港，那他如何會找到香港國際機場？機場跑道的大小和座向是甚麼？有甚麼儀表飛行程序可供
使用？空域的間隔和規則為何？要與那個航空交通管制單位用甚麼頻道聯絡？航空情報服務正正是為了協助來自世界各地的航空公
司和飛行員了解各地資訊而應運而生。
國際民航組織主要透過《國際民航公約附件15 - 航空情報服務》，以及《 Doc 10066 - 空中航行服務程序: 航空情報管理》（PANS -
AIM）這兩份文件去規管各締約國的航空情報服務，以及提供相關的標準（Standards）、建議措施（Recommended Practices）和
程序（Procedures）予各地實施。
根據這兩份文件，航空情報和資訊主要是透過一系列的航空情報產品（Aeronautical Information Products）向外發佈。航空情報產
品包括但不限於：
- 航行資料匯編（Aeronautical Information Publication, AIP），其修訂（AIP Amendment）和補編（AIP Supplement）

- 航空資料通報（Aeronautical Information Circular, AIC）
- 飛行通告（Notice to Airmen, NOTAM）
- 航圖（Aeronautical Charts）（註：航圖是由附件4規管，在此不贅）
- 數字數據集
參考資料及圖片來源：
香港航空情報服務網站 - https://www.ais.gov.hk/
民航處通訊（第48期） - https://www.cad.gov.hk/reports/CADLink/Issue48.pdf
民航處網頁各分部簡介 - https://www.cad.gov.hk/chinese/cad_division.html78
AIP一般由每個國家或地區自行出版並載有該國家或地區所有關係到空中航行而必須及永久的資訊。根據國際民航組織的要求，一本
AIP基本上會分成三個章節，分別為 GEN （General，基本資料）、ENR （Enroute，過境）和AD （Aerodromes，機場），以便國
際間不同的持份者能方便快捷地找尋所需資訊。
儘管AIP載有相對永久的航行資訊，有關資料仍不免因不同原因（例如新飛行程序）而需要更新。由於AIP不少內容都會影響飛行安
全，為避免不同航機對相關資訊的生效日期產生誤會，國際民航組織創立了一套「航空資料定期頒發制」（Aeronautical Information
Regulation and Control，AIRAC），以28日為單位/ 週期（AIRAC Cycle），讓全球不同地方所有關係到飛行安全的新程序均能統一
於每個AIRAC日期開始生效，以減低誤會。
如相關程序的增減和修訂屬永久性，則這些改變會以AIP 修訂（AIP Amendment）的形式在AIRAC日期發佈，並在兩個AIRAC週期
後開始生效。如相關改變遲臨時性，相關航空情報單位則會按其生效日期長短和性質以AIP補編（AIP Supplement）或飛行通告
（NOTAM）發佈，並註明修訂日期等資訊。至於航空資料通報（AIC）則一般載有行政、規管或參考性質的資訊，並由航空情報單
位代相關機構發佈。
在香港，航空情報服務是由民航處航空交通管理部轄下的航空情報管理中心（Aeronautical Information Management Centre，AIMC）

負責。航空情報管理中心是香港AIP 的發行單位，並會按國際民航組織的要求提供和發佈相關的航空情報產品。中心的職員亦會每日
二十四小時為香港國際機場的離境航班處理其飛行計劃書（Flight Plan），並於有需要時為空勤人員提供簡報服務。
為使航空情報管理中心的服務能精益求精，民航處已為其取得ISO 9001:2015的國際認證。同時，隨着航空業的發展和科技的發達，
傳統以紙本形式處理的航空情報服務將不敷應用，固此全球航空業界已逐漸邁向更先進的航空情報管理（Aeronautical Information
Management），並推動電子化的航空情報以取代以往的紙本航空情報產品。民航處航空交通管理部亦有配合國際民航組織的「航空
情報服務向航空情報管理過渡」（AIS-AIM Transition），除加強相關航空情報的準確性和可追溯性外，亦發行了電子AIP （eAIP），
以便航空業界能方便快捷地獲取所需而正確的資訊。
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Restricted Flying Zone (RFZ) for SUA
Special Use Airspace
Special use airspace or special area of operation (SAO) is the designation for airspace in which certain activities must
be confined, or where limitations may be imposed on aircraft operations that are not part of those activities.
Certain special use airspace depicted can create limitations on the mixed use of airspace. The special use airspace depicted on
instrument charts includes the area name or number, effective altitude, time and weather conditions of operation, the controlling
agency, and the chart panel location.
Special use airspace usually consists of:
• Prohibited areas禁區
• Restricted areas 限制區
• Warning areas 警告區域
• Military operation areas (MOAs) 軍事行動區
• Alert areas警報區域
• Controlled firing areas (CFAs) 射擊區
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Drone maps for RFZ for SUA in HK
Under Cap. 448G, there are Restricted Flying Zones (RFZs) designated by various authorities
and these RFZs are applicable to SUA only.
The Prohibited/Restricted/ Danger Areas or other airspace restrictions are not ONLY
applicable to SUA, but also applicable to other airspace users.
As ad-hoc RFZ can be designated due to emergencies, such
as fire event, remote pilots should always check the drone
map to see if there is new RFZ before each SUA operation.
RFZ could be designated by 3 authorities

香港限飛區可由以下 3 個機構按需要制定:
• Security Bureau 保安局
• Civil Aviation Department 民航處
• Police Department 香港警察
https://esua.cad.gov.hk/web/droneMap?lang=en_US
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Control Zone and Uncontrolled Zone
VHD, VHR, VHP area are not for SUA

operation.
VH = Hong Kong
VH R 12 R = Restricted Area
P = Prohibited
D = Danger
HK CAT SG. 12 = sequence number
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Control Zone and Uncontrolled Zone (HK Disneyland)
Cap. 448E covers all aircraft, including SUA.

Flight restriction 飛行禁制
For the purpose of avoiding noise and visual disturbance to the Hong Kong
Disneyland, a Prohibition Area has been established under Air Navigation (Flight
Prohibition) Order. According to this Order, no aircraft may at any time operate within
the Prohibition Area at less than 4000 feet above mean sea level except the following:
• aircraft flying in accordance with air traffic control instructions or published
procedures, for the purpose of weather avoidance or deviation due to technical
problems;
• aircraft of the Government Flying Service operating for the purposes of fire fighting
or prevention, life-saving, casualty evacuation or police operations; or
• aircraft granted specific exemption from this Order.
Note: The Prohibition Area is delineated in red in the plan numbered AN(FP)1.
為免香港迪士尼樂園受到噪音及視覺滋擾，當局已根據《飛航(飛行禁制)令》設立飛行
禁區。根據該法令，任何飛機無論於任何時間均不得在海拔4 000呎以下的高度飛越禁
區，唯下列飛機除外:
• 按照航空交通管制指示或公布程序，以及因氣象迴避或技術故障而偏離該等指示或
程序的飛機；
• 執行滅火、防火、救生、疏散運送死傷者任務或警隊行動的政府飛行服務隊飛機；
或
• 獲特別豁免的飛機。.
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;
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Entry/ Exit Routes from ATZ, CTR Zones and SKARA
VHD, VHR, VHP area are

not for SUA operation.
SKARA :
Shek Kong Military Airport
in Shek Kong Above
石崗機場
The Shek Kong
Airfield (ICAO: VHSK)
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Entry/ Exit Routes from ATZ, CTR Zones and SKARA
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NOTAMS (Notice to Airmen)
A notice to airmen (NOTAM) is a notice containing information concerning the

establishment, condition or change in any aeronautical facility, service, procedure or hazard,
the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight operations.
NOTAMS are issued by national authorities for a number of reasons, such as:
▸ Hazards such as air-shows, parachute jumps and glider or micro-light flying;

▸ Flights by important people such as heads of state;
▸ Closed runways, taxiways, etc;
▸ Unserviceable radio navigational aids;
▸ Military exercises with resulting airspace restrictions;
▸ Unserviceable lights on tall obstructions;
▸ Temporary erection of obstacles near airfields (e.g. cranes).
For reasons of conciseness and precision, NOTAMs are encoded, although the code is usually
sufficiently self-evident to allow the user to identify a hazard.
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What information fields contained in a NOTAM are: What are NOTAM Components – Keyword
▸ Location Identifier
RWY
IAP
Runway
Instrument Approach Procedure
▸ The time at which the information in the NOTAM becomes applicable, VFP Visual Flight Procedure
▸ The time at which the information in the NOTAM ceases to be applicable,
DVA Diverse Vector Area
▸ Details of the periods of activity during those times,

TWY
AD
Taxiway
Aerodrome
▸ Plain language text describing the activity,
OBST Obstruction
▸ Lower limit of operations, and

NAV
COM
Navigation
Communication
▸ Upper limit of operations
SVC
ODP
Services
Obstacle Departure Procedure
SID Standard Instrument Departure
STAR Standard Terminal Arrival Route
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國際民航組織有對NOTAM更嚴格的格式規定，多數的NOTAM都是依這種格式發出，不過有少部分地方發出的NOTAM（例如美
國）並不是完全跟隨ICAO格式。
就ICAO的格式而言，NOTAM分為六至八段，本文將會順序列出。
• 第一段，NOTAM的首行表達了NOTAM的識別，即發出的年月日時間和號碼，如果之前發出過相似的NOTAM，還會以
NEW/REPLEACED的字眼標示。
• 第Q行（第二段）包含一些英文字母編碼顯示其識用範圍，可以在ICAO的編碼表找到相關的解釋。
• 第A行是適用的機場或者是該飛航情報區（FIR）的ICAO的編碼和由該機場作起點的適用範圍（例如香港國際機場西南20公里）。
• 第B及C行就是NOTAM的有效開始時間和完結時間，日期就是跟隨美國寫法（即YY/MM/DD，年/月/日），時間是世界協調時。
• 第D行則只會在事件的影響時間不足一天，但是重覆超過一次出現。例如一個機場預定在一天的三個時間內關閉跑道，並連續進
行超過一天就要使用NOTAM的D行來表達其時效性。
• 第E行就是NOTAM的正文，依ICAO表定的英文縮寫詞語編寫。
• 第F或G行就是NOTAM中事件影響的高度，例如鳥類的活動一般不會多於12000呎。
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What is NOTAMS (Notice to Airmen)
以下是倫敦希斯路機場發出的一個NOTAM：
A1234/22 NOTAMR A1212/22

Q)EGTT/QMXLC/IV/NBO/A/000/999/5129N00028W005
A)EGLL
B)2209050500
C)2304300500
E)DUE WIP TWY B SOUTH CLSD BTN 'F' AND 'R'. TWY 'R' CLSD BTN 'A' AND 'B' AND DIVERTED VIA
NEW GREEN CL AND BLUE EDGE LGT. ADZ CTN
代表了：
編號：A1234號NOTAM，於2022年發出
NOTAM的目的：代替2022年發出的第1212號NOTAM
飛航情報區：EGTT（倫敦飛航情報區）
目標：滑行道(Taxiway) （ICAO編碼表中為MX）
狀況：關閉（ICAO編碼表中為LC）
適用飛機：儀器飛行（IFR，ICAO編碼表中I）和目視飛行（VFR，ICAO編碼表中V）
目的：希望航空公司或飛航營運者即時的注意（ICAO編碼表中N）
目的：給準備飛航的NOTAM（ICAO編碼表中B）
目的：飛航運作的NOTAM（ICAO編碼表中O）
範圍：機場
地理位置：51°29' N 000° 28' W
NOTAM適用的範圍：5 NM（海浬）
機場：倫敦希斯路機場（ICAO編碼：EGLL）
生效於：05:00 世界協調時 2006年9月5日
生效至：05:00 世界協調時 2007年4月30日
類別：機場、航線及地面助航
描述：因為滑行道B正進行工程，在「F」至「R」出口間的一段關閉。滑行道R在「A」至「B」關閉，滑行的飛機改經新的綠色中線燈和藍色邊緣燈組成的滑行道。93
What is NOTAMS (Notice to Airmen)
https://www.ais.gov.hk/HKAIP/notam.pdf
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部分限飛區清單
1) 扯旗山 (山頂最高公園婚攝熱點)
2) 東區尤德夫人那打素醫院直升機起降場 (柴灣一帶)
3) 啟德郵輪碼頭管制站
4) 屯赤隧道入口 (浩和街)
5) 鳳凰山 (大嶼山）
6) 昂坪 (天壇大佛)
7) 長洲直升機起降場 (長洲東邊)
8. 青山練靶場 (上下白泥向東山方向)
9) 屯門醫院直升機起降場 (兆康站附近)
10) 大帽山 (最頂波波位)
Update RFZ list can download from CAD site :

https://www.cad.gov.hk/english/sua_new.htm
G.N. 1276
G.N. 3305 (Superseding G.N. (E.) 567 of 2022)
G.N. 3306 (Superseding G.N. (E.) 568 of 2022)
G.N. 2303
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憲報公告
第3305號公告(取代2022年第567號號外公告)
指定限制飛行區由民航處處長指定的限制飛行區
https://www.gld.gov.hk/egazette/pdf/20222626/cgn202
226263305.pdf
第3306號公告(取代2022年第568號號外公告)
指定限制飛行區由保安局局長指定的限制飛行區
https://www.gld.gov.hk/egazette/pdf/20222626/cgn202
226263306.pdf
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Other applicable air space considerations
Paragliding activities, model aircraft flying, aerobatic flight, etc.

Under new legislation, model aircraft will be also regarded as a type of SUA. Anyway, SUA operations should avoid aircraft,
helicopter and also the paragliding activities and model aircraft flight....,etc.
Other airspace areas” is a general term referring to the majority of the remaining airspace.
It includes:
• Local airport advisory (LAA)
• Military training route (MTR)
• Temporary flight restriction (TFR)
• Parachute jump aircraft operations
• Published VFR routes
• Terminal radar service area (TRSA)
• National security area (NSA)
Air Defense Identification Zones (ADIZ) land and water based and need for Defense VFR
(DVFR) flight plan to operate VFR in this airspace
Intercept Procedures and use of 121.5 for communication if not on ATC already
Flight Restricted Zones (FRZ) in vicinity of Capito! and White House
Special Awareness Training required by 14 CFR 91.161 for pilots to operate VFR within 60
NM of the Washington, DC VOR/DME
Wildlife Areas/Wilderness Areas/National Parks and request to operate above 2,000 AGL
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Marine Areas off the coast with
requirement to operate above 2,000 AGL
* Tethered Balloons for observation and weather recordings that extend on cables up to
60,000 97
模型飛機放飛
無線電控制模型飛機飛行安全
避免相撞意外
放飛無線電控制模型飛機雖然是一項有趣的閑暇活動，但若操作失當，有可能導致
飛機發生意外。
以往曾經有模型飛機在直升機主要航道飛行的事例，影響直升機的安全。
模型飛機操作者必須明白香港空域狹窄，航空交通頻繁，直升機在執行職務時可能以
高速靠近山嶺低飛。
飛行員通常無法在遠距離外察覺飛行中的模型飛機，因而難以及時防避。碰撞後果嚴重，
往往可導致人命及財物的嚴重損失。
故此模型飛機愛好者在操作飛機時，應維持放飛高度不超過地面以上300呎，以及保持警覺；如發現有
飛機飛近，須立即將模型飛機著陸。
注意：你有責任避免相撞意外，因為直升機或輕型飛機飛行員無法在遠距離外察覺及防避飛行中的模
型飛機
模型飛機操作者亦務必注意模型飛機須與地面上其他人及物件保持安全距離，以免發生碰撞導致他人受
傷，甚至死亡及造成財物損失。
如因魯莽或疏忽操作模型飛機危害他人或財產安全，可被檢控。
在大量人士參與的公眾活動上空操作模型飛機可被視作魯莽或疏忽地導致或允許飛機危及他人或財產
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不得放飛模型飛機的地點
a) 不得在人多及擠迫的地方上空放飛模型飛機。
b) 不得飛越或飛近任何與之碰撞時會產生危險的物體或設施，亦不得飛越或飛近任何設施而影響或可能影響該設施的秩序和
紀律及對該設施的管制。
c) 不得在機場及飛機升降航道範圍附近放飛模型飛機。這些地方包括：
(i) 香港國際機場；
(ii) 大嶼山北部沿岸地區；
(iii) 大欖涌至荃灣沿岸及青衣島一帶；
(iv) 維多利亞港一帶及沿岸地區；和
(v) 石崗一帶。
如何選擇飛行地點
選擇適當的飛行地點不僅可以減低發生意外的可能性，更可提高飛行的樂趣。下列為選擇適當飛行地點的一些要訣。
適當的模型飛機飛行地點，除須顧及航空安全外，還須：
(i) 遠離人群、船隻、車輛或構築物；
(ii) 遠離直升機坪；
(iii) 遠離一切可干擾無線電訊息的電源，例如電線、變壓站、高壓電線和變壓塔等；
(iv) 地勢平坦，可讓模型飛機升降自如；和
(v) 讓模型飛機操作者視野清晰無阻，能夠清楚看見飛行中的模型飛機。
重型模型飛機
除非有民航處的許可，任何人士不可以在香港放飛重量超過7千克 (不計燃料)的重型模型飛機。
學習放飛模型飛機
學習放飛模型飛機其中一個最佳途徑，是加入模型飛機飛行會或向富經驗的模型飛機操作人士學習。
99
香港直升機飛行圖(HM50HFC)及
香港本地飛行圖(HM100LFC)是首
兩套由測繪處繪製及出售的飛行圖，
分別以1:50 000及1:100 000之比
例繪製，前者有兩張圖幅，後者則
是單張地圖。
這兩套飛行圖展示香港特區內的飛
行範圍。圖內的航空資料均以紅色
及藍色覆印在相同比例的地形圖上，
而高度是以英呎為單位。
https://www.landsd.gov.hk/tc/sur
vey-mapping/mapping/thematic-
mapping.html
100
101
Case Study 01 : Other applicable air space considerations
102
Case Study 02 : Other applicable air space considerations
Hong Kong Model Engineering Club 香港機械模型元朗南生圍
103
SECTION 03 :
Navigation and units
of measurement
Units of measurement
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105
Usage of maps and aviation charts
Measuring a Magnetic Direction

Magnetic heading is your direction relative to magnetic
north, reading from your magnetic compass. True heading is your direction relative to true north or the
geographic north pole. The difference is due to the magnetic north pole and geographic north pole being
hundreds of miles apart.
Usually, magnetic will provide from aviation chart the current deviation of Hong Kong is 3.13° ° W
meaning that you have to adjust 3.13 west for you heading
indicator
正北(True North) - 又名真北，也即是地球北極點。在地球表面任何一點假想至北極的直線，名為「經線」，所以
所有經線都是正北線。
磁北(Magnetic North) - 即指南針所指向的北，也就是地球磁場的北，這是因為兩磁極並不等於兩極，所以指北針

所指的方向並不是真北。
磁北與正北會有所偏差，而這差距稱為磁北差距或磁差。因為磁北極每年的位置都不同，地圖上都會註明磁偏角
的方向。因此正置地圖(Set Map)時，不能只靠指南針，需根據地圖上的資料校正到網格北和正北一樣，這才是真
正的正置地圖。
註: 因為香港的面積細小，正北與磁北相距不遠，磁偏角較細。所以正北、網絡北及磁北的角度差影響不大。但
緯度較高的地方，正置地圖時應校正網格北和正北一樣。
106
WEST IS BEST, SO ADD EAST IS LEAST, SO SUBTRACT
107
Latitude and longitude, Grid reference
The "latitude" (abbreviation: Lat., φ, or phi) of a point on Earth's surface is the angle between the
equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through (or close to) the center of
the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as
they are parallel to the Equator and to each other. The North Pole is 90° N; the South Pole is 90° S. The 0°
parallel of latitude is designated the Equator, the fundamental plane of all geographic coordinate systems.
The Equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
The "longitude" (abbreviation: Long., λ, or lambda) of a point on Earth's surface is the angle east or west of
a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of
great ellipses (often called great circles), which converge at the North and South Poles. The meridian of
the British Royal Observatory in Greenwich, in southeast London, England, is the international prime
meridian, although some organizations—such as the French Institute national de l'information
géographique et forestière—continue to use other meridians for internal purposes. The prime meridian
determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres
further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both
180°W and 180°E. This is not to be conflated with the International Date Line, which diverges from it in
several places for political and convenience reasons, including between far eastern Russia and the far
western Aleutian Islands.
The combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth,
without consideration of altitude or depth. The visual grid on a map formed by lines of latitude and
longitude is known as a graticule. The origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about
625 km (390 mi) south of Tema, Ghana, a location often facetiously called Null Island. 108
經度 longitude (λ)
經度線投射在圖上看似彎曲和垂直的線，但實際上是大圓的一半。
緯度 latitude (φ)
緯度線投射在圖上看似水平的平行線，但實際上是不同半徑的圓。有相同特定緯度的所有位置都在
同一個緯線上。
赤道的緯度為0°，將行星平分為南半球和北半
球。.
109
Numbering the Meridians
When the earth is viewed from above the north pole, there is no obvious place to begin numbering the
meridians since they all look alike and they rotate as the earth rotates. The world has agreed that the
meridian which passes through Greenwich in England shall be called the zero or prime meridian.
All other meridians are numbered to the east and west according to the angle they make with the prime
meridian. The anti-meridian to the prime meridian therefore, can be considered as either 180°east of
Greenwich or 180°west of Greenwich
longitude
110
Numbering the Parallels

Unlike the meridians, the parallels of latitude form circles of different sizes on the surface of the earth
The largest of these is the equator and it is chosen as the datum from which the parallels are numbered. Latitude
The parallels are numbered north and south of the equator according to the angle formed between the
plane of the equator and a line from any point on that parallel to the centre of the earth.
When great accuracy is required in defining a position, each degree is subdivided into 60 sub-divisions
called minutes and each of these can be further subdivided into 60 seconds.
Latitude may also be expressed using the decimal system, e.g. 38 degrees and 29.6 minutes south of
the equator may be expressed as: 38 29.6
The latitude and longitude grid can be used to define any point on the earth‘s surface by the parallel of
latitude and meridian of longitude passing through it.
The numbers describing the particular meridian and parallel are called the coordinates of that point.
The ability to accurately plot the position of a point given its coordinates, or to determine the coordinates
of any given point, is a requirement for any pilot.
111
Distance (Nautical Miles, kilometers, meters)
What is Nautical Mile 海里?
A nautical mile, a unit of measurement defined as 1,852 meters or 1.852 kilometers, is based on the circumference of the earth and
is equal to one minute of latitude.
If one is to pick a part of the earth after cutting the planet in half at the equator and consider the equator as a circle, it can be divided
into 360 degrees.
Then, one degree can be split into 60 minutes, of which one minute of arc on the planet Earth is 1 nautical mile. One nautical mile is
slightly more than a statute mile (1 nautical mile = 1.1508 statute miles).
According to the English measurement system, a nautical mile is equal to 1.1508 miles, or 6,076 feet.
112
Distance (Nautical Miles, kilometers, meters)
海里在傳統定義為子午線「1角分」的長度（子午線是地球表
面連接南北兩極的大圓線上的半圓弧，等於180度。1度等於
60角分，故1海里的長度是子午線長度÷180÷60），可從航海
圖中以子午線上緯度的改變來量度。由於地球並非標準球體，
1度的距離並不完全相當，因此海里的長度理論上並不固定。
國際單位制
1.852 km 1,852 m
1 海里 =
美國慣用 / 英制單位
3
6,076 ft 72.9×10 in
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Form of The Earth – Direction

Expressing Direction as a Three Figure Group
The direction an aircraft is pointing is referred to as a heading. The heading is the angle, measured clockwise from north to the
aircraft’s extended centre line and is always expressed as a three-digit number. Keep in mind that a multirotor style aircraft can
fly in any direction so the heading in this case is the direction it is flying. If it is in the hover, then you could assume that the
heading is the front of the aircraft (the way the aircraft is facing)
000, 090, 180, 270
從正北方開始順時針標註360個數字來表示方向，
比如說正東邊是090，正南是180，
正西是270，而東北方就是045，
用這個方式則全部的方位就能用3位數字表達了，
這個方法也相同的使用在船舶上。
114
Aircraft/ Wind Speed (knots, km/hr, m/s)
Aircraft/ Wind Speed (knots, km/hr, m/s)
The wind velocity (speed and direction) is of great interest to the pilot, especially during take-off and landing.
Wind direction reported is the direction from which the wind is blowing in degrees magnetic to the nearest 100. For example, a wind direction reported
as 270 would indicate the wind is coming from the west.
Wind speed, like all speeds in aviation, is measured in knots. One knot is one nautical mile per hour. By comparing
the wind velocity with the flight path direction the pilot can get a good idea of the conditions to expect for take-off and
landing. Of special interest is the component of the actual wind speed which is acting across the direction of your flight path.
This is called the cross-wind component.
If the wind is blowing directly down your flight path, i.e. the number indicating wind direction is the same as the number
indicating your flight path direction, there is no cross wind component.
直至19世紀（一說為16世紀）為了計算船的航行速度，水手們想出辦法，在一根長繩上打很多結（英語：knot）然後在船尾隨水流放下，通
過計算一定時間內沖走的結的個數來計算船速。每個結的距離為47尺3寸（14.4018米）（一百分之一海里），水手會用30秒的沙漏（現時
因海里有國際標準而使用28秒）去計算移動速度，每一個結為一節。
海里是航海上的長度單位，每小時航行1海里的速度叫做1節。節原指地球子午線上緯度1分的長度，由於地球略呈橢球體狀，因此在不同緯
度的1分其弧度略有差異。在赤道上1海里約為1843公尺；在緯度45°約為1852.2公尺，在兩極約為1861.6公尺。1929年國際水文地理學會議，
通過以1分的平均長度1852公尺（或6076.115英尺）作為1標準海里長度，目前已為國際上所採用。
節（英語：knot）是一個速度單位，定義為每小時1海里，等於1.852km/h（海里的標準）。ISO標準及電機電子工程師學會使用單位符號為
kn，而亦有常用kt，是一個專用於航海的速率單位，後延伸至航空方面，相當於船隻或飛機每小時所航行的海里數。需要注意，由於飛機位
於不同的大氣條件下飛行，航空儀表指示空速的節可能會與真實速度有所不同。 115
Wind Speed
Wind speed, like all speeds in aviation, is measured in knots. One knot is one nautical mile per hour.
One nautical mile is 1,852 meters. By comparing the wind velocity with the flight path direction
the pilot can get a good idea of the conditions to expect for take-off and landing. Of special
interest is the component of the actual wind speed which is acting across the direction of your
flight path. This is called the cross-wind component.
If the wind is blowing directly down your flight path, i.e. the number indicating wind direction is
the same as the number indicating your flight path direction, there is no cross wind component.
116
Units of measurement (for SUA)
Vertical measurement
Despite its name, the altimeter does not measure height directly at all.
It measures the difference between the ambient atmospheric pressure
at which the aircraft is located and the reference pressure which has
been set on the subscale. The magnitude of atmospheric pressure at
any point is due to the weight of air above that point. As we go
up in the atmosphere, atmospheric pressure drops at a fairly
constant rate; about 1 hectopascal (hPa) for each 30ft of height
increase.
The instrument assumes that the difference between these two

pressures is due to a difference in height. It displays that height on
the main scale. The reference pressure is set by the pilot by rotating
the small knob on the bottom left hand side of the instrument.
117
Altitude, Above Mean Sea Level (AMSL) , Elevation, Height
(from takeoff point) and Above Ground Level (AGL)
118
Above Mean Sea Level (AMSL)，
參照平均海平面 (MSL)
因為這個平面是固定(Fixed)，不會移動的，
特別適合作為飛機之間的共同標準，
也是航圖(Navigation Chart)的基礎
飛行時大部份時間都參照ASL
Above Ground Level (AGL)

參照飛機正下方的地面
會隨著地形起伏而有所加減；當變成負數
的時候，恭喜你撞地了低飛時特別關注的
數字 (要避免在跑道外變作0)
https://flying609.wordpress.com/2020/05/10/12-
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AB%98%E5%BA%A6-altitudes/
119
Absolute altitude、True altitude、Indicated altitude、Pressure
altitude, Density altitude
120
稻城亞丁機場 (Daocheng Yading Airport)
稻城亞丁機場是中國四川省甘孜藏族自治
州一座軍民合用支線機場，位於稻城縣北
部桑堆鄉海子山，距縣城直線距離約35km，
公路距離約50公里。稻城亞丁機場是世界
上海拔最高的民用機場。
121
Altimeter Settings
Altimeter Settings 高度計
We have seen that the altimeter simply indicates the aircraft‘s vertical displacement from the
pressure datum which has been set on the subscale. Since the height of terrain and other
obstacles marked on navigation charts is indicated as above mean sea-level (AMSL), the pilot
cannot safely assess high height above these obstacles unless the altimeter also is set to
indicate height above mean sea-level. One of the most vital pieces of information required
then is the current atmospheric pressure at sea-level.
The current atmospheric pressure at sea-level is referred to as QNH. It is measured in

hectopascals (hPa) as is constantly monitored by ground stations then passed to pilots either
by radio or during flight planning. The altimeter cannot give the pilot a correct indication of
altitude unless the current QNH is set on the instrument‘s subscale.
A handy way to remember what QNH means is to replace the letters with the words ―Question,
Nil Height‖. I have a question. What is the pressure at nil height?
122
Altimeter Settings
What is Flight Level (FL) 飛行高度– A surface of constant atmospheric pressure which is
related to a specific pressure datum, 1013.2 hectopascals (hPa), and is separated from other
such surfaces by specific pressure intervals.
What is Altitude – The vertical distance of an object measured from mean sea level.
What is Height – The vertical distance of an object measured from a specified datum (eg.
Airport or Runway).
To obtain height, altitude and flight level of an aircraft from a datum (ground or from mean sea
level), the most practiced technique is by feeding the Pressure at the desired location into the
aircraft system which will process and provide the exact height, altitude and flight level of the
location from respective datums.
123
QNH QFE QNE
Meaning of QNH QFE QNE :

A pressure type altimeter calibrated in accordance with the Standard Atmosphere:
when set to a QNH altimeter setting, will indicate altitude above Mean Sea Level;
when set to a QFE altimeter setting, will indicate height above the QFE reference datum;
and
when set to a pressure of 1013.2 hPa, may be used to indicate flight levels(FL).
• Height Above Ground (QFE): A local altimeter setting equivalent to the barometric
pressure measured at an airport altimeter datum, usually signifying the approach end of
the runway in use. At the airport altimeter datum, an altimeter set to QFE indicates
zero altitude meaning on the airport, the altimeter will read ―0‖ feet.
• Altitude (QNH): A local altimeter setting equivalent to the barometric pressure measured at
an airport altimeter datum and corrected to sea level pressure. At the airport altimeter
datum, an altimeter set to QNH indicates airport elevation above mean sea level
(MSL).
• Standard Altimeter Setting (QNE): QNE is a pressure setting at 1013 hPa that will
produce a standard atmosphere altitude and provides the basis for flight levels. The term
does not appear to be used by the ICAO, though the concept itself is used to produce flight
levels. QNE is explicitly defined in U.S. FAA sources.
http://aviationavi.com/qnh-qfe-qne/
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QNH QFE QNE
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AB%98%E5%BA%A6-altitudes/
125
Weight (Kg, g) in Aviation
Weight is the force generated by the gravitational attraction of the earth on the airplane. We are more familiar with weight than with the other
forces acting on an airplane, because each of us have our own weight which we can measure every morning. We know when one thing is heavy and
when another thing is light. But weight, the gravitational force, is fundamentally different from the aerodynamic forces, lift and drag. Aerodynamic
forces are mechanical forces and the airplane has to be in physical contact with the air which generates the force. The gravitational force is a field
force; the source of the force does not have to be in physical contact with the object to generate a pull on the object.
Weight is a force, and a force is a vector quantity having both a magnitude and a direction associated with it. For an airplane, weight is always
directed towards the center of the earth. The magnitude of this force depends on the mass of all of the parts of the airplane itself, plus the amount
of fuel, plus any payload on board (people, baggage, freight, ...). The weight is distributed throughout the airplane, but we can often think of it as
collected and acting through a single point called the center of gravity. In flight,
the airplane rotates about the center of gravity, but the direction of the weight force
always remains toward the center of the earth. During a flight the aircraft burns up
its fuel, so the weight of the airplane constantly changes. Also, the distribution of the
weight and the center of gravity can change,
so the pilot must constantly adjust the controls to keep the airplane balanced.
Flying involves two major problems; overcoming the weight of an object by some
opposing force, and controlling the object in flight. Both of these problems are
related to the object's weight and the location of the center of gravity.
126
Pressure (hPa, inHg)
Atmospheric Pressure
Though there are various kinds of pressure, pilots are mainly concerned with atmospheric pressure. It is one of the basic factors in
weather changes, helps to lift the aircraft, and actuates some of the most important flight instruments in the aircraft. These
instruments often include the altimeter, the airspeed indicator (ASI), the vertical speed indicator (VSI), and the manifold pressure
gauge.
Though air is very light, it has mass and is affected Standard sea level pressure by the attraction of
gravity. Therefore, like any other substance, it has weight; because it has weight, it has force.
Since it is a fluid substance, this force is exerted equally in all directions, and its effect on bodies
within the air is called pressure. Under standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure
exerted by the weight of the atmosphere is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi).
The density of air has significant effects on the aircraft’s performance.
As air becomes less dense, it reduces:

Power, because the engine takes in less air
Thrust, because the propeller is less efficient in thin air
Lift, because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils
隨著空氣密度變小，它會減少：
動力，因為發動機吸入的空氣更少
推力，因為螺旋槳在稀薄的空氣中效率較低
升力，因為稀薄的空氣對機翼施加的力較小
127
Pressure (hPa, inHg)
The pressure of the atmosphere may vary with time but more importantly, it varies with
altitude and temperature. Due to the changing atmospheric pressure, a standard reference was
developed. The standard atmosphere at sea level has a surface temperature of 59 degrees
Fahrenheit (°F) or: 15 degrees Celsius (°C) and a surface pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury
("Hg) or 1013.2 millibars (mb) or (hpa).
A standard temperature lapse rate is one in which the temperature decreases at the rate of
approximately 3.5 °F or 2 °C per thousand feet up to 36,000 feet. Above this point, the
temperature is considered constant up to 80,000 feet. A standard pressure lapse rate is one in
which pressure decreases at a rate of approximately 1 "Hg per 1,000 feet of altitude gain to
10,000 feet. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has established this as a
worldwide standard, and it is often referred to as International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) or
ICAO Standard Atmosphere. Any temperature or pressure that differs from the standard lapse
rates is considered nonstandard temperature and pressure. Adjustments for nonstandard
temperatures and pressures are provided on the manufacturer's performance charts
128
Visibility
能見度
Visibility is a measure of the distance at which an object or light
又稱可見度，指觀察者離物體多
can be clearly discerned. Visibility may vary according to the
遠時仍然可以清楚看見該物體。
direction and angle of view, and the height of the observer.
Visibility is affected by the presence of fog, cloud, haze and
氣象學中，能見度被定義為大氣
precipitation.
的透明度，因此在氣象學裏，同
一空氣的能見度在白天和晚上是
Visibility for aeronautical purposes is the greater of:
一樣的。能見度的單位一般為米
或公里。能見度對於航空、航海
1. the greatest safe distance at which a black object of suitable
和陸上運輸都非常重要。
dimensions, situated near the ground, can be seen and
recognized when observed against a bright background;
2. the greatest distance at which lights in the vicinity of 1000

candelas can be seen and identified against an unlit black
background.
Units of Visibility
Visibility is measured in meters (or kilometers) or in Statute
Miles, depending on the country
concerned.
129
Total Air Temperature
Total air temperature and is measured by a temperature probe mounted on the surface of the aircraft. The probe is
designed to bring the air to rest relative to the aircraft. As the air is brought to rest, kinetic energy is converted to internal
energy. The air is compressed and experiences an adiabatic increase in temperature. Therefore total air temperature is
higher than the static (or ambient) air temperature.
Total air temperature is an essential input to an air data computer in order to enable computation of static air temperature
and hence true airspeed.
130
Conversion of Time System
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) and local time
Since local time is unique to each individual meridian, it

cannot be used for everyday activities such as transport,
communications and business.
For convenience the world has adopted a number of time
zones. All clocks in that time zone are set to the time of one
standard meridian and even though this standard time will
not be quite correct, except for those who live on that
particular meridian, it prevents the chaos that would
otherwise occur if each meridian used its own local mean time
世界協調時間（英語：Coordinated Universal Time，

法語：Temps Universel Coordonné，簡稱UTC）是最
主要的世界時間標準，其以原子時的秒長為基礎，在
時刻上儘量接近於格林威治標準時間。
協調世界時區會使用「Z」來表示。而在航空上，所有
使用的時間劃一規定是協調世界時。而且Z在無線電中
應以北約音標字母讀作「Zulu」，世界協調時間也會被
稱為「Zulu time」。比如說飛機在香港時間（UTC+8）
18:00整起飛，就會寫成1000z，又或者讀作
「1000Zulu」。 131
Zulu Time
Zulu time denotes the Coordinated Universal Time in the 24-hours standard which is used in the military forces and aviation in particular.
Namely, Zulu signifies the universal time standard for the pilots who fly in different time zones7. However, the term Zulu is just the
synonym for UTC. The name of the time zone derived from the transmission articulation of the letter Z (Zulu). Considering that
Z signifies +0 offset from the prime meridian, it is was implemented for the military coordination in time.
Eventually, Zulu time replaced GMT with the more accurate timekeeping system of UTC8. This time standard is required for the naval,
aviation, and other forms of military communication and coordination of actions in different time zones. There is also a specific rule on how to
read and pronounce Zulu time. Namely, there is no colon between numbers and it identifies four digits in a row. For instance, 07:00 should be
pronounced as “zero seven hundred” (0700).
132
Universal Time Coordinated is used in Aviation
Apart from the time zones mentioned above, there is a need for ‗world standard time‘. This is important in navigation, particularly
in aviation where large changes in longitude can occur in a relatively short time period. The Local Mean Time (LMT) of the prime meridian at
Greenwich is used for this purpose and is referred to as Universal Time Coordinated or UTC.
The time is expressed as a four figure group using the 24 hour clock system. The first two digits represent the hour, while the next two digits
represent the minutes past that hour.
Example:
0240 means 40 minutes past the 2nd hour of the day, or 2:40am
1525 means 25 minutes past the 15th hour of the day, or 3:25pm
To convert UTC to Hong Kong time, 8 hours must be added from UTC. For example:
1625 UTC is 0025 HK 1625 UTC is 0O025HK on the next day
0830 UTC is 1630 EST
133
Date-Time Group
The system of writing date and time information employs a series of paired numbers to represent year, month, day, hour and minute. For
example, 25 minutes past 1:00pm on Christmas Day in the year 2016 would be expressed as 16 12 25 13 25. And remember, if no time zone is
specified, then this would be in UTC.
The first two digits represent the year (2016), the next two represent the 12th month (December), the next two represent the twenty fifth
day of hat month, the next two digits represents the 13th hour of the day (1pm) and the last two represent the number of minutes past the
hour.
In practice, we rarely use this full expression. A six figure time group representing day, hour and minute is usual adequate as year and month
are understood. In flight, pilots often use only a two figure time group, i.e. “time one five” for 15 minutes past the current hour.
134
Principles of navigation and restrictions
Cardinal Directions and Compass Degree

The four cardinal directions, or cardinal points, are the directions north, east,
south, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N, E, S, and W. East and
west are perpendicular (at right angles) é to north and south, with east being
in oe S) 3 the clockwise direction of rotation from north and west being
directly opposite east. Points between the cardinal directions form the points
of the compass.
The intercardinal (also called the intermediate directions and, historically,

ordinal) directions are northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW), and
northwest (NW). The intermediate direction of every set of intercardinal and
cardinal direction is called a secondary intercardinal direction, the eight
shortest points in the compass rose that is shown to the right (e.g. NNE, ENE,
and ESE)
Direction as Degrees
Early compasses indicated direction using thirty-two points: the four cardinal
points of north, south, east, and west and subdivisions of these. This isn't
accurate enough for modern navigation. Since the Second World War
compasses have been graduated in the 360 degrees (°) of a circle. Thus 000°
or 360° is north, 090° is east, 180° is south, and 270° is west. A direction of
154° is between east and south and 321° is roughly northwest.
135
Geographic Coordinate System
A geographic coordinate system (GCS) is a coordinate system associated with

positions on Earth (geographic position). A GCS can give positions:
• as spherical coordinate system using latitude, longitude, and elevation;

• as map coordinates projected onto the plane, possibly including elevation;
• as earth-centered, earth-fixed (ECEF) Cartesian coordinates in 3-space;
• as a set of numbers, letters or symbols forming a geocode.
In geodetic coordinates and map coordinates, the coordinate tuple is

decomposed such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position and
two of the numbers represent a horizontal position.
136
Geodetic Datums
GEODETIC DATUMS
An ellipsoid defined with orientation and position as well as size and shape
is known as geodetic datum. A geodetic datum can be a local datum for an
area by defining the geodetic position and azimuth of a point as the origin
in that area. The datum can also be a global datum if it is defined by the
geo centre of the Earth mass.
There are two geodetic datums currently in use for horizontal control in
Hong Kong. They are the local datum — Hong Kong 1980 Geodetic Datum
(HK80), and the global datum — the World Geodetic System (WGS84),
Details of these datums are Hong Kong 1980 Geodetic datum (HK80),
and the global datum - the World Geodetic System (WGS84).
137
Geodetic Datums
Hong Kong 1980 Geodetic datum (HK80) 香港大地基準香港大地基準 1980 (HK80)
An ellipsoid defined with orientation and position as well as HK80 的參考橢球是國際海福德 1910
size and shape is known as geodetic datum. A geodetic 橢球。其原點位於舊零號三角測量站
(現已不存在 )，即九龍的香港天文台的
datum can be a local datum for an area by defining the
子午線向南 38.4 呎。經天文觀測，
geodetic position and azimuth of a point as the origin in 香港天文台的緯度釐定為
that area. The datum can also be a global datum if it is 22°18¢13.20²N，因此「零號」三角測
defined by the geo centre of the Earth mass. 量站的緯度為 22°18¢12.82²N。零號
三角測量站的經度為 114°10¢18.75²E，
There are two geodetic datums currently in use for 這是一九二四年於格林尼治及香港同
horizontal control in Hong Kong. They are the local 時觀測波爾多 (Bordeaux)訊號後釐定
datum — Hong Kong 1980 Geodetic Datum (HK80), and the 的。基準的方位角是 67.2 號三角測量
global datum — the World Geodetic System (WGS84), 站 (大帽山）至 94 號三角測量站 (凹
Details of these datums are Hong Kong 1980 Geodetic 頭 )一線的方位角，定為
292°59¢46.5²。這是從舊的 67 號三角
datum (HK80), and the global datum - the World Geodetic
測量站 (現已不存在 )至 94 號三角測量
System (WGS84). 站釐定的方位角 292°52¢58.4²推算出
來。後者的數值是在一九六○年二月，
由一隊訪港的大地測量人員進行天文觀
測後釐定，該等人員估計其準確度為
±0.2²。
https://www.geodetic.gov.hk/common/data/pdf/explanatorynotes_c.pdf
138
Geodetic Datums
World Geodetic System (WGS84)

1984年世界大地坐標系 (WGS84)
WGS 84 is an earth-centred, earth-fixed Cartesian coordinate
WGS84 是一個以地球中心為原點
system. The origin of the system is at the geometric centre of
及地固式的笛卡爾 (Cartesian)坐
the WGS84 Ellipsoid which also coincides with the Earth’s
標系統。
centre of mass. The X-axis of this datum passes through the
該原點位於 WGS84 橢球的幾何中
Greenwich meridian and the equator. The Y-axis forms a right
心，亦為地球的物質中心。此基
handed orthogonal plane on the equatorial plane. The Z- axis
準的 X 軸穿過格林尼治子午線及
goes through the North Pole.
赤道， Y 軸在赤道平面並與 X 軸
成直角， Z 軸則穿過北極。
Due to different definitions of the two datums, the geodetic
positions (ie. latitude and longitude) and the UTM co-ordinates
of a point will be slightly different. Details of the above datums
are illustrated in the following tables and diagrams
139
Geodetic Datums
香港大地基準 1980 (HK80)
HK80 的參考橢球是國際海福德 1910 橢球。其原點位

於舊零號三角測量站 (現已不存在 )，即九龍的香港天文
台的子午線向南 38.4 呎。經天文觀測，香港天文台的
緯度釐定為 22°18¢13.20²N，因此「零號」三角測量站
的緯度為 22°18¢12.82²N。零號三角測量站的經度為
114°10¢18.75²E，這是一九二四年於格林尼治及香港同
時觀測波爾多 (Bordeaux)訊號後釐定的。基準的方位
角是 67.2 號三角測量站 (大帽山）至 94 號三角測量站
(凹頭 )一線的方位角，定為 292°59¢46.5²。這是從舊
的 67 號三角測量站 (現已不存在 )至 94 號三角測量站釐
定的方位角 292°52¢58.4²推算出來。後者的數值是在一
九六○年二月，由一隊訪港的大地測量人員進行天文觀
測後釐定，該等人員估計其準確度為 ±0.2²。
https://www.geodetic.gov.hk/common/data/pdf/explanatorynotes_c.pdf
140
Daylight and Darkness
Twilight, Dawn, and Dusk
Twilight is the time between day and night when

there is light outside, but the Sun is below the
horizon. The morning twilight is often called dawn,
while the evening is also known as dusk. A
number of atmospheric phenomena and colors
can be seen during twilight.
Astronomers define the three stages of twilight —

civil, nautical, and astronomical — on the basis of
the Sun's elevation which is the angle that the
geometric center of the Sun makes with the
horizon.
141
Daylight and Darkness
1. Civil twilight occurs when the Sun is less than 6 degrees below the horizon. In the morning,
civil twilight begins when the Sun is 6 degrees below the horizon and ends at sunrise. In the
evening, it begins at sunset and ends when the Sun reaches 6 degrees below the horizon.
Civil twilight is the brightest form of twilight. There is enough natural sunlight during this period
that artificial tight may not be required to carry out outdoor activities. Only the brightest
celestial objects can be observed by the naked eye during this time.
2. Nautical twilight occurs when the geometrical center of the Sun is between 6 degrees and 12
degrees below the horizon. This twilight period is less bright than civil twilight and artificial light
is generally required for outdoor activities.
The term, nautical twilight, dates back to the time when sailors used the stars to navigate the
seas. During this time, most stars can be easily seen with naked eyes.
3. Astronomical twilight occurs when the Sun is between 12 degrees and 18 degrees below the
horizon.
In the morning, the sky is completely dark before the onset of astronomical twilight, and in the
evening, the sky becomes completely dark at the end of astronomical twilight. Any celestial
bodies that can be viewed by the naked eye can be observed in the sky after the end of this
phase. 142
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) refers to a constellation of satellites providing

signals from space that transmit positioning and timing data to GNSS receivers.
The receivers then use this data to determine location.
By definition, GNSS provides global coverage.
The performance of GNSS is assessed using four criteria:

• Accuracy: the difference between a receiver’s measured and real position, speed or time;
• Integrity: a system’s capacity to provide a threshold of confidence and, in the event of an
anomaly in the positioning data, an alarm;
• Continuity: a system’s ability to function without interruption;
• Availability: the percentage of time a signal fulfills the above accuracy, integrity and
continuity criteria.
143
144
Satellite navigation
Near the end of the 20th century, the advent of satellite-based

Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provided yet another means for
any individual to determine true north accurately. While GPS Receivers
(GPSRs) function best with a clear view of the entire sky, they function
day or night, and in all but the most severe weather. The government
agencies responsible for the satellites continuously monitor and adjust
them to maintain their accurate alignment with the Earth. In contrast
with the gyrocompass which is most accurate when stationary, the GPS
receiver, if it has only one antenna, must be moving, typically at more
than 0.1 mph (0.2 km/h), to correctly display compass directions.
On ships and aircraft, GPS receivers are often equipped with two or more antennas,
separately attached to the vehicle. The exact latitudes and longitudes of the antennas are
determined, which allows the cardinal directions to be calculated relative to the structure
of the vehicle. Within these limitations GPSRs are considered both accurate and reliable.
The GPSR has thus become the fastest and most convenient way to obtain a verifiable
alignment with the cardinal directions.
145
Factors Affecting Performance of GNSS Navigation
Factors that Affect GPS Accuracy 影響 GPS 精度的因素
1. Satellites
a. Not Enough Satellites沒有足夠的衛星
GPS devices, whether it is a mobile/phone device or a standalone GPS device,
all use a number of satellites in orbit above Earth in order to make a
determination on your estimated location.
A minimum of four (4) satellites are required to be in-line-of-sight in order to give

the roughest estimation of location. Any amount of satellites less than four will
return an error message 'GPS Coordinates Not Available‘. The more satellites
that can be seen and used to provide readings, the more triangulation points &
references are obtained.
b. Satellite Position 衛星位置

Now that we have addressed the number of satellites required to provide location,
it is important to mention that the actual position of the satellites providing the
location makes a huge impact on accuracy and functionality.
146
Factors that Affect GPS Accuracy - Location and Device 影響 GPS 精度的因素 - 位置和設備
a. GPS drift GPS漂移
The GPS track deviates from the road. You may see that the route generally follows the
shape of the road but with much less precision.
This can be caused by reflections and shadowing on an image.
b. Lost GPS signal丟失 GPS 信號

If the GPS signal is lost and sometime later re-acquired the pre- and post-signal-loss points
will be treated just like any other two points (although more time has elapsed between
them) and connect them with a straight line.
c. Multipath Error 多路徑錯誤

A ‘jumpy’ GPS track can cause your activity to report more distance than you actually traveled since each ‘zig’ and 'zag' of your GPS track has to be
accounted for with a straight line connecting them.
This specific issue can be caused by having local obstructions that cause the GPS signal to bounce off of, which sends varying location details to your
device. This can result in instability of your location.
d. Signal Obstruction GPS信號障礙

Buildings, trees, tunnels, mountains, clothing, and the human body can prevent GPS signals from the satellites reaching the receiver. When possible,
put a GPS receiver in a place where it has a clear and unobstructed view of a large portion of the sky.
in some cases, this can be done by holding the GPS device in a back pocket, or on the outside pocket of a backpack, or in a handlebar mount. In other
cases, the obstructions are unavoidable, like in downtown areas where tall buildings block the view of the sky, or when in dense trees. 147
148
Other Units of Measurements used in Aviation
Other Units of Measurements used in Aviation
DISTANCE (For visibility or runway lengths) metres (m)

DISTANCE (for navigation) nautical miles (nm)
TEMPERATURE degrees Celsius (oC)
PRESSURE (For meteorology & altimetry) hectopascals (hPa)
PRESSURE (For engine oil, fuel & tyres) pounds per square inch (psi)
PRESSURE (for engine power Indication) inches of mercury (HG”)
WEIGHT kilograms (kg) or prounds (Ibs)
VOLUME litres (I) or US gallons (gal)
航空使用的其他測量單位
距離（能見度或跑道長度）米（米）
距離（用於航行）海裡（海裡）
溫度攝氏度 (oC)
壓力（用於氣象學和測高）百帕斯卡 (hPa)
壓力（用於機油、燃料和輪胎）磅每平方英寸 (psi)
壓力（用於發動機功率指示）英寸汞柱 (HG”)
重量千克 (kg) 或磅 (Ibs)
體積升 (I) 或美製加侖 (gal)
149
SECTION 04 :
SUA
General Knowledge
Principle of Flight
▸ What is a Drone?
▸ The word “drone” is being used a lot these days and has become synonymous
with any unmanned aircraft with an onboard camera, and sometimes a camera
is not even necessary for the title! Other than for military use, most “drones”
were historically used for aerial photography (AP) and were large with a heavy
payload capacity for carrying cameras and equipment.
▸ What is a Multirotor?
▸ The word Multirotor covers anything that is a “copter” with more than 1 main
motor or propeller. For example, a “tricopter” has 3 motors / rotors, a
“quadcopter” has 4, a “hexacopter” has 6 etc. But these are all “multirotors”.
無人航空載具（英語：Small Unmanned Aircraft，縮寫：SUA），俗稱無人飛機、無人機、蜂型機（drone），廣
義上為不需要駕駛員登機駕駛的各式遙控飛行器（但可以有乘員），在用途上通常分為軍用和民用。至於無人駕駛
作戰飛機則是具備類似攻擊機的性能，而且成本低。無人機通常使用遙控、導引或自動駕駛來控制。可在科學研究、
場地探勘、軍事、休閒娛樂用途上使用。
內建或外掛照相機、攝影機的飛行載具常被俗稱為「空拍機」。無人機的全球市場在近年大幅增長，現已成為商業、
政府和消費應用的重要工具。其能夠支持諸多領域的解決方案，廣泛應用於建築、石油、天然氣、能源、農業、救
災等領域。
151
SUA Small Unmanned Aircraft
152
SUA Small Unmanned Aircraft
153
SUA Small Unmanned Aircraft – MultiRotor
A multirotor or multicopter is a rotorcraft with more than two lift-

generating rotors. An advantage of multirotor aircraft is the simpler rotor
mechanics required for flight control. Unlike single- and double-
rotor helicopters which use complex variable pitch rotors whose pitch varies as the
blade rotates for flight stability and control, multirotors often use fixed-pitch blades;
control of vehicle motion is achieved by varying the relative speed of each rotor to
change the thrust and torque produced by each.
Due to their ease of both construction and control, multirotor aircraft are
frequently used in radio control aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) (drone)
projects in which the names tricopter, quadcopter, hexacopter and octocopter are
frequently used to refer to 3-, 4-, 6- and 8-rotor rotorcraft, respectively. There is
also the X8 (also called octo-quad) configuration that is similar to the quadracopter
design, except that it has eight rotors; the lower of which have a reversed rotation
direction.
Hexacopter.
In order to allow more power and stability at reduced weight, coaxial rotors can be
employed, in which each arm has two motors, running in opposite directions which
cancels out rotational torque (one facing up and one facing down)
154
SUA Small Unmanned Aircraft – MultiRotor
155
SUA UAV FPV Series FPV
What is a Mini Quad? 四軸 / 穿越機 / 競速機

A Mini Quad is basically a small multirotor, or more specifically, a quadcopter. But most people call them FPV drones these days.
Mini quads are designed to be fast, nimble and crash-resistant, so even when you crash you can usually just pick it up and take off again.
This resilience gives pilots the confidence to fly faster, through smaller gaps, and constantly push their limits to the next level.
Since this fantastic invention, we’ve seen huge progress in the power of FPV drones, increasing propeller sizes, higher battery voltage,
larger motors, all coming together to give insane power-to-weight ratios of over 15:1! Turning these little toys into insane rockets, the
fastest racing drone in the world is capable of reaching 180mph(~290Kmh) in a matter of seconds.
156
FIXED WING AIRCRAFT MOTION
157
PITCH 俯仰
An aircraft is capable of three types of motion. It can pitch, roll and yaw. When an aircraft moves in the manner shown
in Fig it is pitching. In Fig the nose is rising and the tail is dropping. All of the points forward of the axis are moving
upwards and all of the points aft of the axis are moving downwards. The axis is the point about which the motion is
occurring and is referred to as the /lateral axis. The aircraft is pitching nose up while the aircraft in picture the aircraft
is pitching nose down about the lateral axis.
158
ROLL 滾動
When an aircraft moves in the manner shown in pictures it is rolling. When the roll is to the left. The left wing is
dropping and the right wing is rising. All of the points to the left of the axis are moving downwards while all of the
points to the right of the axis are moving upwards. The axis is the point about which the motion is occurring and in this
case is referred to as the /longitudinal axis.
159
YAW 偏航
When an aircraft moves in the manner shown in picture is yawing. In picture the nose is moving to the left and the tail
is moving to the right. All points in front of the axis are moving to the left, while all points aft of the axis are moving to
the right. The axis is the point about which the motion is occurring and is referred to as the normal axis.
Some old text books may refer to the normal axis as the vertical axis.
160
All three axes intersect at a common point, the

centre of gravity. In flight all motion in pitch roll or
yaw occurs with the centre of gravity as the pivot.
This again is not unique to aeroplanes, it is true of all
objects that are free to move in space. You will hear
a great deal more about the centre of gravity when
we consider aircraft stability and control in detail later.
Centre of gravity
161
Aircraft Attitude
Aircraft Attitude
The most fundamental skill required of a pilot is the correct assessment of the aircraft's attitude in space. The simplest way to do this is to relate the
aircraft's attitude to the natural horizon. When the aircraft is in the level flying attitude the pilot will note that the wings and the top of the instrument
panel are level with the line of the horizon. Also the line of the horizon is in a fixed position in the windscreen.
Any movement in pitch will change the position of the horizon in relation to the top of the instrument panel (refer to Fig 4.8). This relationship
between the nose of the aircraft and the line of the horizon is called nose attitude. Without a proper appreciation of nose attitude, the task of flying
the aeroplane is impossible!
Aircraft in the level flight attitude.
162
THE PRIMARY FLYING CONTROLS Elevator
The Elevator 升降舵

The elevator is a hinged control surface on the tail of the aeroplane and deflects air according to the control input. If the
elevator is held in a neutral position there is no deflection of the airflow passing over it and therefore, no resulting force acting
on the tail
Pulling back on the Elevator Control causes the elevator to deflect upwards.
As the passing airflow follows the line of the deflected elevator it is also deflected
upwards imposing a downward force on the tail. The resulting motion is a pitch up to a higher
nose attitude .
Pushing forward on the control column deflects the elevator
downwards. The resulting downward deflection of the airflow
imposes an upward force on the tail. This is seen as a
pitch down to a lower nose attitude.
163
THE PRIMARY FLYING CONTROLS Ailerons
The Ailerons 副翼
The ailerons are hinged control surfaces situated on the outboard trailing edge of each wing . They are controlled by
the aileron control stick and move in such a way that left or right movement of the control causes the ailerons to
operate.
When the control column is turned to the left, the left aileron deflects upwards
while the right aileron deflects downwards.
The airflow imparts a downward force to the left wing and an upward force to the right wing.
The aircraft rolls to the left and adopts a banked attitude. The angle formed between the aircraft's lateral axis and
the horizon is called the angle of bank.
164
THE PRIMARY FLYING CONTROLS Rudder
The Rudder 方向舵
The rudder is a hinged control surface attached to the vertical fin at the tail of the aircraft. It is connected to the
rudder control so that when the left rudder stick is moved left, the rudder is deflected to the left. The airflow passing
over the deflected rudder is also deflected to the left producing a reaction which pushes the tail of the aircraft to the
right. This causes the aircraft to yaw about its normal axis (refer to Fig 4.14). Even though the force is actually
pushing the tail to the right, the nose of the aircraft yaws in the opposite direction.
The motion as known as a yaw to the left.
165
THE PRIMARY FLYING CONTROLS
Roll and Yaw

When the aircraft rolls the lifting force from the wings is inclined. This inclined lift can no longer fully support the weight so the
aircraft loses height. Also, since lift is now leaning to one side, It begins to pull sideways into the direction of bank. The resulting
downwards and sideways motion is called a sideslip.
If the original bank is to the right as in following picture, the resulting sideslip causes the airflow to push against the right. side
of the fuselage.
This airflow acting on the large area of the fin and rudder and on the rear portion of the fuselage pushes the tail to the left. The
aircraft's response to the offset airflow is similar to that of a weather cock-in fact it is sometimes called weathercocking.
Note that in this case the primary response to the application of aileron was roll.
166
THE PRIMARY FLYING CONTROLS Multirotors
To control the aircraft, the speed of each motor is changed. To make the quadcopter go up or down, the power in each motor should be equally increased
or decreased correspondingly. This will increase or decrease the thrust force relatively the aircraft weight resulting in the desired movement. To make the
aircraft go forward, the power of the two back motors should be equally increased. To rotate the aircraft left, the power of the counterclockwise motors is
increased and the power of clockwise motors is decreased. left.
Quadcopter control.
Blue — normal speed, orange — high speed.
1 — Throttle control (up–down),
2 — Pitch control (forward–backward)(Lateral Axis),
3 — Roll control (left–right)(Longitudinal Axis),
4 — Yaw control (turning clockwise or
anticlockwise)(Vertical Axis) Lateral axis
Longitudinal axis Vertical axis
167
THE PRIMARY FLYING CONTROLS Multirotors
Quadcopter control.
Vertical axis
Throttle control (up–down), 升降
Pitch control (forward–backward) (Lateral Axis),俯仰
Roll control (left–right) (Longitudinal Axis),滾動
Yaw control (turning clockwise or anticlockwise)

(Vertical Axis) 偏航
Lateral axis
Longitudinal axis
168
THE FORCES OF LIFT AND DRAG
If a plane or bird flies straight at a constant speed: lift force upwards = weight force downwards (so the plane/bird stays at a constant height)
thrust force forwards = opposing force of drag (so the plane/bird stays at a constant speed)
If the forces are not equal or balanced, the object will speed up, slow down or change direction towards the greatest force.le (birds do this too
when they glide).
The force working against thrust is called drag. It is caused by air resistance and acts in the opposite direction to the motion. The amount of
drag depends on the shape of the object, thedensity of the air and the speed of the object. Thrust can overcome or counteract the force of
drag.
http://www.aviationchief.com/lift-and-drag.html
169
Weight and lift
Have you ever wondered about the science behind flight? We all know that gravity is a force that pulls everything towards the Earth’s surface.
This pull is called the weight force.
Planes and birds have to be able to provide enough lift force to oppose the weight force. Lift is caused by the variation in air pressure when air
flows under and over an airplane's wings. It acts upwards against weight and must be greater in order for the aircraft to fly.
Propulsion - Thrust and drag

The power source of a bird or plane provides the thrust. Thrust is the force that moves the object forward. Thrust is provided by:muscles – for
birds and other flying animals
engines – for flying machines
gravity – for gliders that actually fly by always diving at a very shallow angle (birds do this too when they glide).
The force working against thrust is called drag. It is caused by air resistance and acts in the opposite direction to the motion. The amount of
drag depends on the shape of the object, thedensity of the air and the speed of the object. Thrust can overcome or counteract the force of
drag. An object in flight is constantly engaging in a tug of war between the opposing forces of lift, weight (gravity), thrust and drag. Flight
depends on these forces – whether the lift force is greater than the weight force and whether thrust is greater than drag (friction) forces.
Lift and drag are considered aerodynamic forces because they exist due to the movement of an object (such as a plane) through the air. The
weight pulls down on the plane opposing the lift created by air flowing over the wing. Thrust is generated by the propeller (engine) and
opposes drag caused by air resistance. During take-off, thrust must counteract drag and lift must counteract the weight before the plane can
become airborne. 170
Bernoulli's principle / Longer Path / Equal Transit
Aircraft wings
The most conman application of Bernoulli’s Principle伯努利定律 is in the design of a plane wing.
They are curved on top and completely flat underneath. Whilst in flight, the air travels
across the top and the bottom concurrently, but, due to the design, the air on the bottom
moves slower, which creates more pressure. Equally, the air on top moves faster which
creates less pressure. This effect creates lift and allows the aircraft to fly.
171
Bernoulli's principle / Longer Path / Equal Transit
1. 在飛機從靜止狀態進入剛剛加速起跑的時候，機翼上下部的氣流 3. 機體繼續向前，但是剛才的起始渦流所產生的能量對機
的速度是一樣的，導致下方氣流到達後緣點時上方氣流還沒到後緣，翼上部的氣流造成影響，
後駐點位於翼型上方某點，下方氣流就必定要繞過尖後緣與上方氣也就是產生了一個向後拉上部氣流的效果。
流匯合。
上下部的氣流匯合以後流過機翼後部，但是可以看到氣流的擾亂。
4. 機體繼續向前，起動渦還停留在原地，機
體和起動渦脫離。
2. 由於流體粘性即康達效應，流體有離開本來的流動方向，隨凸
出物體表面流動的傾向，下方氣流繞過後緣時會形成一個低壓旋渦，
導致後緣存在很大的逆壓梯度。
隨即，這個旋渦就會被來流沖跑，這個渦就叫做起動渦。
根據亥姆霍茲漩渦守恆定律，對於理想不可壓縮流體在有勢力的作用下
翼型周圍也會存在一個與起動渦強度相等方向相反的渦，叫做環流，或是繞翼環量。
環流是從翼型下表面前緣流向上表面前緣的，所以環流加上來流就導致後駐點最終後移
到機翼後緣，從而滿足庫塔條件--"在真實且可產生升力的機翼中，氣流總是在後緣處交
匯，否則在機翼後緣將會產生一個氣流速度為無窮大的點。
只有滿足該條件，機翼才可能產生升力。"
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NEWTON FIRST LAW
牛頓第一運動定律
又稱慣性定律。：任何物體都要保持勻速直線運動或靜止狀態，
直到外力迫使它改變運動狀態為止。
173
NEWTON FIRST LAW
牛頓第二運動定律
物體加速度的大小跟作用力成正比，跟物體的質量成反比，
且與物體質量的倒數成正比；加速度的方向跟作用力的方向相同。
174
NEWTON FIRST LAW
牛頓第三運動定律
相互作用的兩個物體之間的作用力和反作用力總是大小相等，
方向相反，作用在同一條直線上。
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Newton's Third Law
For example, if a plane’s engine produces more thrust, it will accelerate. The acceleration increases air speed past the wing, which increases lift
so the plane gains altitude. Then, because the plane is moving faster, drag (air resistance) is increased, which slows the plane from speeding up
as quickly until thrust and drag are equal again. The plane can now remain at a constant but greater height.
A plane can lose altitude by reducing thrust. Drag becomes greater than thrust and the plane slows down. This reduces lift and the plane
descends.
Airplane wings are designed to take advantage of lift. They are shaped so that air has to travel farther over the top of the wing than
underneath it. The reason for this is explained in Bernoulli's Principle, which states that an increase in the velocity (speed) of air or any fluid
results in a decrease in pressure. When the air has to travel farther over the top of the airplane wing, it must also travel faster, which results in
lower pressure. The shorter distance under the wings results in higher pressure, causing the airplane to move upward.
You can demonstrate Bernoulli's Principle with a piece of notebook paper. Fold the paper in half the short way, so that you have a tent shape.
Now, set the tent on a table and blow very carefully (slow and firm) through one of the open ends. The sides of the tent will stick together but
the tent won't collapse. This occurs because the velocity of your breath is more than that of the air outside of the tent, causing lower pressure.
The air outside the tent has higher pressure and pushes the sides of the tent inward.
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Ground Effect
Reduction of induced drag during takeoffs and landings

Caused by a reduction of wingtip vortices
Occurs at about a wingspan above the ground
Up-wash and Down-wash decrease
Down-wash can hit the ground and pushes the wing from below, forming what feels
like a cushion
Causes floating if a fast approach is flown
More noticeable in a low-wing aircraft

Ground Effect:
Increases lift while decreasing drag (induced), thrust required
The opposite is true when leaving ground effect
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ANGLE OF ATTACK
攻角Angle of attack，常用希臘字母α表示
為空氣動力學名詞，為機翼之翼弦與自由流（或是相對風流的方向）之夾角；如為飛機攻角，定義則為機軸對相對風流之夾角。當機翼向上為
正攻角，向下則為負攻角。攻角有可能與俯仰角搞混。俯仰角是指翼弦與飛行器俯仰之夾角，而攻角是指與自由流之夾角。
機翼要有升力，則必須要有攻角或是弧度（camber）。有弧度的機翼，其零升力攻角不為零，也就是在攻角0度時，有弧線的機翼就有升力。而
對稱翼不具弧線，所以在攻角0度時沒有升力，必須要有攻角，機翼才能提供升力。當機翼因其它因素干擾，此時對於該翼剖面的相對風速可能
與飛行器的相對風速不一樣，所以在翼剖面上的相對風速與翼弦之夾角才是有效攻角。最常見的情況為，在機翼翼尖的部分，因三維釋放效應，
空氣由機翼下方往上翻，使得有效攻角變小，並造成額外的阻力，我們稱這種阻力為誘導阻力，而原本的攻角與有效攻角之差為誘導攻角。
攻角傳感器是測量飛機攻角的裝置。一般情況下，攻角傳感器都安裝在飛行器的前端。
攻角由以下兩項因素出現所組成 : Chord line 稱翼弦線和 Airflow 氣流
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The Stalling Speed
1. If the wind is carrying the drone away, but you can still move the camera downward, look for an identifiable area to
land. This'll help later with your drone search.
2. In a flyaway situation, you'll probably be forced to land at a different location
3. During the flyaway, it is recommended to take a screenshot of what you can

see on your phone or mobile device.
4. If the video signal is lost as the drone gets close to landing. This can be caused
by trees or buildings getting between you and the drone. You may just have to hover the drone above a landing location
the best you can, and wait for the automatic landing function to kick on.
Be familiar with emergency procedures for engine/ propeller failure, fire, loss of command and control datalink, loss of
GPS signal, low battery level, public encroachment and potential conflict with other aircraft.
The stalling speed is the speed at which stalling angle of attack is required. Any attempt to use an angle of attack
greater then this will cause a stall.
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Downwash and Ground Effect
Ground effect is a condition of improved performance encountered when operating your aircraft near the ground. It is due to the interference
of the surface with the airflow pattern of the rotor system, and it is more pronounced the nearer the ground is approached. Increased blade
efficiency while operating in ground effect is due to two separate and distinct phenomena.
First and most important, it is the reduction of the velocity of the induced airflow. Since the ground interrupts the airflow under the helicopter,
the entire flow is altered. This reduces downward velo of the induced flow. The result is less induced drag and a more vertical lift
vector. The lift needed to sustain a hover can be produced
with a reduced angle of attack and less power because of
the more vertical lift vector. If a multi-rotor hovering
out-of-ground-effect descends into a ground-effect,
motor efficiency increases because of the more
favourable induced flow. As efficiency of the rotor system
increases, the pilot reduces throttle to remain in the
ground-effect hover.Less power is required to maintain
however in-ground-effect than for the out-of-ground effect
hover. 如何從渦環狀態/螺旋槳洗槳中恢復無人機控制? 增加旋翼油門並側傾飛行
180
Vortex Ring State (Prop Wash)
The vortex ring state, also known as settling with power, is a dangerous condition that may arise in helicopter flight,
when a vortex ring system engulfs the rotor causing severe loss of lift. Essentially, the helicopter descends into its own
downwash. When the condition arises, increasing the rotor power merely feeds the vortex motion without generating
additional lift. Vortex ring state caused the loss of a heavily modified MH-60 helicopter during Operation Neptune
Spear, the raid that killed Osama bin Laden.
Your multirotor aircraft can also be stalled due to affects
air due to topographic features.
181
Whats inside a drone
182
Frame
The frame is the main body of your drone. Quite often, it comes in an "X"-style design, with four arms extending out from a
central body. The frame is typically where all your other components are housed, including rotors, battery, boards, and camera
setup. If we were to make a comparison between drone anatomy and human anatomy, we would say the frame is your drone's
skeleton.
https://discuss.ardupilot.org/t/building-a-better-quad-frame/27703/8 183
Frame
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Duct fan Theory
In aeronautics, a ducted fan is a thrust-generating mechanical fan or propeller mounted within a cylindrical duct or shroud. Other terms
include ducted propeller or shrouded propeller. When used in vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) applications it is also known as
a shrouded rotor.
The duct reduces losses in thrust from the tips of the fan blades. By varying the cross-section of the duct the designer can
advantageously affect the velocity and pressure of the airflow according to Bernoulli's principle. Ducted fans are used for propulsion or
direct lift in many types of vehicle including aeroplanes, airships, hovercraft, and powered lift VTOL aircraft.
185
Brush & Brushless Motor
Where to Start?
In the selection of the motors for your drone, you must have an idea of the total weight of the copter. The calculation of the
approximate weight of your drone is done by considering all the components of a drone.
Firstly you could start from the drone frame. If you know about the size of the frame then you can determine the right
size propeller for your drone.
According to the weight and size of the propeller, we can decide the exact lifting thrust and flying speed of the drone.
Now, we will discuss the important parameters of the motor which decides the selection of the motor.
Thrust to Weight Ratio
In all types of multirotor, it is important to make sure that the motors used in your drone can product around 50% more thrust
than the actual weight of the drone. If the thrust of all motors is less, the drone will not respond well to your control and its take-
off. You drone motors have to remain stable and well functional even in times of slightly windy condition. With the high thrust to
weight ratio, a drone will have greater agility and acceleration but it will be harder to control as well.
▸ For example, if the total weight of your drone is 1 kg, the total thrust generated by the motors at 100% throttle should be
2Kg or 500g per motor (for quadcopter). It is always good to have more thrust available than needed…
▸ For a racing drone, the thrust to weight ratio is much higher than the normal multi rotor. For racing drones, the
recommendable thrust to weight ratio is 5:1.
▸ If you are planning to fly the drone slow and stable aerial photography, you should have to maintain the thrust to weight
ratio of 3:1 or 4:1.
186
KV Ratings
▸ The KV rating is another essential parameter of the motor. KV rating means the rpm of the motor produces per volt.
▸ For example, if you choose the motor of 1000 KV and use 12V lipo battery for power, the total RPM becomes,
1000*12=12000
▸ After mounting the propeller on the motor, the RPM decreases due to the air resistance. The higher KV motors spin the
propeller faster and can draw more current. That’s why we tend to see larger propellers used with low KV motors while
smaller and lighter propellers are better for high KV motors.
▸ If we paired the larger propeller with high KV motor, it will require more torque to spin faster. While producing the
required torque, it will draw more current and generate too much heat. This overheating can damage your motor also.
187
KV值 : 通常用於飛機模型電動機，KV值定義為速度/V，這意味著輸入電壓增加1伏，
無刷電機空轉轉速增加的轉速值，例如：1000KV表示當電壓增加10V時，
速度增加1000rpm，1000KV電動機在50V電壓下的
相應速度為：1000（KV值）* 50（電壓）= 50000rpm（轉速），
KV值越大，電壓增加，轉速增加得越快。對於相同尺寸的無刷電機來說：
匝數多的無刷航模電機
KV值低，最大輸出電流低，但轉矩高.
匝數少的無刷航模電機具有較
高的KV值，較高的最大輸出電流，但轉矩較小.
KV值是根據需要匹配以及扭矩，峰值功率來選擇的，速度和KV值在此處考慮，
該確定應與特定的應用程序要求結合起來，
而丌是越高越好。僅KV值丌能用於評估電動機的質量，KV丌能用於評估電動機的拉力是否強，因為丌同的KV值具有丌
同的適用場合。
以上便是無刷航模電機KV值的定義，喜歡航模的朋友可以了解下。
188
Motor Size
Generally, the brushless motors categorized by a four-digit number. For example, motor named like 2205, the first 2
digits represents the diameter of the stator (in mm). The last 2 digits represent stator height (in mm). Essentially, the
wider and taller the motor can produce more torque.
Taller stator = more power at higher RPM
Wider stator = more torque at lower RPM
As the taller stator has a large area surface, it can cut through a more magnetic field and helps heat dissipation. While
wider stator motors have a larger volume of iron and copper in the stator which makes the motor more torque and
efficient.
What kind of motor size we should use depends on the actual frame size.
The dependency is like that the frame size limits propeller size and propeller
measurement limits the motor size and KV. The below table gives you a few ideas
regarding the motor size. Here, frame size is referring to wheelbase means motor
to motor distance.
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What is N and P in the Motor?

Basically, N and P are poles and Magnets. If you check for brushless motor, it has specification such has 12N14P. The number
before N refers to the number of electromagnets in the stator and the number before P refers to the number of permanent
magnets in the bell.
Voltage and Current Draw
The voltage of the battery has a large impact on the motor. The drone motor spins faster with a higher voltage and draw the
more current. You need to ensure how much thrust the motor produces and how much current they will draw. According to this
current draw of the motor and propeller combination, you can choose the ESC.
Motor Movements
If you install all the drone motors in the same direction then it hards to fly the object, as it would not be responsive to the
direction you want it to go. So, for smoother flight characteristics, you need to buy a pair of motors that move clockwise and
counterclockwise direction.
190
Brush Motor?
same direction then it hards to fly the object, as it would not be responsive to the direction you want it to go. So, for smoother
flight characteristics, you need to buy a pair of motors that move clockwise and counterclockwise direction.
Brushless Motor Advantages

Brushless DC motors, with no brushes to wear out, represent a huge
leap forward in technology. They also provide significantly higher
efficiency and performance. They also offer a lower susceptibility to
mechanical wear than their brushed counterparts.
Brushless motors offer several other advantages, including:
• Higher torque to weight ratio

• Increased torque per watt of power input (increased efficiency)
• Increased reliability and lower maintenance requirements
• Reduced operational and mechanical noise
• Longer lifespan (no brush and commutator erosion)
• Elimination of ionizing sparks from the commutator (ESD)
• Near-elimination of electromagnetic interference (EMI)
191
192
193
Electronic Speed Control
ESC stands for Electronic Speed Controller, and they control the speed of the motors in all drone. The ESC receives throttle
signals from the flight controller, and drives the brushless motor at the desired speed. Using good quality ESC’s means you should
have a reliable and smooth flight experience, though of course, there are other factors to consider.
https://oscarliang.com/choose-esc-
racing-drones/ 194
Current Rating
The first thing to look at when choosing ESC is the current rating, which is measured in Amps, therefore sometimes referred to as “amp rating”.
Amp rating is never too high, only too low.
It’s the limit on how many amps you can put an ESC through without breaking it, not how much current it pushes to the motors, so don’t worry
about it being “too large”. Three things that tend to increase your current draw and put more stress on your ESC:
• Higher motor KV
• Larger motor size (stator width and height)
• Heavier propellers (length and pitch)
There are 2 current ratings to an ESC: continuous and burst. Continuous current rating indicates the maximum amount of continuous current which
the ESC can safely handle. Even when racing, it is unlikely that you will use maximum throttle for extended periods, ESC’s are usually designed to
withstand a higher current for short periods of time (e.g. a few seconds) and this is the “burst” current rating.
The only downside of a high amp rating ESC is usually being heavier and bigger because of the larger MOSFET they use, and more capacitors
onboard for noise filtering. Hence they are more expensive too.
Realistically, a 50A rated ESC should be more than enough for any 5″ FPV drone, that’s 200A in total for 4 motors. I say that because of the
limitation on the LiPo battery we use. For example a typical 6S 1300mAh won’t hold 150A for more than a few seconds (in average, less than 40A
per motor), so there’s little to worry about breaking that 50A ESC due to excessive current. The only exception might be when the motors are
obstructed and when you throttle up too fast, the voltage spikes and high current might cause damage, and high rated ESC will have a better
chance to survive (adding extra low ESR capacitors to the power can also help).
195
Current Rating
The first thing to look at when choosing ESC is the current rating, which is measured in Amps, therefore sometimes referred to as “amp rating”.
Amp rating is never too high, only too low.
It’s the limit on how many amps you can put an ESC through without breaking it, not how much current it pushes to the motors, so don’t worry
about it being “too large”. Three things that tend to increase your current draw and put more stress on your ESC:
• Higher motor KV
• Larger motor size (stator width and height)
• Heavier propellers (length and pitch)
There are 2 current ratings to an ESC: continuous and burst. Continuous current rating indicates the maximum amount of continuous current which
the ESC can safely handle. Even when racing, it is unlikely that you will use maximum throttle for extended periods, ESC’s are usually designed to
withstand a higher current for short periods of time (e.g. a few seconds) and this is the “burst” current rating.
The only downside of a high amp rating ESC is usually being heavier and bigger because of the larger MOSFET they use, and more capacitors
onboard for noise filtering. Hence they are more expensive too.
Realistically, a 50A rated ESC should be more than enough for any 5″ FPV drone, that’s 200A in total for 4 motors. I say that because of the
limitation on the LiPo battery we use. For example a typical 6S 1300mAh won’t hold 150A for more than a few seconds (in average, less than 40A
per motor), so there’s little to worry about breaking that 50A ESC due to excessive current. The only exception might be when the motors are
obstructed and when you throttle up too fast, the voltage spikes and high current might cause damage, and high rated ESC will have a better
chance to survive (adding extra low ESR capacitors to the power can also help).
196
Compass and GPS unit
GPS (Global Position System) often generically referred to as GNSS to include GLONASS and other systems-is pretty standard on multi-
rotors. By providing (relatively) precise positional data, GPS enables flight modes including fixed hovering, auto return home, orientation
control, and safety "bubbles" that limit how close the UAV can get to the pilot.
GPS also provides an extra level of granularity to further enhance flight stability. UAVs that are equipped with GPS can generally fly
without it, but will lose some of their autonomy. Thus, they are more dependent on the skills of the pilot to stay airborne.
Magnetic Compass - Determines direction by using the geomagnetic field.
For GPS to work, a compass is also required to provide bearing, and

compass calibration may involve a baroque but essential pre-flight routine.
197
Lights
Most drones have indicator LEDs under their arms that flash various colors in an array of colors to signify information. For DJI
drones, a blinking green light means there is a solid GPS connection. A solid yellow light means there is no GPS connection. Two
quick red and yellow light flashes followed means the compass needs to be recalibrated.
198
Equipment requirement for SUA under new legislation
SUA Order Section 13 lists out a safety system (functions) with equipment which is
Installed in, carried by or attached to SUA for the flight, or a component associated with it or the device and
In use with all the specified functions functioning at all times during the flight.
Functions of safety system are
▸ Indicating the geographical location, flying altitude and speed of SUA in real time to the pilot
▸ Giving alert to pilot for the flight in real time in relation to any flying restriction as set in the safety system
▸ Recording relevant information during the flight
▸ Recording the date and time which relevant information is rerecorded.
▸ 實時向飛行員指示SUA的地理位置、飛行高度和速度
▸ 針對安全系統中設置的任何飛行限制，
▸ 實時向飛行員發出警報記錄飛行過程中的相關信息記錄重新
▸ 記錄相關信息的日期和時間。
Director General of Civil Aviation might by notice published in the Gazette
▸ S13(2) specify any other function/equipment in the interest of safety.
▸ S13(3) vary, suspend or revoke a specification.
▸ S13(4) However, these notices are not subsidiary legislation.
199
Advanced Operations
Advanced Operations – Safety equipment of SUA

The equipage of appropriate safety systems in SUA would enhance operational safety, not only by providing essential safety features where
necessary but also enhancing the safety awareness of remote pilots. Under the SUA Order, Category A2 SUA, Category B SUA and all Categories
of SUA to be used for advanced operations shall be equipped, inter alia, with a safety system capable of performing all the functions specified in
section 11(1)(d) and 13 of the SUA Order, or in more technical terms, the flight log and geo-awareness functions. This requirement does not
apply to a flight wholly within an enclosed area.
Pursuant to section 11(1)(d) of the SUA Order, the basic equipage requirements for a Category A2 SUA, Category B SUA and all Categories of SUA to be used for advanced
operations include a safety system capable of performing all the specified functions in section 13 of the SUA Order that –
(a) is installed in, carried by or attached to the aircraft, the device used to control the aircraft for the flight, or a component associated with the aircraft or the device
(b) is in use with all the specified functions functioning at all times during the flight.
The functions so specified are :
(a) The functions of indicating the geographical location, flying altitude and flying speed of the aircraft (relevant information) in real time to the remote pilot of the aircraft
during the flight;
(b) The functions of giving alert to the remote pilot of the aircraft for the flight in real time in relation to any flying restriction as set in the safety system;
(c) The function of recording the relevant information during the flight;
(d) The function of recording the date on which and the time at which the relevant information is recorded;
(e) Any other function that the DGCA may, by notice published in the Gazette, considers it necessary in the interests of aviation safety or public safety.
200
Advanced Operations
Advanced Operations – Insurance policy coverage (Short)
Cat A1 or A2: - min. $10M if conducting advanced operations

(including flying in a restricted zone or
carrying dangerous goods)
Cat A2: - min. $5M but not mandatory at this moment.
Cat B (Advance Operations): - min. $10M..
201
• Basic equipment requirement for SUA to pickup information in real time:

Flying altitude
Flying speed
Geographical location
• The function of giving alert to the remote pilot of the aircraft for the flight
in real time in relation to any flying restriction
• The function of recording the relevant information during the flight
• The function of recording the date on which and the time at which the
relevant information is record.
• Information recorded by a safety system for a flight must be kept for 6
months
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If the SUA is going to conduct advanced operations, then the additional equipment requirement will become
mandatory as per specified on the permission granted for the advanced operations.
For example, in night operation, In addition to the safety system (i.e. flight log and geo-awareness), the SUA shall be
equipped with anti-collision lighting, geo-fencing and flight termination system.
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Remote pilot station
Remote pilot station, C2 link, sensors and instruments

Remote Pilot Station (RPS)
RPS is one of the core components of SUA. For safe flight operations, the RPS must ensure effective and efficient cooperation
between human and machine. In particular, the RPS must be designed in a way that the situation awareness of the remote pilot is
guaranteed at all times.
Command and control (C2) link
The data link between the remotely piloted aircraft and the remote pilot station for the purpose of managing flight. Sensors and
Instruments Drones today can come with many types of sensors. For creating 3D images of the external world by using Lidar and
Thermal vision cameras. On-board sensors for collision avoidance using Monocular Vision, Ultrasonic (Sonar), Infrared, lidar and
Vision Sensors. Used to calculate orientation, pressure altimeter and velocity of the UAV, such as:
Gyroscopes-determine the rate of rotation, or angular velocity and tilt
Accelerometers-determines linear movement along any axis
Magnetometers-indicate the direction of the magnetic field to verify heading
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Consequence of malfunctions
Operating drones commercially can be fun and profitable. They simplify tasks, reduce labour costs and can increase efficiency or
productivity. Unfortunately, when things do go wrong with drones the consequences and costs can be significant. The severity
can be based on injuries (persons) and/or damages (Drones and buildings, power lines, or the cost dimension).
1) No safety effect沒有安全問題: Failure conditions that would have no effect on safety. For example, failure conditions that
would not affect the operational capability of the SUA or increase the remote crew workload.
2) Minor次要的: Failure conditions that would not significantly reduce SUA safety and that involve remote crew actions that are
well within their capabilities. Minor failure conditions may include a slight reduction in safety margins or functional capabilities, a
slight increase in remote crew workload, such as flight plan changes.
3) Major大問題: Failure conditions that would reduce the capability of the SUA or the ability of the remote crew to cope with
adverse operating conditions to the extent that there would be a significant reduction in safety margins, functional capabilities or
separation assurance. In addition, the failure condition has a significant increase in remote crew workload or impairs remote crew
efficiency.
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Consequence of malfunctions
4) Hazardous危險: Failure conditions that would reduce the capability of the SUA or the ability of the remote crew to
cope with adverse operating conditions to the extent that there would be the following:
Loss of the RPA where it can be reasonably expected that one or more fatalities will not occur, or
A large reduction in safety margins or functional capabilities or separation assurance, or
Excessive workload such that the remote crew cannot be relied upon to perform ili) their tasks accurately or
completely.
5) Catastrophic災難性: Failure conditions that are expected to result in one or more fatalities.
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Weight, size and operational limitations of Cat A1, A2 and B SUA
Weight of SUA
(a) Category A1-SUA weighing 250 grams or less;
(b) Category A2-SUA weighing more than 250 grams
but not more than 7 kilograms;
(c) Category B-SUA weighing more than 7 kilograms
but not more than 25 kilograms.
• Maximum Characteristic Dimension refers to the maximum

distance between rotors in case of a multicopter or the wingspan
for a fixed wing SUA Blimp is regarded as Category & operations
regardless of dimension
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Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW) - Definition of weight
Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW), of an aircraft is a value defined by the aircraft manufacturer. It is the maximum
mass at which the aircraft is certified for take off due to structural or other limits. MTOW is usually specified in units of
kilograms or pounds. The mass is a fixed value and does not vary with changes in temperature, altitude or runway
available.
MTOW affects many other aspects of an aircraft's performance. It will affect stopping distance after a rejected takeoff,
takeoff performance (including engine failure), climb performance, taxi weights, and many structural aspects. MTOW
will be chosen so that the requirements for all of these conditions are met. This is why new engines or winglets which
improve performance will allow a higher MTOW.
Definition of Small Unmanned Aircraft (SUA) in Cap. 448G is a power driven unmanned aircraft with weight that does
not exceed 25 kg at all time during the flight in Hong Kong and the weight of a SUA refers to everything installed in,
carried by or attached to the SUA.
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Battery and Power System
The Battery-is part of the power reserve for the entire system and is responsible for powering this system.
Most small UAVs, especially quadrotors are battery-powered. Indeed, batteries are considered as the main component in
battery-powered UAVs, their usage improves the simplicity and the flexibility of the propulsion system.
However, typical small ery-powered UAVs have short endurance due to constraints on the battery pack weight. They can fly for a
maximum of 90 min using LiPo batteries. Consequently, these small-scale UAVs are usually devoted for commercial ends.
Lithium batteries are preferred
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Type of batteries
Batteries are basically classified into 2 types:
Non-rechargeable batteries (primary batteries) Rechargeable batteries (secondary batteries)
Rechargeable Batteries
Lead-acid batteries Ni-Cd batteries Ni-MH batteries LI-ion batteries
These are made up of Lithium metal and are latest in rechargeable technology. As these are compact in size they can be used in
most of the portable applications which need high power specifications. These are the best rechargeable batteries available. These
have a nominal voltage of 3.7V (most commonly we have 3.6V and 7.2V) and have various ranges of power capacity (starting from
100s of mAh to 1000s of mAh). Even the C-rating ranges from 1C to 10C and Power density of Li-ion batteries is 126 Wh/kg.
For small UAVs due to their low weight and relatively high specific energy.
Li-Po batteries
These are also called as Lithium lon polymer rechargeable batteries because it uses high conductivity polymer gel/polymers
electrolyte instead of liquid electrolyte. These come under the Li-ion technology. These are a bit costly. But the battery is very
highly protected when compared to the Li-ion batteries. It has Power density of 185 Wh/kg.
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Characteristics and potential hazards of lithium batteries
The Phantom4 aircraft runs a 45 Lithium Polymer battery (LiPo). The Inspire 1 runs a 6S LiPo battery. LiPo batteries are
rechargeable batteries and are sometimes composed of several identical secondary cells in parallel to increase the discharge
current capability, and are often available in series "packs" to increase the total available voltage.
The batteries in the Phantom4 consist of 1 x 45 5870mAh battery enclosed within a DJI Smart Battery System. Meaning, the
Balancer is built into this "all in one" battery pack. The same can be said about the Inspire 1 battery, only it is a 65 4500mAh
battery.
Capacity Rating
Capacity indicates how much power the battery pack can hold and is indicated in milliamp hours (mAh). This is a way of showing
how much load or drain (measured in milliamps) can be put on the battery for one hour, at which time the battery will be fully
discharged.
For example: a LiPo battery that is rated at 1000mAh would be completely discharged in one hour with a 1000 milliamp load
placed on it. If this same battery had a 500 milliamp load placed on it, it would take 2 hours to drain down. If the load was
increased to around 15,000 milliamps (15 amps), the time to drain the battery would be only about 4 minutes.
The main thing to take from this is if you want more running time; increase the capacity of your battery pack. Unlike voltage,
capacity can be changed around to give you more or less running time.
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Discharge Rate
Most LiPo battery packs will show the continuous C rating and some also indicating a burst rating as well. The burst rating indicates the battery discharge
rate for short bursts of extended power. An example might be something like "Discharge rate=20C Continuous / 40C Bursts".
The higher the "C" rating, usually the more expensive the battery. Depending on what application you are using the battery for this is where you could
save some money by understanding all the ratings on a LiPo battery. Getting a high discharge rated pack when there is no way you could possibly pull the
full amount of power is not required, but it won't hurt either.
Lastly, feel or take a temperature reading of your packs after running them. Sometimes just because a pack says it is rated at 20C doesn't necessary
mean it is in real world applications since nothing runs at 100% efficiency. On top of that, as packs age the internal resistance gets higher making them
run warmer.
The general rule is if you can't comfortably hold a LiPo pack tightly in your hand after using it, it's too hot. This equates to anything higher than about
60C. But the general rule of thumb is no higher than 50C is safe. Therefore if you find your packs are getting warmer than this, it's a good bet you should
consider moving up to a higher discharge rating for your next LiPo pack.
Discharge rate known as the "C" rating is simply how fast a battery can be discharge. I safely The faster the lons can flow from anode to cathode in a
battery will indicate the discharge rate. In the RC LiPo battery world it is called the "C" rating.
A battery with a discharge rating of 10C would mean you could theoretically & safely discharge it at a rate 10 times more than the capacity of the pack, a
15C pack = 15 times more, a 20C pack = 20 times more, and so on.
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Recharge Rate
All LiPo batteries will also come with a recharge rate. This is also expressed in a "C" rating. Cheaper packs have a 1C ration, but decent
packs now can be charged up to 5C.
Here is a list of LiPo battery pack voltages with cell counts:

3.7 volt battery 1 cell x 3.7 volts (1s)
7.4 volt battery=2 cells x 3.7 volts (2s)
11.1 volt battery = 3 cells x 3.7 volts (3s)
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Installation, charging, storage, transportation, maintenance and disposal of lithium batteries
There are many risks associated with the handling of LiPo batteries.
All LiPo cells expand at high levels of state of charge (SOC). If uncontained, this may result in delaminating, and reduction of reliability and cycle life.
Overcharging a LiPo battery can cause an explosion or fire.
During discharge on load, the load has to be removed as soon as the voltage drops below approximately 3.0 V per cell (used in a series combination), or
else the battery. will subsequently no longer accept a full charge and may experience problems holding voltage under load.
Compared to the lithium-ion battery, a LiPo battery is less advantageous in terms of life cycle degradation rate.
Lithium polymer-specific chargers are required in order to avoid fire and explosion.
Explosions can also occur if the battery is short-circuited, as tremendous current passes through the cell in an instant. Radio-control enthusiasts take
special precautions to ensure their battery leads are properly connected and insulated. Furthermore fires can occur if the cell or pack is punctured.
While charging the lithium polymer batteries, the individual cells in the pack should be charged evenly. For this purpose, the cells are to be charged with
special chargers. This entails special care while charging the batteries in addition to incurring expenses on procuring the chargers specific to lithium
polymer batteries.
A 3.7v RC LiPo battery cell is 100% charged when it reaches 4.2 volts. Charging it past that will ruin the battery cell and possibly cause it to catch fire.
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NEVER discharge your battery 100%. Use the 80% rule. This means - if you have a 5200mAh pack, only drain out 4200mAh. This will go a long way to
preserving your packs.
Batteries should be inspected regularly for irregularities in shape etc. If you find a battery has puffed, it should be safely disposed. To do so, fully
submerse the battery in a bucket of salty water. It is normal for the battery pack to swell slightly when being used under load. This is nothing to be
alarmed about. However excess puffing like below is not normal.
NEVER try and charge a puffed battery

NEVER try and repair a damaged battery.
Picture shows a safe and unsafe battery. The battery on the left is puffed and should not be used. The battery on the right is normal.
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Charging LiPo Batteries
There are a few simple rules to follow when charging LiPo batteries.
Never leave a LiPo battery charging unattended.
Always charge LiPo batteries in a safe area, on concrete, fireproof container etc.
Always use a specialised LiPo charger with a balancer.
It's a good idea to leave a LiPo battery to cool after use before recharging.
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LiPo Battery Storage
How a LiPo's battery pack is stored between uses will greatly affect their life span. As mentioned, a LiPo cell that drops below 3 volts under load is almost
always & irreversibly damaged (reduced capacity or total inability to accept a charge). 3 volts under load is generally equates to about 3.5 volts open
circuit resting voltage, if your batteries are stored for any period of time after you use them at close to that magic 3.5 volt per cell number, you run that
risk.
As batteries sit, they will naturally self discharge. LiPo's are actually very good in this respect and self discharge much slower than most other
rechargeable battery types, but they still do lose voltage as they sit. If you leave them for a number of weeks or
months at close to 3.5 volts per cell, chances are they will drop below the 3 volt threshold and could be damaged.
You must store them charged, but not fully charged either. Basically, the speed at which a LiPo discharges
(during storage) is based on both storage temperature and state of charge. For optimum battery life, store your
LiPo batteries at room temperature and at about 40 60% charged. That equates to around 3.85 volts per cell
(open terminal resting voltage). A good computerized charger will have a setting where you can charge your
pack for storage, specifying the % of the battery capacity you would like to charge it to.
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Case : Battery and Power System
mAh ?
Cells ?
Charge rate
Discharge Rate
Current
Total Voltage ?
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Propeller system
Propellers are devices that transform rotary motion into linear thrust. Drone propellers provide lift for the aircraft by spinning and creating an airflow,
which results in a pressure difference between the top and bottom surfaces of the propeller. This accelerates a mass of air in one direction, providing lift
which counteracts the force of gravity.
Propellers for multirotor drones such as hexacopter, octocopter and quadcopter propellers, are arranged in pairs, spinning either clockwise or anti-
clockwise to create a balance. Varying the speed of these propellers allows the drone to hover, ascend, descend, or affect its yaw, pitch and roll.
Propeller speeds are varied by changing the voltage supplied to the propeller’s motor, a process that is handled by an Electronic Speed Controller (ESC).
The correct signal is fed to the ESC by the drone’s flight controller, which relies on inputs from either the human pilot’s controller or an autopilot, and
may also take into account information from an IMU (Inertial Measurement System), GPS and other sensors.
UAV propeller dimensions and tradeoffs

Hybrid VTOL UAVs combine VTOL capability with the standard forward propulsion of a fixed wing UAV. In many hybrid VTOL UAVs, rotary lift propellers
are typically incorporated into the aircraft’s wings, which then transition for forward flight.
Drone propeller manufacturers usually specify two main measurements, quoted in the form A x B. The first number is the total length of the propeller
from end to end. The second is the pitch, which is related to the angle of the propeller and is defined as how far the propeller will move forward under
ideal conditions for every rotation. This can be thought of in a similar way to how far a screw will sink into a surface for every rotation of the screwdriver.
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Propeller system
Shorter propellers require less energy to get up to a particular speed, and due to reduced inertia are easier
to control and quicker to change speed. Longer propellers generate more lift for a particular RPM and
create greater stability when hovering, but require more motor power.
Propellers with higher pitch will provide more lift than a flatter blade and allow a drone to fly faster for a
particular RPM, but will drain the drone battery faster due to requiring more power from the motor.
Heavy-lift drones will typically require longer propellers with smaller pitch, as they require stability rather
than speed, and will be able to carry larger batteries or power sources such as hydrogen fuel cells in order
to offset the increased requirements.
Drone propeller construction
Drone propellers can be constructed with two, three, or four blades. Propellers with more blades provide
greater lift due to more surface area moving through the air per rotation, but are more inefficient due to
increased drag. Smaller drones with limited battery life are best suited to propellers with fewer blades.
Drone propeller blades are most commonly constructed from plastic or carbon fiber. Plastic propellers are
cheaper and more flexible, allowing them to absorb impact better. The increased stiffness of carbon fiber
propellers, although providing less durability, decreases vibration thus improving the flight performance of
the drone and making it quieter. Carbon fiber is also lighter than plastic, allowing weight savings.
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Propeller system
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Maintenance of system - Pre-Post flight check
SUA maintenance includes scheduled and unscheduled 1. Visual condition inspection of the SUA components;
overhaul, repair, inspection, modification, replacement, and 2. Airframe structure (including undercarriage), all flight control surfaces, and linkages;
system software upgrades of the SUA its components
3. Registration markings, for proper display and legibility;
necessary for flight.
4. Propulsion system, including powerplant(s), propeller(s), rotor(s), ducted fan(s), etc.;
Whenever possible, the operator should maintain the SUA
and its components in accordance with manufacturer's 5. Verify all systems (e.g., aircraft and control unit) have an adequate energy supply for the intended operation
and are functioning properly;
instructions. Preflight Inspection. Before each flight, the
remote pilot must inspect the SUA to ensure that it is in a 6. Calibrate SUA compass prior to any flight;
condition for safe operation, such as inspecting for 7. Control link transceiver, communication/navigation data link transceiver, and antenna(s
equipment damage or malfunction(s), 8. Check for correct movement of control surfaces
9. Check onboard navigation and communication data links
The preflight inspection should include a visual or functional
10. Check flight termination system, if installed;
check of the following items:
11. Check fuel for correct type and quantity
12. Check battery levels for the aircraft
13. Check that any equipment, such as a camera, is securely attached
14. Verify communication with SUA and that the SUA has acquired GPS
15. Start the SUA propellers to inspect for any imbalance or irregular operation
16. Verify all controller operation for heading and altitude
17. At a controlled low altitude, fly within range of any interference and recheck all controls and stability
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Maintenance of system - Pre-Post flight check
General Maintenance of SUA First, we can look at the routine maintenance of the aircraft body.
The structure of a SUA is complex; failure of any component would
Maintenance operations have a negative impact on flight safety and service life. We should
For better performance of the SUA and decreased machine be cautious with daily use, and make a habit of maintaining and
failure or loss, it is essential to learn how to provide routine checking its status regularly to ensure that the drone is safe and
maintenance for the SUA to improve efficiency. To help you reliable for flight Before the flight, we need to make sure that:
develop good habits, routine maintenance can be divided
into several parts: 1. The surface of the aircraft is clean and free of scratches. If
there is any damage from previous use, you should examine
Aircraft body the whole body to check for new marks
Propulsion System
Flight Control System 2. The aircraft has no pinholes, depressions, scratches, distortions,
Remote Control System etc.; metal parts are free from damage, cracks, and rust. Any
Intelligent Power scratches or distortions will damage the original design of the
Gimbal Camera fuselage, resulting in an uneven center of gravity. This will
Pre-flight/Post-flight Check result in the aircraft needing unnecessary power to correct this
imbalance, which will reduce the flight time. In severe cases, it
can also lead to abnormal data for the IMU, increasing the risk
of accidents.
3. here's no damage or deformation of the battery. The battery is

fully charged and secured to the aircraft.
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Maintenance of system - Pre-Post flight checklist
https://www.cad.gov.hk/english/sua
_new.html
Sample Operations Manual
224
225
226
Remedial actions in the event of failures
1. If the wind is carrying the drone away, but you can still move the camera downward, look for an identifiable area to
land. This'll help later with your drone search.
2. In a flyaway situation, you'll probably be forced to land at a different location
3. During the flyaway, it is recommended to take a screenshot of what you can see on your phone or mobile device.
4. If the video signal is lost as the drone gets close to landing. This can be caused by trees or buildings getting
between you and the drone. You may just have to hover the drone above a landing location the best you can, and wait
for the automatic landing function to kick on.
Be familiar with emergency procedures for engine/ propeller failure, fire, loss of command and control datalink, loss of
GPS signal, low battery level, public encroachment and potential conflict with other aircraft.
CASE STUDY
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SECTION 05 :
Meteorology
Effects of weather on SUA
As with any flight, the remote PIC should check and consider the weather 氣溫對飛航的影響如何
conditions prior to and during every SUA flight. Even though SUA operations
are often conducted at very low altitudes, weather factors can greatly (1)飛機上的溫度表通常不準確，受日照之一面溫度偏高；高速飛行
influence performance and safety of flight. Specifically, factors that affect 時由於空氣動力和摩擦力也會影響溫度。
SUA performance and risk management Include: (2)高溫造成空氣密度減小，氣壓降低。
Atmospheric pressure and stability 大氣壓力和穩定性 (3)氣溫的日夜和地形辨化產生局部風向風速變化。
Wind and currents 風 (4)夜間冷卻會產生輻射霧。
Uneven surface heating 不均勻受熱面 (5)垂直向氣溫遞減會造成大氣不穩定、形成對流雲、亂流和雷雨。
Visibility and cloud clearance 能見度 (6)高空逆溫時，暖雲降水遇到下方冷空氣，會形大氣積冰。
Precipitation水凝結 (7)近地層逆溫會形成霧、煙而使能見度降低。至於影響氣溫的變化
主要有：
GLOBAL METEOROLOGY
• 日夜變化，
The earth's atmosphere originated billions of years ago as vast amounts of
volcanic gas poured out onto its surface through fissures and vents in the • 季節性變化，
still-cooling crust. Other gases arrived with the meteorites and comets
• 隨緯度變化，
which slammed into the surface from interplanetary space. Fortunately, the
earth's mass provided sufficient gravity to prevent these gases from being • 隨高度變化
lost to space and the primitive atmosphere was born.
• 其他，如水陸、向風與背風、風的改變等。
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Effects of weather on SUA
Composition of air 空氣的成分

Since its formation, the chemical composition of the atmosphere has
undergone extensive modification. Noxious gases such as methane and
ammonia have given way to an atmosphere composed mainly of nitrogen
(about 78%) and oxygen (about 20%). Various other components such as
carbon dioxide and a number of rare gases make up the other 2%.
In our study of meteorology, we are not really interested in the chemistry of

the atmosphere so we refer to his mixture of gases simply as air. The other
component which is of vital important, however, is water vapor. Water
vapor is always present in the lower levels of the atmosphere in amounts
which vary from minute traces to about 3% of the total mass. It is interesting
that such relatively small proportions of water vapor give rise to all of the
spectacular weather phenomena on earth from topical cyclones to rainbows.
For the rest of this course, we will think of the atmosphere as a mixture of
air and water vapor.
空氣中尚含有水蒸氣、二氧化碳、臭氧、氦及氖．．．等等氣體，這
些氣體在空氣中所佔的比例，會因地點、氣候不同而有所不同。
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The Troposphere
The layer in the atmosphere where temperature drops with

increasing height called the troposphere. It extends from the
surface to somewhere between 8 and 18km .
When air is heated it becomes lighter than the surrounding air and
begins to rise. Within the troposphere, rising warm air encounters
cooler air above and continues to rise due to the temperature
difference between it and its surroundings. This rising of warm air
is called convection and it is a feature of the troposphere. The
troposphere contains virtually all of the atmosphere's convection,
water vapor, weather and clouds. Almost all of our study of
meteorology is confined to the processes occurring within the
troposphere.
對流層
地球的對流層是最接近地球表面的一層大氣，集中了約75%的大氣的
質量和90%以上的水汽質量。對流層由於受到地面森林、湖泊、草原、
海灘、山嶺等不同地形的影響，受日光照射而引起的氣温的變化，
因而造成垂直方向和水平方向的風，即空氣發生大量的對流現象，
故稱為對流層。
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Density Altitude SUA
The more appropriate term for correlating aerodynamic performance in the nonstandard atmosphere
is density altitude, the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to a particular value of air
density.
As the density of the air Increases (lower density altitude), aircraft performance increases.
Conversely, as air density decreases (higher density altitude), aircraft performance decreases. Density
altitude has a direct effect on aircraft performance.
Air density is affected by changes in altitude, temperature, and humidity.
High density altitude refers to thin air while low density altitude refers to dense air. The conditions
that result in a high density altitude are high elevations, low atmospheric pressures, high
temperatures, high humidity, or some combination of these factors.
Lower elevations, high atmospheric pressure, low temperatures, and low humidity are more
indicative of low density altitude.
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Density Altitude SUA
所謂密度高度（Density Altitude）是指飛機所在地方的空氣密度等於標準大氣時之高
度。氣壓、氣溫和溼度都會影響密度。例如：氣溫高則空氣變得較輕，因此，所在地
方的高度就比標準大氣下的高度高，此即所謂高密度高度（high density altitude）；
反之，氣溫低則空氣質量變得較重，因此，所在地方的高度比標準大氣下的高度低，
此即所謂低密度高度（low density altitude）。
密度高度不只是飛行高度的參考，它還實際影響飛機的操控，低密度高度有利於飛機
操控，高密度高度則不利於飛機操控，理由有三：
（1）由於引擎進氣減少致飛行動力降低。
（2）對螺旋槳而言，在輕空氣中抓氣力（grip）減小，對噴射機而言，
空氣質量的減少降低進氣量，同樣都會減低推力。
（3）由於質量減輕致使飛機爬升能力降低。困擾一般飛行員的是，高密度高度飛行
雖有上述影響，但是在飛機空速指示表上卻無法顯示出來，致使空速與實際地速差異
愈大；在此高密度高度的地方會使起飛和落地遞延及減少爬升率，因此，在起飛拉起
之前應加快速度，也因此，需有更長的跑道，落地時也需要較多的煞車空間。高密度
高度在巡航高度的飛行也有問題，當氣溫異常增高時，高密度高度使巡航高度降低；
例如：在 10000 呎氣壓高度的溫度是 20℃，密度高度是 12700 呎，飛機會誤以巡航高原螺旋槳
高度 12700 呎並指示正常氣溫-8℃。 High-Altitude Propellers
http://www.aeromet.org.tw/chinese/aeromet/017/17-10.pdf
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Effects of Temperature on Density
Effects of Temperature on Density
Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density. Conversely, decreasing the temperature
increases the density. Thus, the density of air varies inversely with temperature (constant pressure)v
In the atmosphere, both temperature and pressure. decrease with altitude and have conflicting effects
upon density. However, the fairly rapid drop in pressure as altitude is increased usually has the dominant
effect. Hence, pilots can expect the air density to decrease with altitude.
氣溫垂直遞減率（Lapse rate of temperature）
垂直遞減率或氣溫直減率，是氣溫隨着高度上升而遞減的幅度。國際民航組織（ICAO）的數
據指出，在對流層中，乾空氣平均每上升100公尺，氣溫就下降約0.98度。若空氣中含有水氣，
因為水汽凝結時會釋放潛熱，平均每上升100公尺，氣溫下降約0.6度。
234
Vertical Air Movement and Surface Pressure
Pressure at any point on the earth's surface is due to the weight of air pressing
down above that point. When the air in a particular locality begins to sink, the
pressure at the surface rises. This rise in pressure is too small to be detected by
human senses but it can be recorded on an instrument called a barometer.
When the sinking air reaches the surface, it spreads out in all directions to
make way for the air above. In the southern hemisphere, the earth's rotation
causes the column of sinking air to spiral to the left, in an anticlockwise
direction. This is sometimes called the Coriolis effect after the mathematician
who first explained it.
Areas of sinking air are called high pressure systems or anticyclones. They are
usually very large. The weather associated with them is usually stable and
relatively cloud free.
235
Pressure Density Temperature Humidity Relationship
236
Synoptic Charts
Since all of this movement of air is invisible, a great deal can be learned about what's going on in the atmosphere by
studying the telltale 'footprints' of pressure change at the surface below. Charts showing the pressure field across the
country at a given moment are called synoptic charts.
A large number of reporting stations across the country regularly report the atmospheric pressure they record to a central
office. Each station's pressure reading is corrected for that station's elevation to indicate the sea-level pressure at each
position. When each of these station pressures is plotted on a map, lines are drawn to join all of the points which recorded
equal pressures.
These lines, called isobars, reveal the surface pressure field and Individual high and low pressure areas can be readily
identified. The sea-level pressure at any point on an isobar is equal to the value printed on that isobar.
Much can be learned about the wind flow by studying the synoptic chart. In Southern Hemisphere latitudes, the
approximate wind direction can be estimated from the chart as parallel to the isobars, clockwise about a low and
anticlockwise about a high.
The air in the vicinity of the highs is sinking and the skies are usually clear with fine weather and light winds. The air in the
vicinity of the low is rising. The skies are usually cloudy with the likelihood of showers or rain areas.
輻輻合(Convergence)
於地⾯低壓區，周邊的空氣會從四⽅⼋⾯向低壓中⼼流入。由於受到氣壓梯度⼒、科⽒力及摩擦
⼒共同影響，周邊空氣會反時針(北半球)或順時針(南半球)以氣旋⽅⽅式(Cyclonic)流入。流到近中
⼼置會被逼抬升。由於空氣被逼抬升，低壓區天氣⼀般多雲有雨，容易形成雨、雪、雷暴、熱帶氣旋等天氣系統。
輻輻散(Divergence)
於地⾯高壓區，空氣會向四⽅⼋⾯由高壓中⼼流出。由於受到氣壓梯度⼒、科⽒⼒及摩擦⼒共同影響，
空氣會順時針(北半球)或反時針(南半球)以反氣旋⽅(Anti-Cyclonic)流出。由於空氣被逼下沉，高壓區天氣⼀⼀般天晴、乾燥。
237
Pressure Gradient - ISOBAR
Air flows out of a high pressure region and into a low pressure region under the influence of the pressure
gradient. This is simply the natural tendency of any fluid to flow from high to low pressure. Air acting under
the influence of the pressure gradient can be likened to a skier on a hill slope.
The amount by which height changes in a given horizontal distance determines the gradient of the slope.
When more height is lost in the same distance, the gradient is said to be steeper and the skier travels faster.
The amount by which pressure changes over a given horizontal distance determines the pressure gradient.
The greater the rate of pressure change, the steeper the pressure gradient and the faster the air moves.
At any given latitude, the pressure gradient determines wind speed.
The spacing of the isobars reveals the strength of the pressure gradient. Where the isobars are closely
spaced, the pressure gradient is steep and the winds are strong. Where the isobars are widely spaced, the
winds are light
等壓線，氣象學術語，是指把在一定時間內氣壓相等的地點在平面圖上連接起來所成的封閉線。把所觀測到的海平面氣壓值填在一張海平面
高度的地圖上，這種畫有同一高度的等高面圖，可以顯示空間氣壓的高低分佈狀況。
等壓線，是指把在一定時間內，氣壓相等的地點在平面圖上連接起來所成的封閉線。等壓線的密集程度稱為氣壓梯度，氣壓梯度與風成正比。
將同一時刻各個氣象台、站所觀測到的海平面氣壓值填在一張海平面高度的地圖上，然後用平滑的曲線把氣壓相等的點連結起來，就可用等
壓線的不同形式表示海平面的氣壓分佈狀況，這種地圖，畫有同一高度的等壓線，稱為等高面圖。
圖上等壓線分佈的不同形式，表示氣壓分佈的不同特點。等壓線平直還是彎曲，表示氣壓分佈簡單還是複雜；等壓線的排列方向，表示氣壓
分佈的方向。等壓線呈東西向，表示氣壓沿緯向分佈；呈南北向，表示氣壓沿經向分佈；等壓線閉合，表示氣壓分佈出出高、低壓中心；等
壓線疏密，表示水平方向上氣壓差異的程度。 238
Sea Breezes
During the day, incoming solar radiation heats various surfaces to a different degree depending on the nature of the surface.
Solar radiation has very little effect on an ocean surface-especially deep ocean. The temperature of the ocean surface changes
very little during the day.
The temperature of the land however, rises dramatically as the intensity of solar radiation Increases. The air in contact with the
hot land surface becomes hot by conduction and begins to rise. This produces a local area of low pressure over the land setting up
a pressure gradient between the cool sea and the hot land. This pressure gradient is superimposed on that of the main pressure
system. It acts to modify the direction of low level winds. Often it will completely overwhelm the influence of the main pressure
system, producing a strong onshore wind. Called a sea breeze, the effect will be strongest when the temperature difference is
greatest i.e. mid afternoon on a
sunny day. The sea breeze also acts to modify daytime
temperatures in coastal areas.
在白晝時，由於陸地比熱容較小，因此升溫比海面快。地面的高溫
會加熱其上方的空氣，暖空氣的密度比冷空氣的小，因此會上升，
產生一個近地面的低氣壓。此時上升的氣流將使氣壓降低，並且使
空氣流向海洋上空；在對應的海洋表面，冷空氣會形成一個相對高
氣壓。海面與陸面形成氣壓差，產生水平氣壓梯度力，因此形成
「海風」。
239
Land Breezes
During the night the earth's surface cools by radiating heat to space.
Just as the ocean was slow to warm under the influence of solar
radiation during the day, so it is slow to cool under the influence of this
terrestrial radiation during the night.
Cooler Air The temperature of the land however, drops rapidly during
the night, cooling the surface air in contact with it by conduction. As the
air over the ocean is warmer and lighter than the air over the land, it
rises setting up a pressure gradient from the land to the sea
A breeze begins to blow from the land to the sea. Because the
temperature difference is not as great, the land breeze is much more
gentle than the sea breeze.
與海風類似。在夜晚時，由於陸地比熱容較小，因此降溫比海面快。海面上的相對高溫將保持其上方空氣的溫度，使
空氣上升，產生一個近海面的低氣壓。此時上升氣流將使空氣流向陸地上空；在對應的陸地表面，由於溫度下降較快，
較冷的空氣將形成一個相對高氣壓。陸面與海面形成氣壓差，產生水平氣壓梯度力，因此形成「陸風」。需要注意的
是，當環境風場大於8節，並且方向與應該形成的海風（陸風）相反時，海風（陸風）是不可能形成。與此同時，強天
氣系統的控制將導致海陸風無法形成，城市的熱島效應帶來的大氣環流也對海陸風的形成有一定影響。
240
Foehn Wing
Foehn winds are caused by the subsidence of moist air after passing a high
mountain. The air is forced to move upslope when encounters a mountain
barrier. As the temperature decreases with height, the moist air will become
saturated and condense to form clouds and rain when it rises to a certain
height. The amount of water vapour that remains in the air therefore
decreases. After passing the ridge and descending along the leeside of the
mountain, the air becomes warmer. Temperature of drier air will rise even
faster. This results in dry and hot winds.
焚風，氣流受高山阻擋，被迫抬升而冷卻( 每上升100公尺氣溫約下降
0.65度)，水氣在迎風面凝結成雲降雨，此時氣流已成乾燥空氣，越過
山頂在背風面下沉，空氣被壓縮而增溫( 每下降100公尺氣溫上升１度 ) ，
降至地面時，形成一股比地面溫度高的乾熱風，即為焚風
241
Anabatic Winds
Quite the opposite of katabatic winds, anabatic winds blow up sloping terrain during the afternoon to replace rising warm air which
has been heated by contact with the hill slopes. The Greek derivation is to 'go up' (refer to Fig 5.14)
Even though the pressure gradient generated may be quite strong, anabatic winds are usually weak since they have to travel up hill
against the force of gravity. The phenomenon is of little operational significance to pilots of fixed-wing aircraft.
Gusts and Squalls
Gusts and squalls are temporary and sudden increases in the average wind velocity.
The main difference between them is the magnitude and duration of the change.
To be officially classified as a squall, the wind speed must change by at least 16 knots to
reach 22 knots or more. It must be sustained for more than one minute.
The term gust is used to describe sudden changes of less magnitude and
duration. A gust is simply a rapid increase in wind strength followed by a lull or
slackening back to the average speed.
在山坡面因地表熱力作用形成的區域風叫坡風，其中白天地面風由谷地吹向山坡，稱上坡風。上坡風一般於日出後半小時即
可形成，日落時消失，不久即轉變為下坡風。坡風風速雖不大，但足以影響毒劑雲團、生物戰劑氣溶膠以及煙幕的傳播。
242
Katabatic Winds
Unlike all other winds which blow in response to a pressure gradient, in the case of katabatic winds the air is
responding to the force of gravity. The name comes from a Greek word meaning 'go down'. Ideal conditions for the
generation of katabatic winds would be:
A high plateau sloping steeply down to low terrain such as the coast.
Clear skies over the plateau allowing maximum heat loss at night due to terrestrial radiation.
Relatively warm surrounding air
During the night, the air over the plateau becomes chilled by conduction with the cold surface. Eventually its
temperature drops to the point where its density becomes greater than that of the lower air. It descends down the
slope under the influence of the force of gravity, giving rise to a cold wind blowing down the slope to the lowest
terrain. If you want to be poetic, you can think of it as an 'avalanche of air' (refer to Fig 5.13). Even though the
strongest katabatic winds on earth are found in Antarctica, the effect can also be quite strong in warmer regions since
it depends on the difference in temperature rather than the actual temperature.
Katabatic winds usually form during the night to become strongest at dawn. If the cold air contains fog, they can
produce spectacular visual effects as they cascade down the slopes. When katabatic winds are strong, surface wind
conditions at low lying coastal airports can change drastically during the night as the katabatic wind reinforces the land
breeze.
在山脈的背風坡，由於山脈的阻擋作用通常風速很小，但在有些情況下，空氣越過山後，在山的背風面一側會
出現局地強風，這種局地強風稱為下坡風。多發生在近地表面，在日落之後的15～45分鐘內開始起風，一直到
次日的日出，從山頂刮向峽谷的底部。下坡風的氣流呈水躍型，一般按下坡風建立時的温度和濕度變化將下坡
風分為焚風（熱風）和布拉風（冷風）。
243
Meteorological Process
Water in the Atmosphere-Its Changing States 固、液、氣

Water exists in the atmosphere in three states depending on the energy
possessed by its molecules.
These three states are:

ICE - This is the lowest energy state in which water exists. It is a solid state in which each individual
water molecule remains in a fixed position in relation to its neighbor.
LIQUID - This is the next highest state in which water exists. Individual water molecules can move
about within the body of the liquid. Most of the water on earth exists in this state.
VAPOUR -This is the highest energy state in which water exists. Individual water molecules can move about in three dimensions to occupy all of the space
available. Water cannot change from one state to another without an exchange of heat energy taking place. For water to change its state from ice to
liquid or from liquid to vapor, it must take heat energy in from the environment. To change its state from vapor to liquid or from liquid to ice, it must give
heat energy out to the environment (Refer to Fig5.15). This heat energy, which is always involved in change of state, is called latent heat.
244
Relative Humidity
Because the amount of water vapor the air contains is the most important single factor governing the
weather to be expected, a means of measuring it accurately is essential.
Meteorologists often measure the actual amount of water vapor present as grams per kilogram of air
(absolute humidity). A much more meaningful figure for the layman however is relative humidity. This
is a measurement which indicates how close the air is to saturation. It is a ratio of the mass of water
vapor actually present in a given parcel of air to the mass of water vapor which would cause saturation
at the same temperature and pressure. It is expressed as a percentage.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY VAPOUR PRESENT+ VAPOUR POSSIBLE x 100%
For a given parcel of air a change in temperature will cause a change in relative humidity even though
the actual amount of water vapor present is constant. This is because the vapor possible is reduced as
the air is cooled.
相對濕度指空氣與飽和有多接近，即水汽含量與飽和水汽含量的比例，以百份比(%)表示。
0%濕度即空氣完全乾燥，100%濕度即空氣已經飽和。一般情況下，相對濕度不會超越
100%。飽和水汽含量並非固定，而是會隨溫度而變化。溫度上升，空氣能容納的水汽增加，飽
和水氣含量隨之上升；如果溫度下降，空氣能容納的水汽減少，飽和水氣含量隨之下降。
因此，相對濕度會隨氣溫而變化。溫度上升可以導致相對濕度下降，而溫度下降則可讓相對
濕度上升。 245
Dew Point Temperature
The actual temperature which would cause saturation depends on the amount of water vapor
present in the sample in the first place. A parcel of air which is already nearly saturated (high
relative humidity), requires only a little cooling to reach saturation, whereas a parcel of air with
low relative humidity would require a lot of cooling. The temperature at which saturation of a
given parcel of air occurs is called dew point temperature.
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE IS THE TEMPERATURE REQUIRED TO CAUSE THE

RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF A GIVEN SAMPLE OF AIR TO REACH 100%.
Note: dew point temperature is also affected by the pressure of the air.
露點（Dew point）或露點溫度（英語：Dew point temperature）是在固定

氣壓和含水量之下，空氣中所含的氣態水達到飽和而凝結成液態水所需要降至的度。
在這溫度時，凝結的水飄浮在空中稱為霧、而沾在固體表面上時則稱為露，因而得名
「露點溫度」。當露點降到冰點以下時，此時從空氣中析出的水氣並不會結成液態
水，而是直接凝固成固態的冰，微細的冰粒沾在其他物體的表面上型成霜，這時的
露點亦會被稱為霜點（Frost Point）。
246
Naming Clouds
Many students imagine that when they

study meteorology a great deal of time will
be spent learning the names of the various
cloud types. Fortunately, this is not true
because the system of naming clouds is
very simple once you understand the
basics. Firstly, we consider the
temperature of the cloud compared to the
environment air. There are only two
possibilities:
Cumuliform Clouds積狀雲- When the
cloud is warmer than the environment it
is called cumuliform or simply cumulus.
Stratiform Clouds層狀雲- When the cloud

temperature is equal to, or cooler than
the environment air it is called stratiform
or simply stratus.
247
Naming Clouds
Convective clouds or cumuliform clouds (Cu) look like stacks of cotton balls. They form when warm humid air rises through
cooler surrounding air in the atmosphere. The buoyancy (tendency of objects to sink or rise due to density differences with
their surroundings) associated with the warm air drives strong updrafts. Even more buoyancy is created as water vapor in the
air condenses to become cloud droplets, because condensation releases latent heat (energy required during a phase change —
in this case, condensation).
Convective clouds often have relatively flat bases that are somewhat near to the ground (roughly 1km above the ground,
though this varies significantly from cloud to cloud). However, the vertical depth of the clouds can vary significantly. These
clouds come in 4 sizes:
▸ Small: cumulus humilis (Cu hum), also called "fair weather cumulus"
▸ Medium: cumulus mediocris (Cu med)
▸ Large: cumulus congestus (Cu cong), also known as towering cumulus (TCu)
▸ Extra large: cumulonimbus (Cb), also called thunderstorms (see learning goal 4)
The sketch below shows how cumuliform clouds are classified by their vertical depths (where z = height above ground)
https://www.eoas.ubc.ca/courses/atsc113/flying/met_concepts/01-met_concepts/01a-clouds/cumuliform.html
248
Cloud Classification according to Height [ETAGE]
Apart from their shape or form, clouds are also classified according to the height of their base above mean sea-level. For the purpose of this
classification, the atmosphere is divided into three zones or etages* - low, middle and high.
When the cloud base is between sea-level and about 8000 ft, it is classified as low cloud. Clouds such as cumulus, stratus and stratocumulus are
low clouds, as are nimbostratus and cumulonimbus.
Note: it doesn't matter how high the tops might be, it is the height of the base that decides which zone the cloud belongs to. Because of the
mechanism that forms it, stratocumulus is found only in the low part of the sky.
When the cloud base is between 8000 and about 18000 ft, it is classified as middle cloud. The prefix alto is added before its name to distinguish it.
Altocumulus and altostratus are middle level clouds. Most of the snow that falls on Australian snow fields comes from these cloud types. When
the cloud base is above about 18000 ft it is classified as high cloud. The prefix cirro is used to distinguish it. Cirrocumulus and cirrostratus are
examples of high level clouds. They are composed of ice crystals and are of no particular significance to general aviation.
Sometimes cirrostratus cloud is so thin that the moon is clearly visible through it at night. The moonlight refracting through the ice crystals within
the cloud produces the halo phenomenon known as the 'ring around the moon'. The exhaust gases from aircraft engines contain water vapor
which condenses out of the exhausts of high-flying aircraft to form cirrus cloud. These man-made cirrus clouds are called contrails.
249
The Height of Clouds

The traditional division between the Polar and Temperate Regions is the Arctic
Circle (66.5°N) in the Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle (66.5°S) in
the Southern Hemisphere. The division between the Temperate and Tropical
Regions are the Tropics of Cancer (23.5°N) in the Northern Hemisphere and
the Tropics of Capricorn (23.5°S) in the Southern Hemisphere.
The actual division between these regions varies from day to day and season to
season. Between the Polar and Temperate Regions lies the jet stream in both
hemispheres, while the Sub-Tropical Jet Stream divides the Temperate and
Tropical Regions.
One effect of these cores of strong wind is the maximum altitude of the
tropopause decreases in each region as one moves from the equator to the
poles. Generally, as the tropopause's height decreases, the elevations at which
clouds occur also decreases.
250
The exception is for low clouds which are officially said to have cloud bases
within the first 6,500 feet (2,000 meters) of the surface in each region. But
even that is not always the case.
The base of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds can sometimes be higher than
6,500 feet (2,000 meters). During summertime, the base of these convective
clouds will be well in to the mid-level cloud range in the non-mountainous
areas of the southwest United States.
Cumulus cloud bases have been observed up to 9,000 feet (2,750 meters) over
North Central Texas and thunderstorms, with cloud bases from 11,000 to
12,000 feet (3,350 to 3,650 meters), have occurred near San Angelo, Texas.
This happens when, despite the dry lower level of the atmosphere, the
atmosphere in the mid-levels is fairly moist and unstable. The dryness of the
lower level is such that parcels of air need to rise up to two miles (3 km), and
sometimes more, before the they cool to the point of condensation.
Since the jet stream follows the sun, it shifts toward the equator as winter
progresses. Therefore, the polar region expands and the temperate region
moves toward the equator. In summer, the Tropical Region expands shifting
the temperate region toward the poles while the polar region shrinks.
https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/corefour
251
Naming Clouds
世界氣象組織(WMO)「國際雲圖」所制定的觀測
雲的標準，共分有十屬。
十屬雲：卷雲、卷積雲、卷層雲、高積雲、高
層雲、雨層雲、層雲、層積雲、積雲、積雨雲。
屬再區分為：類、變型、副型及附屬雲、母雲等。
按照雲高度分類，分為四族，低雲族、中雲族、
高雲族及直展雲族。
按照雲的形狀，分為三種，積狀雲、層狀雲、捲
狀雲。
252
Nimbostratus cloud
A nimbostratus cloud is a multi-level, amorphous, nearly uniform

and often dark grey cloud that usually produces
continuous rain, snow or sleet but no lightning or thunder
Although it is usually a low-based cloud, it actually forms most commonly in

the middle level of the troposphere and then spreads vertically into the low
and high levels. Nimbostratus usually produces precipitation over a wide
area.
Nimbo- is from the Latin word nimbus, which denotes cloud or halo.
Downward-growing nimbostratus can have the same vertical extent as
most large upward-growing cumulus, but its horizontal extent tends to be
even greater.
Nimbostratus has a diffuse cloud base generally found anywhere from near
surface in the low levels to about 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in the middle level of
the troposphere. Although usually dark at its base, it often appears
illuminated from within to a surface observer.[4] Nimbostratus usually has a 雨層雲（拉丁語：Nimbostratus，符號：Ns），屬於中雲族。其
thickness of about 2000 to 4000 m. Though found worldwide, nimbostratus 學名合成自拉丁語的nimbus（「雨雲」）和stratus（「層狀的，
occurs more commonly in the middle latitudes.[5] It is coded CM2 on 層雲」）。雨層雲覆蓋全天，雲體厚而呈暗灰色，常伴隨持續
the SYNOP report. 性的降雨，也叫「雨雲」。
253
Cumulonimbus cloud
Cumulonimbus (from Latin cumulus, "heaped" and nimbus, "rainstorm") is a

dense, towering vertical cloud,[1] forming from water vapor carried by powerful
upward air currents. If observed during a storm, these clouds may be referred to as
thunderheads. Cumulonimbus can form alone, in clusters, or along cold front squall
lines. These clouds are capable of producing lightning and other dangerous severe
weather, such as tornadoes and hailstones. Cumulonimbus progress from
overdeveloped cumulus congestus clouds and may further develop as part of
a supercell. Cumulonimbus is abbreviated Cb.
Towering cumulonimbus clouds are typically accompanied by smaller cumulus clouds.

The cumulonimbus base may extend several kilometres across and occupy low to
middle altitudes - formed at altitude from approximately 200 to 4,000 m (700 to
10,000 ft). Peaks typically reach to as much as 12,000 m (39,000 ft), with extreme
instances as high as 21,000 m (69,000 ft) or more. Well-developed cumulonimbus
clouds are characterized by a flat, anvil-like top (anvil dome), caused by wind shear 積雨雲（拉丁語：Cumulonimbus，符號：
or inversion near the tropopause. The shelf of the anvil may precede the main cloud's Cb），又名雷雨雲、積亂雲，屬於直展
vertical component for many kilometres, and be accompanied by lightning. 雲族。積雨雲可以單獨從積雲狀態發展
Occasionally, rising air parcels surpass the equilibrium level (due to momentum) and 出來，也可能是伴隨冷鋒面產生的，通
form an overshooting top culminating at the maximum parcel level. When vertically 常會產生強陣性的降水，並伴有大風、
developed, this largest of all clouds usually extends through all three cloud regions. 雷暴等。
Even the smallest cumulonimbus cloud dwarfs its neighbors in comparison
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Microburst
A microburst is a localized column of sinking air (downdraft) within a

thunderstorm and is usually less than or equal to 2.5 miles in diameter.
Microbursts can cause extensive damage at the surface, and in some
instances, can be life-threatening. There are two primary types of
microbursts: 1) wet microbursts and 2) dry microbursts. Wet microbursts
are accompanied by significant precipitation and are common in the
Southeast during the summer months.
It all starts with the development of a thunderstorm and the water

droplets/hailstones being suspended within the updraft. Sometimes an
updraft is so strong it suspends large amounts of these droplets and
hailstones in the upper portions of the thunderstorm. There are many
factors that can lead to evaporational cooling (sinking air) and therefore
weakening of the updraft. Once this occurs, it is no longer capable of
holding the large core of rain/hail up in the thunderstorm. As a result, the
core plummets to the ground. As it hits the ground it spreads out in all
directions. The location in which the microburst first hits the ground
experiences the highest winds and greatest damage.
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Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms present many hazards to flying. Three necessaries

for the formation of a thunderstorm are:
1. Sufficient water vapor

2. An unstable lapse rate; and
3. the Dissipating.
It is virtually impossible to visually detect the transition from one

stage to another; the transition is subtle and by no means abrupt.
Furthermore, a thunderstorm may be a cluster of cells in different
stages of its life cycle.
雷暴的發展始於溫暖和潮濕的空氣上升。空氣上升的原因很多，例
如地面受太陽照射加熱、在低壓槽附近、兩股不同的氣流匯聚或遇
上高山而上升等。
當潮濕空氣上升時，空氣中的水分便會遇冷凝結而成為雲。隨著氣
流繼續上升，雲層亦發展得越來越高，雲中的水珠也會不斷增長。
達到高空時溫度會很低，冰粒也會在雲中形成。當雲頂達到十至二
十公里時便形成積雨雲，而雷暴是由積雨雲產生的。
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Ceiling And Visibility Okay ( CAVOK )
The term CAVOK is used when reports (from staffed stations only) or forecasts indicate that 'ceiling and visibility are OK'. In other
words the cloud base, weather and visibility will have no operational significance. The term is used to replace the cloud, weather
and visibility elements in the message when the following conditions exist simultaneously:
Visibility of 10 km or more.9999 No cloud below 5000 ft and no Cumulonimbus cloud at any height. No significant weather.
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Sources of weather information
Before you take your SUA out into the field, get a clear picture of your goals for your flight. Even if you're flying to take
photographs for fun, ensure you've thought through your main areas of interest and what you will need to accomplish for you to
call the mission a success. Check to ensure you know which airspace you will be flying in, the maximum height you can reach,
and the possible hazards. Satellite imagery of your flight area will be invaluable for identifying manmade or natural obstructions.
Next, use a reliable weather app or website to get a complete picture of the climatic factors that could impact your flight, including
precipitation patterns, wind speed, and wind direction. As your ability to move your hands and see your UAV will impact your flight,
make sure that you have the proper clothing and eye gear for conditions.
Sources of Weather information
Television and Radio

Shipping forecasts, local and national weather forecast
Hong Kong International Airport HKIA
Terminal Area Forecast (TAF) and,
Met Actual Report (METAR)
internet and mobile apps
HK Observatory APP.
HOVER APP
UAV Forcast DJI Quadcopter 和無人機的預測 APP
Flightradar24 Flight Tracker APP
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Sources of weather information
HK Observatory UAV Forcast Flightradar24 Flight

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UNDERSTANDING THE LANGUAGE of OPERATIONAL METEOROLOGY
OPERATIONAL METEOROLOGY
It goes without saying that the meteorological conditions a pilot can expect to encounter en-route and at the destination aerodrome are of
great concern on both VFR and IFR flights. Meteorological information is continually being received and assessed both by pilots and ground
based meteorological centres.
This information is presented to all pilots in the formats. By international agreement, meteorological information is often presented in
standard coded form to eliminate ambiguity; bearing in mind that English may be a second language to some pilots. Here we will become
familiar with the language used for describing the various items.
Describing Locations
As far as general aviation is concerned, when aerodromes are mentioned in meteorological messages they appear as the standard
abbreviations. For example Hong Kong International Airport would appear as VHHH. Hong Kong appear as VHHK.
Describing Time
When time is mentioned it is usually a four or six figure group in UTC. For all practical purposes, UTC is the time in Greenwich, England. The
abbreviation for UTC is 'Z'. UTC is sometimes called 'zulu time'.
In the case of a report, a four figure group refers to the hour and minute at which the observation was made. For example, 02142 would
be 14 minutes past the 2nd hour UTC, or 14 minutes past noon in EST.
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In the case of a forecast, two four figure groups refer to the beginning and end of the specified period as UTC day/hour to UTC day/hour, with no
minutes given. For example, 1002/1014 in a forecast would indicate from the 2nd hour on the 10th to the 14th on the 10th UTC. In the case of a
Terminal Area Forecast [TAF), the time of origin is also included. This is given as a six figure date/time group. For example, in a TAF the group
010435Z 0106/0212 indicates that the TAF originated at 35 minutes past the 4th hour on the 1st day of the month and is valid from the 6th hour
on the first to the 12th hour on the second UTC i.e. a 30 hour validity period. The pilot is not really interested in the six-figure time of origin, it is
the validity period that matters. The time of origin has no operational significance.
Describing Wind
Wind is presented as a five figure group. The first three figures represent the direction the wind is coming from in degrees true. The next two
figures represent the average speed of the wind in knots.
05025KT-indicates that the wind is blowing from 050"T at an average speed of 25 knots
23015KT-indicates that the wind is blowing from 230 T at an average speed of 15 knots
Sometimes the wind may be gusty, maintaining a certain average speed, but with occasional gusts to a higher speed. If the gusts are 10 knots or
more above the average wind speed, the wind information will be presented as follows:
16015G30KT-indicates that the wind is blowing from 160ºT at an average speed of 15 knots with gusts up to 30 knots.
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Variable wind
When forecasting an average wind direction is not possible, such as in conditions of very light winds (less than 3 knots), or in stormy weather
where the wind is strong but the direction is rapidly fluctuating, it is presented as variable (VRB).
When the wind is calm it is presented as 00000.
Describing Visibility
Depending upon the type of message, visibility may be given as kilometres, or in the case of messages relating to an aerodrome, as a four figure
group in metres.
0700 indicates that the visibility at the aerodrome is 700 m

6000 indicates that the visibility at the aerodrome is 6000 m
If the visibility is 10 km or better, it is represented as 9999. The prevailing visibility is the greatest visibility applying to more than half of the
horizon. the prevailing visibility would be 6000 metres, since a visibility of 6000 metres applies to three quarters of the horizon (if the visibility is
8000 metres, it must include 6000 metres).
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If the visibility is different in different sectors and the minimum visibility is less than 5000 metres and also less than the prevailing visibility, both
the minimum visibility and the prevailing visibility will be given.
The prevailing visibility is given first followed by the minimum visibility with an indicator to show the direction in which the visibility is reduced
below the prevailing visibility. In Figure 4.2 this would be written as: 6000 1200NW
Describing Weather
It should be remembered that as far as meteorological messages are concerned, weather and cloud are considered as two different items.
Weather refers to visible phenomena which affect the condition of the atmosphere apart from clouds. Rain, drizzle, showers, thunderstorms,
smoke, fog and haze are just some examples of weather. Note: even though most weather is associated with clouds, some weather is not i.e.
sand or dust storms, smoke and haze.
Also, weather may be encountered both inside and outside of clouds. Cloud types are not mentioned in reports or forecasts that refer to
aerodromes, but may be included in forecasts that relate to areas other than aerodromes (Area Forecasts). When weather has been observed
since the last report but is no longer present, it is prefixed by 'RE' (recent). When it is observed between 8 km and 16 km of the aerodrome
reference point, but not at the aerodrome, it is prefixed 'VC' (vicinity).
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Describing Clouds
Clouds are classified according to their shape or form. Clouds that are warmer than the surrounding air take on the appearance of a lumpy cell,
usually with a fairly flat base. Cumulus clouds are easily identified by their cellular form. They almost always occur over large areas as hundreds
of individual cells produced by uneven heating of the surface beneath. The abbreviation used is CU
The weather associated with cumulus clouds in Australian latitudes will almost always be showers of rain.
SHRA or SH
Cumulus clouds of great vertical extent are indicated by the abbreviation TCU (Towering Cumulus).
Clouds that are cooler than the surrounding air take on the appearance of a flat sheet or layer. These cloud types are called stratus (the same
derivation as 'strata' or layer). They are. formed when the air is forced to rise by some mechanism other than heat e.g. convergence of two
airstreams or the passage of air over mountains or lifting at a front
Because the cloud is cooler than the surrounding air, it is also heavier and so only rises 'under protest'. No part of the cloud rises any further
than it must, this gives rise to the flat top and layer-like appearance. The abbreviation is ST. Associated weather will be intermittent or
continuous rain or drizzle. RA or DZ.
Sometimes rising warm air begins to form cumulus cloud, but an even warmer layer of air above prevents the cumulus tops from growing into
tall cells. When the rising cloud encounters the warmer air layer, it can rise no further since it is no longer warmer than the air surrounding it.
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This gives rise to a cloud form which has the lumpy cellular structure of cumulus, yet appears as a layer with a relatively flat base and top. This
cloud type is called stratocumulus and the abbreviation is SC.
Because of the limited vertical development of this cloud type, water droplets cannot grow to a very large size. The most likely weather
associated with it is drizzle DZ
When very large areas of the atmosphere are forced to rise, extensive stratiform cloud can form with great vertical extent. This produces a dark
grey layer of cloud with heavy, continuous rain. These clouds are called nimbostratus and the abbreviation is NS. The weather associated in
continuous or intermittent rain. RA
When cooler air in the upper atmosphere allows cumulus clouds to grow to a great vertical extent, they take on the form of a dark towering cell
called cumulonimbus. The abbreviation is CB. The most likely associated weather is heavy showers and thunderstorms.
+SH or TS Note that TS is weather, not a cloud type.

Apart from their shape or form, clouds are also classified according to the height of their base.
Low cloud is any cloud with a base below about 8000 ft. When the cloud name is used with no prefix before it. This indicates that its base is in
the low part of the sky.
Middle cloud is any cloud with a base between about 8000 ft and about 18 000 ft. The prefix 'alto' is used before its form name to indicate that
the base is in the middle part of the sky.
High clouds have the prefix 'cirro' and are of little interest to general aviation.
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Cloud Amount
In all meteorological messages the amount of cloud present is expressed as the proportion of the sky which is obscured by that cloud
type. By international agreement, the proportion is considered as eighths. For example, if half the sky is obscured by cloud, four
eighths of cloud is present. A little less than half would be three eighths, a little more than half would be five eighths and so on. Eight
eighths means that no clear sky is visible. In meteorological messages the terms used to describe cloud amount are sky clear (SKC),
few (FEW), scattered (SCT), broken (BKN) and overcast (OVC). These terms are used according to the number of eighths of the sky
which is covered by any one cloud layer as indicated in the table below.
OVC Overcast, i.e. continuous, unbroken cloud

BKN 5 to 7 eighths of the sky is covered by cloud
SCT 3 to 4 eighths of the sky is covered by cloud
FEW 1 to 2 eighths of the sky is covered by cloud
SKC No cloud present
OVC 陰天，即連續不間斷的雲
BKN 八分之 5 到 7 的天空被雲覆蓋
SCT 八分之四的天空被雲覆蓋
FEW 八分之二的天空被雲覆蓋
SKC 無雲
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Cloud Height
Cloud Height Cloud height in aerodrome messages, e.g. TAF or METAR or SPECI, is presented as a three digit number,
representing the height of the base above the aerodrome in hundreds of feet. For example, 003 represents 300 ft, while 030
represents 3000 ft and 300 represents 30000 ft. The cloud amount and height of base information in these messages is presented as
amount and height of base in that order with no gaps between items, for example refer to Fig 4.6.
In messages which refer to areas other than aerodromes, e.g. Area Forecasts, the cloud height is given as height above mean sea-
level, or, if it is above 10 000 ft, as a height above. the standard atmosphere's sea-level datum of 1013 hPa. The cloud amount, type
and height information in these messages is presented as amount (FEW SCT BKN or OVC), then cloud type along with height of
base and average height of the tops above in feet, e.g.
BKN CUSC 2500/10000 From 5 to 7 eighths of the sky is covered in cumulus and stratocumulus cloud with a base of 2500 ft AMSL
and tops at 10 000 ft AMSL
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268
Weather reports and forecasts
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Type of report—there are two types of METAR reports. The first is the routine METAR report that is transmitted every hour. The second
is a special report, a SPECI, that can be given at any time to update the METAR for rapidly changing weather conditions, aircraft mishaps,
or other critical information. So here, it’ll say either METAR or SPECI.
Station identifier—a four-letter code as established by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). In the 48 contiguous states,
a unique three-letter identifier is preceded by the letter “K.” For example, Gregg County Airport in Longview, Texas, is identified by the
letters “KGGG,” K being the country designation and GGG being the airport identifier. In other regions of the world, including Alaska and
Hawaii, the first two letters of the four-letter ICAO identifier indicate the region, country, or state. Alaska identifiers always begin with
the letters “PA,” and Hawaii identifiers always begin with the letters “PH.” A list of station identifiers can be found here.
Date and time of report—depicted in a six-digit group (161753Z). The first two digits are the date, the 16th of the month, and the last
four digits are the time of the METAR, which is always given in coordinated universal time (UTC), otherwise known as Zulu time. A “Z” is
appended to the end of the time to denote that the time is given in Zulu time (UTC) as opposed to local time. If you ever need to convert
UTC/Zulu time to your local time, here’s an online conversion tool: http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/timezone/utc
Modifier—denotes that the METAR came from an automated source or that the report was corrected. If the notation “AUTO” is
listed in the METAR, the report came from an automated source. It also lists “AO1” or “AO2” in the remarks section to indicate the
type of precipitation sensors employed at the automated station. When the modifier “COR” is used, it identifies a corrected report
sent out to replace an earlier report that contained an error (for example: METAR KGGG 161753Z COR).
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Wind—reported with five numbers (14021), unless the speed is greater than 99 knots, in which case the wind is reported with six numbers. I’ll
put it to you this way…if you see six numbers, you probably don’t want to be operating a UAS. The first three numbers indicate the direction
from which the wind is blowing to the nearest ten degrees in relation to TRUE North. If the wind is variable, then “VRB” will go after the
numbers. The last two digits indicate the speed of the wind in knots, unless the wind is greater than 99 knots, in which case it is indicated by
three digits. If the winds are gusting, the letter “G” follows the wind speed numbers, and then the numbers right after G indicate the highest
expected wind gusts (example = G26).
Visibility—the prevailing visibility (3/4 SM) is reported in statute miles as denoted by the letters “SM.” It is reported in both miles and fractions
of miles. In this case, ¾ of a mile.
Weather—there are three parts to the weather section. The first is a qualifier of intensity. The intensity may be light (-), moderate ( ), or heavy
(+). Because we’re seeing a + symbol, that indicates heavy. Then, if there’s any kind of weather phenomena that’s in the immediate vicinity of
the airport, that’ll be shown. So in this example, TS stands for thunderstorm, and RA stands for rain. If you happen to see a notation of “VC” in
this section, that indicates a specific weather phenomenon is in the vicinity of five to ten miles from the airport. And then finally, the third part
of this weather section are the descriptors, which are used to describe certain types of precipitation and obscurations. So here we’re
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Presentation of Temperature and QNH information in a TAF
Temperature and QNH information in a TAF is presented as four numbers which correspond to the temperature or QNH at certain 'spot' times at
three hourly intervals commencing at the commencement of the validity period. It doesn't matter whether the TAF is valid for 12 hours, 24 hours or
30 hours, the temperature and QNH times remain 3 hours apart. It is assumed that the pilot will get the next TAF with the new temperature and
QNH information before the current TAF expires. Let's take a look at the following TAF for Mackay.
TAF YBMK 071931Z 0720/0808 11013KT 9999 FEW012 SCT025

FM0802 11008KT 9999 SCT020
TEMPO 0802/0808 SCT009 BKN012
RMK T 26 23 23 22 Q 1013 1015 1016 1015
This TAF is valid from 20 on the 7th to 08 UTC on the 08th which is a 12 hour validity period. The start of the validity period is 20 and is represented
by HH. There are four forecast temperature and QNH values given, for the times HH, HH +3 hours, HH+6 hours, and HH +9 hours.
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TAF YBMK 071931Z 0720/0808 11013KT 9999 FEW012 SCT025

FM0802 11008KT 9999 SCT020
TEMPO 0802/0808 SCT009 BKN012
RMK T 26 23 23 22 Q 1013 1015 1016 1015 |
At 2000 the QNH and temperature are forecast to be 1013 and +26°C respectively.
For arrivals at other times, you should interpolate between the given values. In most casesthis will be a simple task because the values rarely change
by more than one or two units. To get the QNH or temperature during the last three-hour period, you would need to obtain the next TAF and
interpolate as necessary between the OS on the current TAF values and the 08 values on the new TAF.
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274
SECTION 06 :
Airmanship and
Human Factors
Threat and error management (TEM)
TEM is an attempt to develop a mind-set which enhances the identification of threats, minimizes the opportunities for error, and resolves those errors
when they do occur.
Firstly, it must be said that TEM is nothing new. It has been part of human behavior since we first evolved. When my mother told me not to climb the
mango tree in our back yard she identified two threats: Firstly I could fall and secondly there was a large bee hive in the branches. I then made the
error of ignoring those threats and suffered the consequences of both. First the bees and then the fall
In the context of aviation TEM is simply an extension of the concept of airmanship and airmanship has often been described as the application of
common sense. Sadly, experience shows that so-called common sense is not all that common. On many occasions common sense becomes obvious
only after the event and it certainly can't be relied on as a means of preventing undesirable outcomes.
In the past, human error in aviation was considered a weakness and the person involved was 'guilty' of making the error. The fact is that our
propensity for error is simply the price we must pay for being human and the best we can do is find ways to identify errors and resolve them when
they occur. The TEM model has
If threats, errors and undesired aircraft states are not recognized and managed in time, an accident or incident may result. In the TEM model this final
event is called an outcome.
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Threat and error management (TEM)
疏失 (Error) 威脅 (Threat)
疏失可定義為組員的動作或未動作導致結果
偏離組織或組員本身的期望，在工作環境中存在許多影響安全的威
脅，所謂威脅即存在於工作環境外，
而疏失可能會降低安全裕度並增加發生失
每一個正常航班都必須面對、管理的
事或意外事件的可能性。
狀況，威脅會增加飛行運作的複雜性，
統計資料顯示，超過 60%的失事事件主因使安全風險增加。
為組員因素，而可能增加組員犯錯的環境包
括：何謂威脅(Threat)：
工作量增加惡劣天氣
地形
時間壓力機場狀況
疲勞航機系統失效
航機自動化
未按程序作業通訊
不良的組員合作不正常操作
時間壓力
被打擾
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Threats
External Threats 外部威脅

External threats originate from the environment in which the aircraft is operating and can lead to pilot error. They include such things
as:
External threats can be further sub-divided into anticipated, unexpected or latent.

Anticipated, or expected, external threats would include such things as weather and the sun position or unfamiliar flying
areas.
Unexpected external threats would include such things as distractions from members of the public etc.
Latent external threats are not directly obvious to the pilot but are lurking in the background waiting for a particular set of
circumstances. They include such things as a 'user unfriendly' work environment such as poor documentation, aircraft
design characteristics or optical illusions and depth perception issues.
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Threats
Internal Threats 內部威脅

Internal threats originate from within the pilot themselves. They cannot in themselves be called errors but they increase the likelihood of errors.
They include such things as:
Pilot fatigue 飛行員疲勞
Pilot experience and personality 飛行員經驗和個性
Pilot recency and proficiency 飛行員熟練度
Threats can be further classified as environmental threats and organisational threats. Environmental threats exist because of the environment in
which the aircraft is operating. They include:
Weather such as thunderstorms雷暴等天氣
Ground environments including the presence of birds or obstructions地面環境，包括鳥類或障礙物的存在
Terrain about and below the aircraft飛機周圍和地形
Operational pressures 操作壓力
Organisational threats originate from deficiencies in the infrastructure and organisation in which the aircraft is operating. They include such things
as:
Documentation errors (incorrect data entry or misinterpretation of manuals) 文檔錯誤（不正確的數據輸入或對手冊的誤解）
Out of date maps 過時的地圖
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MANAGEMENT OF THREATS
Threat management refers to tools or procedures that allow pilots to anticipate and/or respond to threats. A managed threat is one
which is recognised and responded to before it can adversely affect the safety of the flight.
A mismanaged threat is one that is linked to or induces an error which adversely affects the safety of the flight.Tools and techniques
used to manage threats.
Detailed study of weather enroute and at the destination.

Ensuring compliance with operational requirements pertaining to the flight
Thorough and careful pre-flight inspection
Familiarity with aircraft type and emergency procedures
Use of comprehensive check lists
確保遵守與飛行有關的操作要求
全面仔細的飛行前檢查
熟悉飛機類型和應急程序
使用綜合檢查清單
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Errors
Errors originate from pilot actions or inactions that have the potential to adversely affect the safety of the flight.
An error is defined as flight crew actions or inactions that lead to a deviation from crew or organisational intentions; reduces safety
margins; and increases the probability of adverse operational events on the ground and during flight.
Errors can be classified as handling errors, procedural errors and communication errors.
Handling errors are errors in the actual manipulation of the aircraft controls. Not surprisingly handling errors most often occur when
the pilot has limited total aeronautical experience or limited experience on the particular aircraft type. Handling errors are much less
likely as experience increases, although it must be said that too much reliance on modern automated systems can reduce a pilot's
level of skill in 'hands on' flying.
Handling errors include such things as:

Flying the aircraft beyond adequate visual range飛機超出視距
Failure to accurately manoeuvre the aircraft in with GPS assistance 未能在 GPS 輔助下準確操縱
Losing orientation飛機迷失方向
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Errors
Procedural errors程序錯誤
Although inexperienced pilots are more likely to make handling errors, procedural errors may occur across the whole spectrum of
pilot experience. They often occur as a consequence of an external or internal threat such as time constraints.
Communication Errors通訊錯誤
Communication errors are the result of ambiguous or misinterpreted communication (usually speech). They often result from:
Use of non-standard phraseology in the case of radio communication
Any of the above types of pilot error may occur as a result of external threats that may divert the pilot's attention or internal threats
such as memory lapses or preoccupation with personal issues.
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Accidents versus Experience
Aircraft accidents have been investigated from every aspect

you can imagine, One interesting breakdown of the statistics is
types of errors against pilot experience.
Accidents have been grouped according to whether the cause
was lack of manipulative skill (usually called handling errors),
or errors resulting from poor operational decisions (errors of
judgement).
Not surprisingly, the handling errors are more common
amongst low-time pilots and they tend to become less
frequent as pilot experience increases. What may be more
surprising though is the revelation that errors of judgement
do not become less frequent with experience and an
experienced pilot is just as likely to make a poor operational
decision as a novice. So you see, no matter how many hours
you have in your log book. or what type of aircraft you fly,
there's no guarantee that your next operational decision will
be a good one！
隨着飛行員經驗的累積處理錯誤的判斷能力相對較好
判斷錯誤不會隨著經驗的增加而減少，有經驗的飛行員和新手一樣可能做出錯誤的操作決定。
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Undesired aircraft states
Undesired aircraft states can be categorised as:

Aircraft handling states which include such things as:
▸ aircraft control (deviations in pitch, roll and yaw) altitude, track or speed deviations (deviations in flight path)
▸ placing the aircraft in a hazardous situation
▸ exceeding structural load factor or speed limitations and
▸ poor technique in flying
▸ Ground navigation states
▸ Aircraft configuration states such as:
▸ incorrect programing of GPS or other navigation aid
▸ incorrect battery distribution
▸ incorrect distribution of weight
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Enhancing vision within the definition of VLOS (corrective lens,
sunglasses)
Good vision is essential for flying and air traffic control work. Some need correction for distant vision and some need correction for
vision at the instrument panel range.
Sunglasses. Ideally sunglasses protect the eye from glare whilst not adversely affecting visual acuity. They should be of a neutral grey
tint that does not distort colour perception and should transmit at least 15% of incident light. UVB has harmful effects on the eye.
Good quality sunglasses absorb at least 95% of the UVB. Polarising sunglasses are not acceptable whilst flying, since they can interact
with the cockpit transparency and cause distortion of vision.
Corrective lenses for near and distant vision correction. Where

correction for both near and distant vision is required, bifocal or
multifocal lenses are essential.
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Typical visual of illusions and ways to overcome (colour, glare, relative
motion, background cluster)Autokinetic/Autokinesis effect
Visual/Night Illusions 視覺/夜間幻覺:

Of the senses, vision is the most important for safe flight optical However, various terrain features and atmospheric conditions can create illusions
These illusions are primarily associated with landing Since pilots must transition from reliance on instruments to visual cues outside the flight deck for
landing at the end of an instrument approach, it is imperative they be aware of the potential problems associated with these illusions and take
appropriate corrective action
False Horizon看錯地平線:
Dark nights tend to eliminate reference to a visual horizon
Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground lights
and stars. Geometric patterns of ground light can create illusions of not being aligned
correctly with the actual horizon The disoriented pilot will align with an incorrect
horizon and hence a dangerous attitude.
Prevention預防措施
As a result, pilots need to rely less on outside references at night and more on flight and navigation instruments
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Typical visual of illusions and ways to overcome (colour, glare, relative
motion, background cluster)Autokinetic/Autokinesis effect
Autokinesis 夜視錯覺:
Caused by staring at a single point of light against a dark background for more than a few seconds.
After a few moments, the light appears to move on its own
The disoriented pilot will lose control of the aircraft in attempting to align it with the light
Prevention預防措施
To prevent this illusion, focus the eyes on objects at varying distances and avoid fixating on one target
Be sure to maintain a typical scan pattern
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Human Factors
Human factors are important for safe and efficient aviation operations. Human factors are the social and personal skills (e.g. communication
and decision making) which complement technical skills. Effective human factors are crucial for safety because of the continued
Threat of accidents, particularly in low capacity air transport operations; the need for improved efficiency and the importance of having fit-
for-duty pilots.
Duration of shifts Mental activity Environment

Time of day shift occurs Age Social life
Health Experience Psychological
well being
Diet Circadian Work ethic,
rhythms work rate
Physical activity Work Water intake
Drugs Caffeine Alcohol
Time since last Other Hypnotics
opportunity for restorative stimulants
sleep
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Fatigue
Fatigue is due primarily to an increased duration of wakefulness and/or reduced duration or
quality of sleep, and unfortunately, has been implicated in far too many aircraft accidents. General consequences of fatigue can include:
Lapses in attention/concentration
Causes of fatigue
Poor assessment of risks, and incomplete or inaccurate
The general causes of fatigue can include inadequate recovery sleep between shifts, assessment of potential consequences
demanding tasks or conditions, long commutes, and individual factors such as sleep disorders. Inefficiency in terms of production, on-time performance,
The variety of factors which can influence fatigue includes both work-related and non-work- resource use (e.g. fuel), . and/or motivation
related issues. Impaired or delayed decision making
Work-related fatigue factors: A higher likelihood of focusing on the most apparent data
Hours employees are required to work (and the impact of these hours on sleep0 opportunity)
or stimulus
疲勞的後果包括：
Timing and duration of breaks provided within shifts 注意力不集中
Task/s employees are required to perform. 風險評估不佳，對潛在後果的評估不完整
Non work-related fatigue factors: 危機決策反映降低
Work environment & conditions Long commutes to and from work 不能準確對操控以及資源例如電力方面, 作出即時反應
Sleep disorders affecting quantity and/or quality of
recovery sleep
Individual factors relating to family and social
responsibilities
非工作相關的疲勞因素：
上班時間長影響
睡眠量和/或質量睡眠障礙
家庭和社會責任有關的個人因素
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STRATEGIES TO PREVENT FATIGUE-RELATED ERRORS
STRATEGIES TO PREVENT FATIGUE-RELATED ERRORS防止疲勞相關錯誤的策略

There are a number of specific strategies to prevent fatigue-related errors.
Examples of these strategies include:
Napping午睡
Task reassignment 重新分配任務
Peer monitoring同行監督
Double-check systems雙重檢查系統
Task rotation換任務
Additional breaks額外的休息時間
Strategic use of caffeine使用咖啡因(咖啡)的策略
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Stress - Factors determining workload
We all experience workload differently, and this experience is affected by: What's being done:
physical demands (e.g. strength required.)
mental demands (e.g. complexity of decisions to be made)
Where and when it's being done

standard of performance required ( degree of accuracy)
所需的性能標準（準確度）
time available to accomplish the task (and thus the speed at which the task must be carried out)
可用於完成任務的時間（以及因此必須執行任務的速度）
requirement to carry out the task at the same time as doing something else
要求在做其他事情的同時執行任務
environmental factors existing at the time (e.g. extremes of temperature, etc.)
當時存在的環境因素（例如極端溫度等）
The individuals concerned, and their
skills (both physical and mental)技能
experience (particularly familiarity with the task in question)經驗
current health and fitness levels目前的健康和健身水平
emotional state (e.g. stress level, mood, etc.)情緒狀態
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Stressors
Common stress factors applicable to pilots:

• Medicals Check-rides
•
飛行員的常見壓力因素：
Illness 醫療檢查
• Pay
疾病
•
支付
Conflict 衝突
• Time schedules
時間
• Passengers
噪音和振動
溫度和濕度
• Noise and vibration
減肥
• Temperature and humidity

脫水
高度變化
• Diet
封閉的空間 Area Symptom
• Dehydration
能見度差 Physiological Cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, respiratory, sleep disturbance, migraines,
•
疲勞 muscular tension, low-grade infections, sweating, dryness of the mouth, nausea,
headaches, gastric ulcers, shaking
Altitude changes
•
Psychologica Anxiety, uneven temper, loss of interest, poor self-esteem, feelings of loss of
l control, irritability, depression, moodiness, aggression
Confined space
•
Cognitive Difficulties in concentrating, omissions, errors, slowness, poor judgement, poor
Poor visibility memory, reduced vigilance and attention
• Fatigue
Behavioural Loss of motivation, tendency to skip items and look for short cuts, easily
distracted, slowness or hyperactivity, restlessness, taking longer to perform
tasks, nervous laughter, changes to appetite, excessive drinking
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Consequences for pilots
Consequences for pilots 飛行員的後果
Stress can degrade pilot performance and directly compromise safety. Too much stress or too little (boredom) leads an
individual to become distressed or complacent, and it could lead to:
•• Eroded judgment
•• Compromise or acceptance of lower performance levels

Inattention
• Loss of vigilance and alertness

Preoccupation with a single task; fixation on one instrument or
•• procedure
Forgetting or omitting procedural steps
•• Greater tendency toward spatial disorientation and misperceptions

Misreading charts or checklist
•• Misjudgment of distance or altitude

Loss of time perception
Loss of situational awareness
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Life stress management
Life stress management

There are many techniques available to help reduce the stress in your life or help you cope with it better.
Some of the following may be effective:
Strategies for coping with stress
Techniques Practical examples
Become knowledgeable about stress Further reading and/or complete a course in stress
management and/or a personality profile
Make a realistic assessment of yourself Use a self check quiz-see workbook
Take a systematic approach to problem Use of decision making aids-see workbook sections
solving (situational awareness, decision making and
airmanship)
Develop a life style that will buffer against Identify potential sources of stress to reduce their
the effects of stress effects
Practise behavioural management Recognise your own personal symptoms of stress
techniques
Establish and maintain a strong support Use a mentor, peers and/or family to provide you
network with feedback and to help you to better manage
stress
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Alcohol and Other Drugs
What is alcohol?
The term 'alcohol' describes a series of organic chemical compounds. One type, ethyl alcohol or
ethanol, is found in drinks intended for human consumption. Alcohol, a depressant, primarily affects
the central nervous system. The degree to which the central nervous system function is impaired, is
directly proportional to the concentration of alcohol in the blood.
Short-term effects: 短期影響： Long-term effects:
• Feeling of relaxation 放鬆專注 • Malnutrition

• Reduced concentration 感覺降低 • Depression and anxiety
• Slowed reflexes 反應遲鈍 • Cancer of the mouth, throat, oesophagus, lips and liver
• Fewer inhibitions and Increased confidence 更少的抑制 • Brain Injury, loss of memory, confusion, hallucinations
• Reduced coordination 增強的信心 • High blood pressure, irregular pulse, enlarged heart
• Slurred speech 減少協調 • Weakness and loss of muscle tissue
• More intense moods 言語不清 • Sweating, flushing and bruising of the skin
(eg. feeling sad, happy, angry) 更強烈的情緒（例如，感到悲傷、快樂、憤怒）• Inflamed stomach lining, ulcers
• Confusion 混亂模糊的視野 • Increased risk of lung infections
• Blurred vision 肌肉控制不佳 • Severe swelling of the liver, hepatitis and cirrhosis
• Poor muscle control 噁心和嘔吐 • Inflamed pancreas
• Nausea and vomiting 睡意 • Tingling and loss of sensation hands and feet
• Drowsiness 昏迷 • Impotence, shrinking of testicles and damaged/reduced
• Coma 死亡 sperm
• Death • Increased risk of gynecological problems.
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Alcohol and Other Drugs
What is a drug?
A drug is any substance - solid, liquid or gas- that brings about physical and/or psychological changes. The drugs of most concern in the
community are those affecting the central nervous system. These drugs- known as 'psychoactive drugs' - act on the brain to change the
way a person thinks, feels or behaves.
Central nervous system
Three main types of drug affect the central nervous system: Stimulants act on the central nervous system to speed up the
depressants, stimulants and hallucinogens. messages to and from the brain. Stimulants can make the user feel
more awake, alert or confident. Other effects. include increased heart
Depressants slow down the functions of the central nervous rate, body temperature and blood pressure, reduced appetite, dilated
system and do not necessarily make a person feel pupils, talkativeness, agitation and sleep disturbance.
depressed. Depressants include: Mild stimulants include:
Alcohol
Cannabis Ephedrine: used in medicines for bronchitis, hay fever and asthma
GHB (Gamma-hydroxybutrate), or 'fantasy Caffeine: in coffee, tea and cola drinks.
Some solvents and inhalants found in household products. Nicotine: in tobacco.
Depressants in small quantities can cause the user to feel
more relaxed and less inhibited. However, depressants in
larger quantities can cause unconsciousness, vomiting and
even death. Depressants affect a person's concentration
and coordination by slowing down their ability to respond
to unexpected situations.
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Principles of airmanship: skill, proficiency and discipline
The physical and technical part of flying is simple to understand - after all physics has well-defined rules and principles. However, there
is something less clearly definable and more difficult to ascertain which is a critical part of flying. That 'something is commonly called
airmanship. Have you ever flown with a pilot who stood out from the crowd, or was just simply superior in their knowledge and skill
than you perhaps expected?
Airmanship is that something which separates the superior pilot from the average. It is not simply a measure of skill or technique, but a
measure of a pilot's awareness of the aircraft, the environment in which it operates and of their own capabilities. One of those
capabilities is physical skill, but equally important components are wise decision-making and an elevated sense of self-discipline.
Some people consider airmanship to be the cornerstone of pilot competency. Competency

has been defined as the combination of knowledge, skills and attitude required to perform
a task well-or to operate an aircraft safely in all foreseeable situations.
飛行技術專業培養具有良好的工程技術、文化素養和高度的社會責任感，較好地掌
握飛行技術領域基礎理論、專門知識和基本技能，富有創新精神、創業意識和實踐能力，
具備國際化視野，能夠在飛行技術領域從事規劃設計、技術開發與運用、運行管理、運
營組織和經營管理等工作，以及在教育、科研等部門從事相關工作的高素質專門人才。
各高校應根據上述培養目標和各自的定位、辦學條件、區域人才市場需求，結合各自相
關專業基礎和學科特色，在對區域和飛行技術行業特點進行充分論證的基礎上確定辦學
定位，以適應飛行技術行業發展對多樣化人才培養需要為目標，細化人才培養目標的內
涵，準確定位本專業人才培養的具體目標。
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Five Hazardous Attitudes
Anti-Authority:反權威
"Don't tell me"
Those who do not like anyone telling them what to do will demonstrate anti-authority
They may be resentful of having someone tell them what to do or may regard rules, regulations, and procedures as silly or unnecessary
While it is always your prerogative to question authority if you feel it is in error, understand you may be in error
Impulsivity:衝動
"Do it quickly"
The attitude of people who frequently feel the need to do something, anything, immediately demonstrate impulsivity
They do not stop to think about what they are about to do; do not select the best alternative, and do the first thing that comes to mind
Invulnerability: 唔會發生係自己身上
"It won't happen to me"
Many people feel that accidents happen to others, but never to them
They know accidents can happen, and they know that anyone can be affected
They never really feel or believe that they will be personally involved
Experience can be a large contributing factor
Pilots who think this way are more likely to take chances and increase the risk
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Five Hazardous Attitudes
Macho: 大男人主義
"I can do it"
Pilots who are always trying to prove that they are better than anyone else is thinking, "I can do it. Il show them"
Pilots with this type of attitude will try to prove themselves by taking risks to impress others
This pattern is assumed to be a male characteristic; however, women are equally susceptible
Resignation:順從一切指令
"What's the use?"
Pilots feeling resignation do not see themselves as being able to make a great deal of difference in what happens to them
When things go well, the pilot is apt to think that it is good luck
When things go badly, the pilot may feel that someone is out to get me or attribute it to bad luck
The pilot will leave the action to others, for better or worse
Sometimes, such pilots will even go along with unreasonable requests to be a "nice guy"
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Occupational health and safety
I'M SAFE Checklist
I Illness-Do I have an illness or any symptoms of an illness?
M Medication-Have I been taking prescription, or over-the-counter drugs?
S Stress-Am I under psychological pressure?
A Alcohol-Have I been drinking within eight hours? Within 24 hours?
F Fatigue-Am I tired and not adequately rested?
E Eating-Am I adequately nourished?
I = illness
檢查是否有生病或感冒等等症狀，飛行時感冒可能會造成耳壓失衡，判斷力下降等各種現象，不得不慎
M = medication
一般來說，有服用藥物還進行飛行是不好的，因為藥物可能有副作用，尤其是會讓人嗜睡的藥，會嚴重
的影響飛行時的感覺，專注力也無法維持很久。
S = stress
壓力通常是讓飛行員失常的主要原因。但是壓力的來源很多，也很難完全避免，畢竟飛行本身就可能是
壓力的主要源頭。對於飛行員來說，找到適合自己的釋放壓力的方法是非常重要的喔!
A = alcohol
上述提到，要找到釋放壓力的方法非常重要，但是絕對不推薦喝酒就是了。宿醉會讓飛行充滿危險，所
以現在法規都有規定上機前要吹酒測值，以避免意外的發生。
F = fatigue
過度疲勞也是飛安問題的主要原因。就像在高速公路上開車不能疲勞駕駛一樣，開飛機也不行，因此法
規也有規定每一次的飛行後，一定要隔一段休息時間才能再飛，算是一種排除過勞駕駛的方法。
E = eating
要適當的進食才上飛機，這點其實是常被忽略，卻又很重要的飛安小常識。完全空腹除了會讓體力下降，
造成容易暈眩，還會使注意力不容易集中，建議一定要少量進食。但是也不要吃到太飽，不然肚飽眼皮
鬆…結果還是一樣的啊! 300
Crew Resources Management (CRM)
Crew Resource Management (CRM) is the effective use of all available resources for flight crew personnel to assure a safe
and efficient operation, reducing error, avoiding stress and increasing efficiency.
1 – Personality & Behavior

2 – Communications
3 – Human Performance and Limitations
4 – Decision-Making and Risk Assessment
5 – Situational Awareness
6 – Culture, Leadership and Teamwork
7 – Threat and Error Management
1 – 個性與行為
2 – 通訊
3 – 人的表現和局限性
4 – 決策制定和風險評估
5 – 態勢感知
6 – 文化、領導力和團隊合作
7 – 威脅和錯誤管理
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Visual Observer
Visual Line of Sight (VLOS) is always maintained for all types of SUA and Operations as this is one of CAD requirements. As per CAD
s definition on VLOS, Visual Observer can be mandatory in some cases in order to help to maintain VLOS operations. Visual
Observer is a trained crew member who assists the remote pilot in ensuring the safe operation of the SUA under VLOS.
在飛行過程中，小型無人機應全程保持在視線內操作，
以便遙控駕駛員能夠在飛行過程中全程清楚地看到小型
無人機和周圍空域。任何飛行操作的關鍵要求是避免碰
撞，在視線內操作可確保遙控駕駛員能夠監察飛機的飛
行路徑，使其遠離任何可能發生碰撞的物體。
視像觀察員由遙控駕駛員選定，協助遙控駕駛員將小型
無人機保持在視線中，並透過無輔助地對小型無人機作
目視觀察安全地操作飛行。遙控駕駛員須負責確保視像
觀察員有能力履行其職責。
302
Document and record keeping
Highlight the different records to be kept, such as flight log, training
records, risk assessment and site survey, etc.
The most basic information in a logbook entry should include: take-off point, landing point, aircraft type and
registration number, fight time, and a breakdown of specific times for that flight.
Besides the personal logbook, the

followings are some examples of
main log books or log sheets for your
reference:
Appendix 1: Personal flight log. ;

Appendix 2: Batteries log;
Appendix 3: Maintenance log
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SECTION 07 :
Operational Manual
Concept of Operations (CONOPS) definition
A Concept of Operations (ConOps) is a document that describes the characteristics for a proposed system from a
user's perspective. It gives qualitative and quantitative details of how the system should be used and how it should
behave.
The operation of drones should be regulated in a manner proportionate to the risk of the specific operation. ConOps
describes how the location, airspace, flight path, altitude, distance from remote pilot, distance from uninvolved
people, structures, vessels and vehicles, etc should be organised, and what rules and regulations should be put in
place, to enable the safe integration of drones with other users of this airspace, and help the drone user achieve this.
Finally, CONOPS is basically a risk-based approach to regulation of unmanned aircraft.
305
Categorization of operations - compliance with standard operating
requirements of Cat A1/A2
Overview of the SUA

Regulatory Operating
Requirements
306
Factors affecting choice of flying Area
Factors affecting choice of flying area

Understand how airspace is regulated.
Get additional authorization if needed
Is there potential for electromagnetic interference
Are there any open spaces or flat surface without towers, wires, buildings, trees, or other obstructions to look out for?
Whether the flying area is RFZ? If so, still want to operate in that area or can change to another area?
影響飛行區域選擇的因素
了解空域
如果需要，獲得額外授權
是否存在潛在的電磁干擾
是否有任何沒有塔、電線、建築物、樹木或其他障礙物
空地或平坦表面
需要注意是否為RFZ飛行區？
307
Site assessment
Site assessment is a process, it is really about knowing your surroundings in order to know where it is safe to fly and
elements to avoid.
Before commencing operations, they determine that the site for take-off, launch, landing or recovery is suitable for
the proposed operation by conducting a site survey that takes into account the following factors:
(a) the boundaries of the area of operation;

(b) the type of airspace and the applicable regulatory requirements;
(c) the altitudes and routes to be used on the approach to and departure from the area of operation;
(d) the proximity of manned aircraft operations;
(e) the proximity of aerodromes, airports and heliports;
(f) the location and height of obstacles, including wires, masts, buildings, cell phone towers and wind turbines;
(g) the predominant weather and environmental conditions for the area of operation; and
(h) the horizontal distances from persons not involved in the operation.
308
Site assessment
309
Equipment requirement
Before flight operation, there are some hardware requirement need to prepare, such as radio, anemometer, cordoning equipment, suitable
personal protective equipment, like high-visibility clothing/vests, UV protect sunglasses.
飛行操作前，需要準備一些硬件如對講機、風速計、警戒設備、合適的個人防護設備，如高能見度的衣服/背心、防紫外線太陽鏡。
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Effect of weather to operating range and endurance
• Flying in wind can be difficult and will drain your drone battery faster
than normal.
• Cold temps cause batteries to lose charge faster.
• Rain is detrimental to anything electronic on their own.
• Extreme heat can put unnecessary wear and tear on
batteries and computers.
• 在風中飛行可能很困難，並且會比平時更快地耗盡無人機電池
• 寒冷的溫度會導致電池更快地失去電荷
• 雨水本身對任何電子產品都是有害的
• 極端高溫會對電池和計算機造成不必要的磨損。
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Serviceability and configuration of SUA
Maintenance of SUA equipment, including all ancillary equipment, is critical for ensuring that a UA system can be operated
safely and reliably in all environments. To facilitate this, a comprehensive maintenance structure should be applied
consistently throughout the SUA operator's organization and outlined in the Operations Manual.
The maintenance system should include all phases of operation and initial acquisition, continuing maintenance, and
software/hardware updates. The process should list the following:
• SUA product specifications SUA 產品規格

• Safety data sheet/specifications 安全數據表/規格
• Known/discovered design and operational limitations 已知/發現的設計和操作限制
• Operational and testing malfunctions and anomalies 操作和測試故障和異常
• Preventative and reactive maintenance actions 預防性和反應性
• Preventative maintenance action schedule 維護措施預防性維護
• Hardware customization actions 總飛行時數參考所有製造安全和技術公告
• All software versions, changes, and patches 電池循環和螺旋槳循環
• SUA/UA total flying hours 最新固件
• Reference to all manufacturing safety and technical bulletins
• Battery cycle and propellers cycle
• Latest firmware
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Submission of flight planning
The follow items must be submitted in a flight plan:
• Flight area (in coordination),飛行區

• The accurate operation place,準確的操作位置
• Take off and landing zone, 起飛和降落區，
• Alternative landing zone,備用降落區，
• Flight route, 飛行路線，
• Flight parameters (flight height,flight duration, direction, time, geo-fenced) cordon off
area (list out) 飛行參數（飛行高度、飛行時間、方向、時間、地理圍欄）警戒線（列出）
Land or property owner's permission at take-off and landing sites
The Chief Remote Pilot shall ensure that permission from the land owner/property manager at take-off and landing sites has been
obtained prior to conducting the SUA operations. Written consent letter is preferred and shall be attached to the Site Survey Form for
record keeping.
313
Privacy consideration
In Hong Kong, all drone operators must comply with the Personal Data (Privacy) Ordinance (Cap. 486), the provisions of which were not
drafted in contemplation of remotely operated cameras. To address this gap, in March 2015 the Office of the Privacy Commissioner for
Personal Data issued the Guidance on CCTV Surveillance and Use of Drones
This guide contains reminders that drone operators (ie those who operate camera equipped drones) are regulated by the Personal Data
(Privacy) Ordinance (including the Data Protection Principles therein) and have a duty to respect personal privacy. The guide also offers
guidelines on recording, handling recorded images, retention and encryption of Image transmission.
https://www.pcpd.org.hk/english/resources_centre/publications/file
s/GN_CCTV_Drones_e.pdf
314
Risk assessment
Risk management is the identification, assessment, and prioritization

of risks followed by coordinated and economical application of
resources to minimize, monitor, and control the probability and/or
impact of unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of
opportunities.
Risks can come from various sources including errors in the aircraft,
people, weather, human factors etc.
It is the pilot's responsibility to assess the risks and take any actions
required to reduce the potential bad outcomes.
風險評估（Risk Assessment），是風險管理的一個重要過程。
風險評估包括了以下二個工作：
• 識別及分析對人員、財產或環境可能有潛在危害的事件（危害分析）
• 在考慮影響因素的情形下，進行「基於風險分析的風險容忍度」的
判斷（也就是風險評估）
315
Operation Flow Chart
Using the SUA Task Feasibility Flowchart can go a long way in ensuring the job
can be done both within regulation and within safety standards.
Example to share: If an operation need to progress In HK
1.) How to identify hazards first.

2.) Once hazards are identified, then the risk level can be estimated by using
the consequence-likelihood risk rating table.
3.) After knowing the risk level, then can see whether it is low risk or high risk
that needs mitigation.
1.) 如何首先識別風險。
2.) 一旦識別出風險，就可以使用可能性風險評級表來估計風險等級。
3.) 知道風險級別後，就可以看出需要緩解的是低風險還是高風險。
https://www.unicef.org/innovation/media/10841/file/CAAV%20Sample%20O
perations%20Manual.pdf
316
RISK ASSESSMENT MATRIX-LEVEL OF RISK
Once the risks to a particular operation have been

identified the Chief Remote Pilot must implement
sufficient strategies to mitigate the risks. Mitigation.
strategies are not limited to but include the following:
• Safety Crew to assist controller

• restricted flight and duty times
• use of smaller or lighter RPA
• restrictions on flight profile
• reduced maximum wind speed
• different propellers
• propeller guards
• vertical separation
• RPA speed restrictions
• reduced number of non-operational personnel within
30m of RPA
• pre-determined plan of action In case of control or other
issues.
317
RISK ASSESSMENT MATRIX-LEVEL OF RISK
Likelihood
Improbable (unlikely to occur)
Remote (unlikely, though possible)
Occasional (likely to occur occasionally during standard operations)
Probable (not surprised, will occur in a given time)
Frequent (likely to occur, to be expected)
Severity
Negligible (the hazard will not result in serious injury or illness, or has a
remote possibility of damage)
Marginal (the hazard could cause illness, injury, or equipment damage
but its effects would not be serious)
Moderate (the hazard can result in serious injury or illness, property or
equipment damage)
Critical (the hazard can result in serious injury or illness, property or
equipment damage)
Catastrophic (the hazard is capable of causing death and illness)
318
Use of Operations Manual and checklists to mitigate risks
For any type of commercial aviation, including drones, risk mitigation begins with a
comprehensive general operating manual. Standard operating procedures are responsible for
making traditional aviation safe—for example, commercial airlines around the world follow
the same pre-flight checks—and it’s only natural to carry this over to unmanned flight.
By ensuring that every team and pilot follows standard operating procedures for every flight,
firms establish a strong bedrock of accountability and decrease the variables that lead to
human error. A general operating manual should contain checklists and procedures
concerning pilot training protocols, equipment handling, maintenance, setup of the flight
area, flight planning, regulatory information,
data management and every other
aspect of the drone operation.
https://esua.cad.gov.hk/web/information/detail?type=doc&id=231
319
Hazards Identification and risk mitigations for Typical Advanced
operations
Typical Advanced/ Category B operations are listed as
follows:
• Operating SUA at night

• Visual Line of sight operations
• Building survey / inspection operations
• Aerial survey or Photography
• Heavy SUA operations (7kg to 25kg)
• Operating drone in Restricted Flying Zone (RFZ)
• Operating Category B SUA
• Multi-drone operations (Drone show)
• High speed drones (Drone race)
• School using SUA for Education
https://www.cad.gov.hk/english/sua_new.html
320
Hazards Identification and risk mitigations for Typical Advanced
operations
In order to conduct advanced operations, the Remote Pilot must comply with the following:
(a). Hold a valid permission issued by CAD,

(b) operate in accordance with the conditions set out in the permission and the procedures detailed in an operations manual
accepted by CAD; and
(c). Hold a Remote Pilot Certificate with Advanced Rating.
A 持有CAD頒發的有效許可
B 按照許可中規定的條件和 CAD 接受的操作手冊中詳述的程序進行操作
C 持有具有進階評級的遙控駕駛員證書
• Applications for permission for advanced operations including must include all the required information and documents
• Highlights of the typical Category B operations
• Due to the higher risk involved, advanced operations or Category B operations shall be subject t more stringent safety
requirements. Prior permission from CAD will be required before flight.
• On top of the safety requirements listed for standard operating requirements, extra equipment or procedures will be to install or
incorporate for the permission to be approved. Applicants should refer to eSUA and CAD website for more details. Latest
information and requirements will update from time to time. Applicants are advised to review the document each time before
they submit the application.
321
Flying in Restricted Flying Zone (RFZ)
• Restricted Flying Zone (RFZ) is designated due to different reasons (such as aviation safety, emergency or security, etc) by various
authorities. Some places might be designated as RFZ by more than one government departments.
• If the remote pilot would like to fly in RFZ, he/she needs to get the consent from the designation authority prior to the operation. For
example, Hong Kong International Airport RFZ is designated by DGCA and remote pilots needs to get the consent from CAD before
flying.
•
• Information of the designation authority will be provided in the eSUA.
•
• RFZ can also be designated by notice published in the gazette. Push notification on the RFZ changes will be sent to the eSUA users.
•
• The permission process is a mandatory preparatory action and, even when permission has been given, the remote pilot must establish
contact with the appropriate parties on the actual day of operation (e.g. the Government Flying Service and other helicopter operators or
Air Traffic Control). At such time, the remote pilot will normally be given a tactical clearance to operate within the limits of their permission
and advice/ information may be provided on the local air situation. This does not absolve the remote pilot from the responsibility for
avoiding all other airspace users.
322
Small Unmanned Aircraft Advisory Circular (AC-002)
Depending on the nature and complexity of the advanced operations, and capability and experience of the
SUA operator, permissions granted under section 37 of the SUA Order may be of the following types :
a) cover a specific type of advanced operations only (e.g. SUA night operations only) for a specified period
of time;
b) cover a specific range of advanced operations for a specified period of time; and
c) event-based for the duration of the event. This will not only provide flexibility to the industry and
permission holders to meet the different SUA operational needs in a timely manner, but also ensure
that a system is in place to maintain aviation and public safety.
The types of SUA advanced operations as follows :-

可獲考慮的小型無人機進階操作類型如下：
a) Night Operations (AC-003)
a) 小型無人機夜間操作(AC-003)
b) Extended Visual Line of Sight Operations (AC-004)
b) 小型無人機延伸視線操作(AC-004)
c) Building Survey / Inspection Operations (AC-005)
c) 以小型無人機作建築物測量／檢驗(AC-005)
d) Aerial Survey or Aerial Photography Operations (AC-006)
d) 以小型無人機作空中測量或空中拍攝 (AC-006)
e) Heavy SUA Operations (AC-007)
e) 重型小型無人機操作(AC-007)
Considering the vastly different operating environments and the risks posed on the aviation and public safety,
the following types of operations will normally only be considered on an individual event basis for the
purposes of paragraph 2.1c) above :-
a) Drone Show (AC-010) a) 無人機匯演活動 (AC-010)
b) b) Drone Racing (AC-011) b) 無人機競速比賽活動 (AC-011)
323
Night operations (AC-003)
• Due to reduced visibility, SUA operations outside daylight hours or at night would be subject to a higher
level of risk. Such operations are categorised as “Advanced Operations” for which a permission under
section 37 of the SUA Order is required from the Civil Aviation Department (“CAD”) prior to operation.
• To ensure aviation and public safety, remote pilots of SUA should endeavour to operate in compliance
with all operating requirements applicable to the SUA as specified under section 15 of the SUA Order
at all times during the flight. This includes operating an SUA in daylight hours only. This notwithstanding,
the CAD notes that there are SUA practical uses and operational circumstances whereby an SUA may be
required to operate outside daylight hours.
• For the purposes of the SUA Order, “Daylight hours” means the time from half an hour before sunrise until half an hour after sunset (both points of
time exclusive), where sunrise and sunset are determined at surface level.
• This applies to applicants who wish to apply for a permission from the CAD to conduct SUA operations outside daylight hours. For easy reference and
application by the SUA community, SUA operations outside daylight hours are interchangeably referred to as SUA night operations or SUA operations
at night in this document.
• Remote pilots/ operators are required to conduct safety risk assessment and mitigation strategy prior to operating an SUA at night. Appropriate safety
measures shall be in place to mitigate the risks of reduced visibility in determining the directional movement of the aircraft, such that the remote pilot
is able to clearly see the SUA and the surrounding airspace while it is airborne, monitor the aircraft’s flight path and so manoeuvre it clear of anything
that it might collide with.
324
Night operations (AC-003)
用於夜間操作的小型無人機須配備適當的導航照明。在飛
行期間，遙控駕駛員須能夠全程看到的有關照明，且導航
照明必須足以讓遙控駕駛員能夠以目測確定小型無人機的
方位和方向。
325
Extended VLOS (EVLOS) (AC-004)
• For EVLOS operation, there must be at least two flight crew members, including the
remote pilot and the co-pilot for conducting the operations. Both crew members shall be
registered as remote pilot with Advanced Rating.
• The SUA to be operated should have flight terminating system or Return-to-Home
function installed. This will help to ensure the SUA can return to the take-off site anytime
during the flight.
• The Remote pilots should have training on EVLOS.
• Site safety assessment at daytime should be carried out prior to application.
• Assessment should be done on take-off/landing site and also the planned
flight paths area to identify, address and record any hazards,
restriction and obstacles.
• EVLOS at night time should be avoided.
遙控駕駛員須選定一名視像觀察員，而遙控駕駛員信納該視像觀察員能
夠勝任將要進行的延伸視線操作。視像觀察員須圓滿完成與職責相關的
內部訓練和評核，並確保相關資歷有效。相關培訓記錄須予保存，並在
民航處要求時向其提供。
BACKUP Communication system also

very important for EVLOS.
326
Building Survey/ Inspection Operations using Small Unmanned
Aircraft (AC-005)
Given SUA’s aerial accessibility and flexibility, SUA has played an increasing role in a wide range of survey-related applications, in particular,
building survey/ inspection, façade inspection (or also referred as “structures” in the context of this document), roof inspection, etc. With its
imaging ability, the use of SUA provides more cost-effective and safe solution when compared to traditional way involving workers to conduct
manual inspection or photographing.
“Involved Person” means a person who takes part in or is well aware of the SUA
operation, understands the risk, and is aware of the instructions and safety
precautions in regard to the SUA operation. In practical terms, this means that an
involved person must: be clearly notified about and aware of the SUA
operations; understand the risks involved; have reasonable safeguards
introduced for them by the venue manager or the SUA operating crew during
SUA operation; and be expected to follow the directions and safety
precautions provided.
To ensure aviation and public safety, operators of SUA should always endeavour
to operate in compliance with all operating requirements applicable to the SUA as
specified under section 15 of the SUA Order at all times during the flight. This
notwithstanding, in the context of building survey/ inspection operations, the
CAD notes that there are practical needs and operational circumstances at times
where the stipulated operating requirements cannot be fully met, such as flying
high altitude (i.e. above 300 ft AGL) or flying over uninvolved people/ structures.
Under these circumstances, a permission will be required for the SUA operator to
conduct advanced operations 327
Aerial Survey or Aerial Photography (AC-006)
SUA has become a popular tool for conducting aerial survey or aerial photography tasks. They usually involve operations above landscapes, taking
high resolution images or videos from multiple angles.
Following example categorised as “Standard Operations”, prior permission from CAD will not be required.
Example 1: If aerial survey or aerial photography by a Category A1 or A2 SUA
takes place at area where sufficient lateral separation from uninvolved person,
vehicle, vessel or structure is maintained, and its operations are in compliance
with all applicable operating requirements (e.g. within daylight hours, within
VLOS in the specified way, below 100/ 300 ft above ground level (“AGL”), etc.) at
all times during the flight, such operation are regarded as standard operations.
An example of such operation is shown in Figure 1.
Example 2: If a Category A1 or A2 SUA is used for aerial photography in a private event,

e.g. a wedding, where only personnel relevant to the event (e.g. participants, guests and
staff etc.) are present in the area of operation, and they:
• are clearly notified about and aware of the SUA operations;
• understand the risks involved;
• have reasonable safeguards introduced for them by the venue manager (e.g. the event
organiser) or the SUA operating crew during SUA operation; and
• be expected to follow the directions and safety precautions provided, and its
operations are in compliance with all applicable operating requirements (e.g. within
daylight hours, within VLOS in the specified way, below 100/ 300 ft AGL, etc.) at all
times during the flight, such operation are regarded as standard operations. 328
Aerial Survey or Aerial Photography (AC-006)
To ensure aviation and public safety, operators of SUA should always endeavour to operate in compliance with all operating requirements
applicable to the SUA as specified under section 15 of the SUA Order at all times during the flight. This notwithstanding, in the context of aerial
survey or aerial photography operations, the CAD notes that there are practical needs and operational circumstances at times where the
stipulated operating requirements cannot be fully met such as operations outside daylight hours (also referred as “night operations” hereafter),
operations in EVLOS or flying over uninvolved people/ structures. Under these circumstances, a permission will be required for the SUA operator
to conduct advanced operations.
Night operation and EVLOS operation shall not be involved in the same flight
With Hong Kong being a densely populated cosmopolitan with high-rise buildings
across the territory, certain aerial survey or aerial photography operations may
unavoidably involve flying over uninvolved people and structures. If overflying is
unavoidable or sufficient lateral separation cannot be kept, the remote pilot shall
not maintain sustained flight over any uninvolved people, vehicles, vessels or
structures, in particular an assembly of people, and shall reduce as much as
possible the time of overflying. Overflying of highway, railway or strategic route
shall be avoided.
329
Heavy Small Unmanned Aircraft Operations (AC-007)
• Operating Category B SUA (i.e. 7kg < weight s 25kg) will be taken as advanced operations.
•
• Even if the SUA is operating within the standard operating requirements (i.e. flying below 300 feet,
maintaining maximum speed at below 50 km/h, maintaining VLOS and flying under daylight,etc),
permission is required from CAD prior to the operation.
• Category B SUA should avoid EVLOS operations.
• In addition to the above requirement, geo-fence and altitude limiting functions shall be equipped to
cage the SUA manoeuvres within a pre-defined flight area and level. Real Time Kinematic (RTK)
positioning system is recommended.
• Appropriate ground station or remote controller software shall also be in place to assist the remote
pilot in identifying the SUA’s position in real time.
• SUA equipped with obstacle avoidance function is recommended to provide an enhanced level of
safety.
• A maintenance schedule or tech log system shall be devised to form the programme for
maintaining and servicing the SUA.
• All personnel and crew members involved in the operations of Category B SUA including the
remote pilot are recommended to be provided with appropriate high visibility personal protective
equipment (e.g. reflective apparel, safety vests, etc.).
330
Guidelines for Small Unmanned Aircraft Operations within Enclosed
Area (AC-008)
For SUA operating within an enclosed area, e.g. in an indoor location or “closed” netted structure outdoor, it is generally understood that such
operations may not have direct effect on flights by other aircraft in the open air. That being said, such operations may still pose risks to spectators and
properties particularly where public access to the area is allowed. Considering the need to facilitate indoor SUA operations, protect third party, the vastly
different operating environments of indoor venues, as well as the fact that property owners and/or managers have the responsibility and authority to
protect the public accessing these venues, special considerations have been given to SUA operating indoors. The objectives are to protect public safety
on one hand, while on the other, allows flexibility in SUA application and facilitate SUA operations.
Pursuant to section 6 of the SUA Order,

“enclosed area” is defined as : “… a flight of a
small unmanned aircraft is within an enclosed
area if the area is surrounded on all sides by fixed
or movable walls, ceiling, structures or other
barriers that effectively prevent the aircraft from
leaving the area during the flight”.
331
Guidelines for Small Unmanned Aircraft Operations within Enclosed
Area (AC-008)
例子 :在餐廳或酒店舉行的婚禮進行空中拍攝小型無人機在酒店的餐廳或宴會廳進行
的空中拍攝可以被視為在圍封範圍內進行的操作，惟有關操作的任何部分的飛行均不
會在室內以外範圍進行，並且已設置能有效阻止小型無人機在飛行期間離開相關範圍
的屏障。關於此類操作的建議如下︰-
a) 出席賓客應獲明確告知並了解小型無人機操作和相關風險。
b) 建議使用重量較輕的小型無人機進行低速飛行。
c) 倘若空中攝影的任何部分將在非圍封範圍(如酒店花園)內進行，則圍封範圍外小
型無人機操作的規管要求將適用。
332
Operating SUA at School (AC-009)
Considering that operations of SUA by schools or educational institutions (hereafter referred to as “school operations”) are normally within school
premises under the supervision of educational institutions, and with a view to facilitating the continual development of SUA applications like STEM
education, school operations under the specific conditions are not subject to most of the requirements under the SUA Order (section 9 of the SUA Order
refers). This will allow education institutions to, among others, design and operate SUAs in accordance with their own curriculum as part of the STEM
education or for research and development purposes.
According to Section 9 of the SUA Order, school operations are not subject to such requirements as
remote pilot registration/rating, safety system and insurance under Section 11 if:
a) The flight is conducted with a Category A1 and A2 SUA;
b) The aircraft is operated for the flight for educational or research purposes;
c) The flight is wholly within the school premises of a specified school;
d) The remote pilot of the aircraft for the flight is within the school premises of the school at all times
during the flight;
e) The flying altitude of the aircraft is not higher than the flight altitude specified in the Gazette Notice
at any time during the flight1 ;
f) The aircraft is not carrying any dangerous goods at any time during the flight;
g) For a Category A2 SUA, the SUA must be registered and labelled (please refer to paragraph 5 below);
and
h) For a flight within a restricted flying zone, the flight is wholly within an enclosed area; or the SUA is
operated for the flight in accordance with a permission granted under section 37 in respect of the
restricted flying zone.
333
Drone Show Event (AC-010)
• The drone show involving multiple SUA operation shall be conducted in accordance with the flight
plan, flight procedures, emergency procedures, risk assessment and safety mitigation measures
documented in the Operations Manual (“OM”) accepted by the CAD. Detailed requirements are
provided in the ensuing paragraphs.
• The operation must be carried out within Visual Line of Sight (“VLOS”).
• The operating site must be carefully chosen with sufficient segregation from uninvolved people,
structures, vehicles or vessels.
• The permission of the land / property owner on whose land / property the drone show is intended
must be obtained.
• The operation shall not involve any overflight of uninvolved people
• Nothing to be dropped from the SUA during the operation
334
High speed drones (Drone race) (AC-011)
“Drone racing” has been gaining popularity in Hong Kong and worldwide. Drone racing commonly refers to competitions with SUA which may be
operated by remote pilots with a first-person view (“FPV”). The Civil Aviation Department (“CAD”) is cognizant of the development of drone sports
and is keen to provide advice and support from the aviation safety perspective.
Responsibilities of the Drone Racing Event Organiser (the “organiser”)

• The organiser should be competent and experienced in conducting drone racing events.
• The organiser has the overall responsibility for ensuring the safe operations of the drone racing event. Amongst others, the organiser shall be
responsible for setting up the venue, rules and procedures, and implementing any arrangements necessary for conducting the drone racing
event in a safe and coordinated manner, and for ensuring that no person or property would be endangered by the SUA at all times.
• The organiser must make available a team of supporting personnel and crew members and be satisfied that the team is competent and fit to
support the conduct of the drone racing event safely. More information is provided in paragraph 4.
• The organiser shall ensure the safety guidelines provided in this AC, which comprise operating conditions (paragraph 3), personnel qualification
and responsibilities (paragraph 4), aircraft specifications (paragraph 5) as well as the requirement for aircraft registration and labelling
(paragraph 6) are observed for the conduct of the drone racing event. All relevant records shall be retained for a minimum of two (2) years
after the date of event
• The race course shall be segregated from the judges, audience, participants in the waiting area, other staff and uninvolved people, structures,
vehicles or vessels by:
• a) a closed cage or safety net covering all sides of the race course including the top that effectively prevent the aircraft from leaving the area
during the flight from any side or from the top ; or
• b) a safety net that surrounds the race course on lateral sides only, with a height that is at least 2 meters higher than the maximum flying height
of the SUAs allowed in the race or the maximum height of the race course settings (e.g. obstacles for the SUAs to pass through), whichever is
higher. The race course with all sides covered as described will be considered as an enclosed area
335
Model Aircraft SUA (AC-012)
Under the SUA Order, an “unmanned aircraft” means : “a power driven machine that can
derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air other than the reactions
of the air against the earth’s surface, which is operated with no pilot on board”. An
unmanned aircraft is an SUA in respect of a flight if its weight does not exceed 25 kg at all
times during the flight, including everything installed in, carried by and attached to the
aircraft.
The Civil Aviation Department (“CAD”) notes that model aircraft operation, or
aeromodelling, is a hobby that has been practised by many enthusiasts, and it has also
assisted in cultivating aviation interests and the development of aviation technology in
Hong Kong. Taking these and also the vastly different operational circumstances of model
aircraft from other SUAs into account, the CAD will adopt a risk-based approach with
special facilitating considerations given to model aircraft operations, that aim to protect
the aviation and public safety on one hand, while on the other, provide flexibility to these
operations.
336
Accident and incident reporting
To enhance safety, any person involved in SUA operations who has knowledge of the occurrence of any accident or incident involving
SUA of any weight in Hong Kong, is encouraged to submit a report to the CAD within three calendar days from the date of occurrence
by email to sua@cad.gov.hk. Such persons include (but are not limited to) the SUA responsible person and the remote pilot.
The reportable occurrences include events such as:

• Any incident that injured or caused fatality to person(s);
• Any collision with or loss of separation from another aircraft;
• Flyaway or loss of command and control datalink – where that flyaway or loss resulted in an event that was potentially prejudicial
to the safety of other airspace users or third parties; and
• Unintended contact between or loss of separation from the SUA and persons, structures, vehicles, vessels, etc.
In case of an emergency which may immediately affect the safety of other airspace users (e.g. a flyaway), please notify the Hong Kong
Air Traffic Control (Tel: 2910 6822) with the following information as soon as possible:
• Time of the occurrence;
• Last known location/ altitude of the SUA;
• Direction where the SUA headed to;
• Remaining battery level/ flight time of the SUA; and
• Brief description of the SUA (e.g. brand, model, colour, size, types, etc.)
A report to the Hong Kong Police Force should also be made immediately for necessary actions as appropriate.
337
Accident and incident reporting
申請人須須制定清晰的事故呈報及處理指引及程序，其中可包括事故的定義、呈報事故的的詳細程序（包括但不限於呈報

的時間及管理層級）、事故的處理（包括但不限於確定事故的根本原因、糾正措施的實施、定期審查等），以及安全及事
故報告的文件記錄。
倘若發生意外或事故，而有關操作造成任何財產損失或人員受傷，進階操作許可持有人須立即向警方報案，然後以電郵通知
民航處無人駕駛飛機組（電郵地址：sua@cad.gov.hk）。
在任何事故或意外發生後 24 小時內（無論有否對第三者財產造成損害或是否有人受傷），進階操作許可持有人亦須藉電郵

以書面形式向民航處無人駕駛飛機組（電郵地址：sua@cad.gov.hk）說明相關情況的全部詳情。
應民航處要求，進階操作許可持有人須在三（3）個曆日內藉向 sua@cad.gov.hk 發送電郵以書面形式提供額外詳情及／或調

查發現。所有事件、意外及事故的記錄須由進階操作許可持有人妥善保存，並應民航處要求提供。
倘若事故表明進階操作許可持有人存在潛在的重大缺陷或安全問題，或倘若進階操作許可持有人未有及時向民航處報告事故，
則民航處可以暫停、撤銷或更改第 12 段中詳述的進階操作許可。
338
Emergency procedures in the different events
Motor/Propeller Failure 電機/螺旋槳故障

If any sign of motor / propeller failure is observed, the Chief Remote Pilot shall notify the flight team by calling "Falling Drone" and try
to stabilize the SUA as far as possible.
If the aircraft is likely to pose danger to people in the vicinity, everyone in the flight
team shall raise the awareness of the people by yelling ＂run away/散開, run away/ 散開, run away/散開＂
The Chief Remote Pilot and Co-Remote Pilot shall maintain VLOS with the SUA. The Visual Observer shall confirm the landing area, or
the alternative area, and the flight path to the site is dear for landing, and inform the Chief Remote Pilot accordingly.
The Chief Remote Pilot shall manoeuvre the aircraft to the landing position for landing as far as possible.
Compass interference 指南針干擾

Firstly, control the aircraft's altitude to keep it stable by adjusting the stick smoothly. Avoid hurried operation .
And then, fly away from the interference area or find a safe site to land as soon as possible.
To prevent this emergency, pilot should avoid flying in locations where magnetic interference may occur, such as close to high-voltage
power lines, magnetite deposits or large metallic structures like parking structures, or steel reinforced basements.
Also, don't forget to calibrate the compass before your flight.
339
Loss of GPS signal GPS 信號丟失
Good GPS signal is critical for flight safety. However, the signal can be blocked or interfered
with while flying in certain areas, such as near high-voltage power lines or tall buildings.
Firstly, control the aircraft's attitude to keep the aircraft stable by adjusting the stick
smoothly. Avoid hurried operations.
Then fly away from interference area or find a safe site to land as soon as possible.
If the GPS signal falls to 7 satellites, the Co-Remote Pilot shall notify the flight team by calling
“NO GPS NO GPS NO GPS !!!
The Chief Remote Pilot shall terminate the flight immediately. He shall switch the flying
mode from 'GPS mode' to 'attitude mode' to regain control of the SUA and maintain VLOS
with it.
The Visual Observer shall confirm the landing area, or the alternative area, and the flight
path to the site is clear for landing, and inform the Chief Remote Pilot accordingly.
The Chief Remote Pilot shall manoeuvre the aircraft to the landing position for landing as
soon as possible.
If loss of GPS signal occurs and the flight altitude is higher than aircraft vision positioning
system's range, the aircraft will switch to Attitude mode, causing drafting, which will highly
increase the risk of an accident.
340
Flyaway飛走
If the SUA has no response to any control inputs, the Chief Remote Pilot shall notify the flight team by calling "Flyaway" and maintain
VLOS with the SUA as far as possible.
The Co-Remote Pilot shall take note of the following and notify the Air Traffic Control unit (Tel: 2910 6822) as soon as possible:
Time of the incident;
Heading of the SUA;
Remaining battery life of the SUA; and
Brief description of the SUA (e.g. brand, model, colour, size, number of rotors, etc.)
The Visual Observer shall also report to the Hong Kong Police Force immediately for necessary actions, as appropriate.
Loss of Command and Control Data Link 數據失聯
If the command and control data link is lost, the fail-safe mechanism of the SUA will be activated and the aircraft will return to the
'home' position and land automatically.
The Visual Observer shall confirm the landing area, or the alternative area, and the flight path to the site is clear for landing, and
inform the Chief Remote Pilot accordingly.
The Chief Remote Pilot shall maintain VLOS with the SUA, If any abnormal behaviour is observed, the Chlef Remote Pilot shall switch
the flying mode from 'GPS mode to
attitude mode' to try to regain control of the SUA and manoeuvre the aircraft to the landing position for landing as soon as possible.
341
Low battery低電量
If the battery level of the aircraft reaches 30%, the Co-Remote Pilot shall notify the flight team by calling "Low Battery"
The Visual Observer shall confirm the landing area, or the alternative area, and the flight path to the site is clear for landing, and
inform the Chief Remote Pilot accordingly.
The Chief Remote Pilot shall terminate the flight immediately and manoeuvre the aircraft to the landing position for landing.
If the battery level of the aircraft reaches 15%, the aircraft will return to the 'home' position and land automatically.
Public Encroachment公眾入侵
Should there be any aircraft encroachment. within or getting close to the minimum lateral separation required, the Visual Observer
shall inform the flight team by calling "Public" and advise the Chief Remote Pilot of the position of the aircraft spotted. The Chief
Remote Pilot shall hold position of the SUA immediately.
The Visual Observer shall confirm the area immediately beneath the SUA is clear and inform the Chief Remote Pilot accordingly.
If the above is confirmed, the Chief Remote Pilot shall descend the SUA. Otherwise, he shall shift the SUA to a safe position to avoid
collision.
Aircraft Encroachment 飛機入侵

Should there be any aircraft encroachment within or getting close to the minimum lateral separation required, the Visual Observer
shall inform the flight team by calling "Aircraft" and advise the Chief Remote Pilot of the position of the aircraft spotted. The Chief
Remote Pilot shall hold position of the SUA immediately.
The Visual Observer shall confirm the area immediately beneath the SUA is clear and inform the Chief Remote Pilot accordingly.
If the above is confirmed, the Chief Remote Pilot shall descend the SUA. Otherwise, he shall shift the SUA to a safe position to avoid
collision.
342
Use of radio and radio Frequencies for air traffic communication in
Hong Kong OFCA Rules
Communication with ATC (if required)
a) The SUA operator shall inform the CAD/Aerodrome Supervisor before launching and on completion of the SUA operation.
b) The SUA operator shall provide his contact phone number to the CAD/Aerodrome Supervisor, who may instruct to stop the
operation when necessary.
The Chief Remote Pilot shall determine an effective means of communication within the flight team during the SUA operations.
Depending on the size and environment of the area of operations, the use of walkie-talkie or direct verbal communications may be
considered.
In case of an emergency which may affect the safety of other airspace users (eg, a flyaway), the flight team shall notify the Aerodrame
Supervisor of the Air Traffic Control unit (Tel: 2910 6822) with the following information as soon as possible:
Time of the incident;

Heading of the SUA;
Remaining battery life of the SUA; and
Brief description of the SUA (e.g. brand, model, colour, size, number of rotors, etc.)
The flight team shall also report to the Hong Kong Police Force immediately for necessary
actions, as appropriate.
343
PRE-FLIGHT CHECK
Pre-flight processes and checklists are probably one of the most important parts
to flying your aircraft. It can identify possible issues and in turn, prevent a crash.
You must know your aircraft and develop a pre-flight checklist that you should go
through before every single flight, no matter how long or short.
If a problem is identified, correct it before flying. Once your machine is in the air,
any failure could result in not only damage to your aircraft, but it could also pose
a serious risk to people or property.
Before flight, it is essential for us to have a clear understanding of the equipment
on duty to avoid unnecessary accidents while flying and improve efficiency.
1. Confirm that the remote controller, Intelligent Flight Battery, and mobile device are all fully charged.
2. Ensure that the propeller is not damaged and is properly secured to the aircraft.
3. Ensure that the aircraft motor is clean, undamaged, and free to rotate.
4. Ensure that the camera and protection glass of the infrared sensing module are clean.
5. Ensure that the camera gimbal can function normally.
6. Check that there are no objects (such as water, oil, sand, or dust) inside the aircraft.
7. When the aircraft is flying at a temperature of about 32°F (0°C), please wipe the propellers with a dry cloth in advance to avoid
frosting during the flight.
8. Make sure the antennas of the remote controller are not damaged.
9. Make sure there are no errors in the aircraft status in the DJI app.
344
PRE-FLIGHT CHECK
In-flight
• The Chief Remote Pilot shall conduct the SUA operations according to the conditions set out in the permission or exemption and follow the
manufacturer's instructions.
• The Co-Remote Pilot shall keep the Chief Remote Pilot updated constantly on flight parameters of the SUA including battery level and
satellites tracked.
• The Visual Observer shall maintain constant lookout for public and aircraft encroachment and alert the Chief Remote Pilot in case of any
emergencies.
• If the GPS signal falls to 7 satellites, the Chief Remote Pilot shall terminate the flight . immediately. Switch the flying mode from 'GPS
mode' to 'attitude mode' and manoeuvre the aircraft to the landing position for landing. 'Return-to-home' function is not recommended.
• If the battery level of the aircraft reaches 30%, the Chief Remote Pilot shall terminate the operation immediately and manoeuvre the
aircraft to the landing position for landing. If the battery level of the aircraft reaches 15%, the aircraft will return to the 'home' position
and land automatically
Landing
• Before landing the aircraft, the Chief Remote Pilot shall alert the team of the intention to land.
• The Visual Observer shall check the landing area is clear for landing.
Shutdown
• Upon touchdown, the Chief Remote Pilot shall stop the motors. Switch off the aircraft and then the remote control device after landing.
• The Co-Remote Pilot shall disassemble the SUA (e.g. remove the flight battery) in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
345
POST-FLIGHT CHECK
The Chief Remote Pilot, with the Co-Remote Pilot's assistance, shall
perform post-flight check on the SUA equipment using Part II of the
SUA Operation Checklist (Form G) and file a fault report using Part
III of the form if needed.
The Chief Remote Pilot, with the Co-Remote Pilot's assistance, shall
record the SUA operations using the Flight Log (Form A).
The flight team shall report all accidents or incidents (eg. crash,
temporary Incapacity of team members or any other persons
interfering with the flight operations, etc.), preferably within the
same day of operation.
346
Case 01 : Cross Bay Bridge
347
Take Off &

Landing Area
348
349
350
THANKS!
Any questions? Sky
You can find me at 53993993
351

學員筆記-cad Sua Ao Handbook 2023 en Cn (6) (2)

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學員筆記-cad Sua Ao Handbook 2023 en Cn (6) (2)

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Small Unmanned Aircraft

(SUA) Advance Rating

Student Handbook (PTT)

DNT FPV TECHNOLOGY CO LTD

▸ AIS Aeronautical Information Service (ICAO)

▸ BFR Before (MET)

▸ FIR Flight Information Region (ICAO)

▸ NOTAM Notice to Airmen (AIS)

▸ UAS Unmanned Aircraft System

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Hong Kong Civil Aviation Department (CAD)

The Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC)

Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA)

In July 1995, we were established as an independent statutory authority. We operate within a

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

Civil Aviation Authority (CAA)

Its areas of responsibility include:

Small Unmanned Aircraft (SUA) Categorization

(a) Category A1 SUA (“Cat A1 SUA”)

Small Unmanned Aircraft (SUA) Categorization

Categorization of SUA Operations and the Corresponding Regulatory Requirements

Operations of Category A1 or Category A2 SUA, within the applicable operating

All other operations, namely operations of a Category B SUA, operations of a Category

Fly Unmanned Aircraft Safely

Visual Line of Sight

What is a Visual Observer?

Above ground Level (AGL)

Height , Altitude, Elevation

General Safety Guidelines for Flying UAS

1. Where you cannot fly

2. Good Choice of Flying Sites

(ii) away from helipads;

(iii) away from paragliding areas;

(v) flat enough to enable safe take-off and landing; and

(vii) Always away from people and major outdoor events.

 Safety Awareness 安全意識

 Persons requiring Advanced Rating

Competency Training and Assessment for Advanced Rating

(a) 超出小型無人機操作安全規定文件 所詳述的適用操作規定(在圍封範圍內除外)的甲一類或甲二類小型無人機操作；

Advanced Operations - Applicability

Advanced Operations – Operations Manual

Organisation Details Specific Types of Advanced Operations to be conducted

Details of the Accountable Manager List of Remote Pilots

Advanced Operations – Operations Manual 操作 - 操作手冊

a) Organisational structure and procedures;

Advanced Operations – Safety and Quality Assurance

Advanced Operations – Principles of flight

Cap. 448E Air Navigation (Flight Prohibition) Order 《飛航(飛行禁制)令》

Advanced Operations – Insurance Requirement

Advanced Operations – Safety equipment of SUA

Flight Log System 航拍機飛行紀錄

Pursuant to section 14 of the SUA Order, information recorded by safety system,

OFCA's requirements on radio frequency OFCA對無線電頻率的要求

OPERATION IN THE 2.4 GHz BAND

OPERATION IN THE 5.8 GHz BAND

Privacy intrusiveness of Drones 隱私侵犯

Privacy intrusiveness of Drones 隱私侵犯

When equipped with a full range of advanced surveillance technologies such as

4W + 3dB = 8W, 4W+6dB=16W,

Controlled airspace, however, falls into a number of different classes. It is

Class A: This high-level en route controlled airspace is used predominately by

Flight information region

Smaller countries’ airspace is encompassed by a single FIR; larger

(a) 超出小型無人機操作安全規定文件所詳述的適用操作規定(在圍封範圍內除外)的甲一類或甲二類小型無人機操作；

- 航行資料匯編（Aeronautical Information Publication, AIP），其修訂（AIP Amendment）和補編（AIP Supplement）

Hong Kong Model Engineering Club 香港機械模型元朗南生圍

HK80 的參考橢球是國際海福德 1910 橢球。其原點位