3. (1-21) Chapter 1, 2 and 3 (Confucianism & Taoism or Daoism)

Paper VIII - Study of Religions B.A.
(A) (2nd Semester)
Chapter 1
General Introduction to Confucianism
Confucianism is one type of ‗Chinese Folk Religion‘ also known as Ruism or Ru
classicism. It was founded by Confucius in about 600-500 BCE. It is a system of thought
and behavior originating in ancient China, having approximately 6.1 million followers of
Confucianism worldwide or 0.09% of the world‘s populations, or slightly less than 1%. The
followers of Confucianism are almost all in China, although it has also spread regionally to
Vietnam, Korea, and Japan.
1.1 The Origin, Definition and Symbols of Confucianism

Picture 1: Main Symbol of Confucianism
- Confucian + ism = Confucianism. Confucianism is the ethical teachings
formulated by Confucius and introduced into Chinese religion, emphasizing
devotion to parents, family, and friends, cultivation of the mind, self-control,
and just social activity. Confucianism began as a school of thought founded
by Confucius, a Chinese thinker who lived between 551 and 479 BCE, which
defined the necessary hierarchy of duties and responsibilities between individuals to achieve
harmony and stability in all social and political relationships.
Table 1: What is Confucianism?

Classifications of Confucianism In Terms of Causes
01 Chinese Religion - Originated in ancient China (geographically)
02 Non-theistic Religion - It does not include the worship of any god.
03 Ethical Religion - It is an ethical and philosophical system developed from
04 Philosophical Religion the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius as an
Confucianism
05 Sociopolitical Religion ―ethical-sociopolitical teaching.‖

- It is the teachings of Confucius emphasizing love for
humanity, high value given to learning and to devotion to
06 Peace-loving Religion
family (including ancestors), peace, justice, influenced the
traditional culture of China.
- With particular emphasis on the importance of the family
Humanistic or
07 and social harmony, rather than on an otherworldly source
Rationalistic Religion
of spiritual values, the core of Confucianism is humanistic.
- Confucianism Symbols and Their Meaning: Despite being over two and a half millennia
old and coming from a culture with a hieroglyphic language system, Confucianism does not
have too many symbols that are viewed as core to its philosophy. The main reason for that
seems to be this philosophy‘s intent on spelling its tenets and views plainly and literally in a
written form. The followers of Confucianism follow its thoughts and writings and do not
look for individual symbols to worship - at least not as much as the followers of most other
religions and philosophical traditions. It is said that Confucius always feared that if he made
a particular symbol for his teachings, then his followers would follow and worship that
symbol, and pay little attention to the teachings behind it.
- As a result of that, there are only a few notable Confucianism symbols we can point to
today. Most of these are fairly difficult to read and interpret. That being said, these symbols
are viewed as pivotal for Confucianism.
Picture 2: Confucius Symbol (Water, Stillness, Dignity, Harmony)
This rather rigid-looking symbol is the Chinese symbol for water (water symbol).
Water is an important element of life, which allows all things to grow and thrive. It
is associated with winter and with stillness. The water symbol is used to express
1 | A Study of Two Chinese Religions Compiled by Daw Indre (Gold Sayalay) Mondays (2: 00 p.m.)
Paper VIII - Study of Religions B.A. (A) (2nd Semester)
tranquility and dignity in your own life as well as peace and understanding with your
neighbors. As such, this symbol expresses the main goals of Confucianism, which this
philosophy aims to achieve through a universal adherence to tradition and ancestral worship.
This symbol is also commonly used in wedding ceremonies in China, as it represents the
harmony between the newlyweds.
Picture 3: Yin Yang Symbol (Balance in Opposite Forces)
- Yin and Yang are present in all things - love, career or life in general.
The Yin Yang is shown as a circle with two halves, and each half contains
a single element from its opposite. This configuration represents the
concept of dualism, the notion that all forms of energy have an equally
powerful opposing energy. Though opposite in nature, the Yin Yang‘s
components are complementary; neither is superior, and one cannot exist
without the other. Everything in nature is based upon this dualistic principle. The key to
existence, therefore, is balanced energy, with no single element dominating over the other.
Thus, the Ying Yang is not only beautiful, but reminds that only true path to harmony is
through balance.
Picture 4: Scholar Symbol (Importance of Knowledge and Learning)
- This is another common symbol in Chinese culture that‘s especially - but
not exclusively - associated with Confucianism. The Scholar symbol
expresses the importance of knowledge and self-awareness, both of which
are essential if one is to truly achieve balance within themselves. The focus
on knowledge in Confucianism is one of the main reasons why people in
China have always placed a great deal of value on education.
Picture 5: Li Symbol (Correct Behavior and a Code of Conduct)
- The Li symbol represents correct behavior, as in good manners, respect,
politeness, and adherence to social etiquette. Regular worship is also included here
as it is a crucial part of the social etiquette. According to Confucianism, every
member of society should practice the principles of Li.
Picture 6: Jen Symbol (Social and Personal Virtues for Social Harmony)
- This ideogram symbol literally translates as social virtue. It includes all personal
virtues that help to achieve and maintain social harmony around the surroundings.
Righteousness is also included in Jen as Confucianism does not just seek social
harmony for its own sake, but accents the need for such a harmony to be based on
truth and righteousness.
- In brief, Confucianism has no official symbol, but the above represent its ideals, values, and
tenets, such as harmony, peace, simplicity and naturalness.
**********
1. 2 History of Confucianism
- Founder of Confucianism (551 - 479 BCE = 72 years): Confucius was an important
Chinese educator, philosopher, and political figure, who was traditionally considered the
paragon of Chinese sages. His original name was Kong Qiu or K‘ung Fu-tzu or Zhong Ni.
He was born in the 22nd year of the reign of Duke Xiang of Lu (551 BCE), in Zou (鄒, in
modern Shandong province, China). The traditional claim that he was born on the 27th day
of the eighth lunar month has been questioned by historians, but September 28th is still
widely observed in East Asia as Confucius‘s birthday.
- He was born into the class of shi (士), between the aristocracy and the common people.
According to records of the Historian, Confucius was born into a royal family of the Chou
Dynasty. Other accounts describe him as being born into poverty. What is undisputed about
Confucius‘ life is that he existed during a time of ideological crisis in China.
Picture 7: A Statue of Confucius

- Confucius‘s father, Kong He (or Shuliang He) was an
elderly commandant of the local Lu garrison. His father,
Kong He died when he was three years old, and he was raised
by his mother Yan Zhengzai in poverty. As a child, he was
eager to learn about everything, and was very interested in
rituals. Once he grew up, he worked as a state official who
handled farms and cattle. He was educated at schools for
commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts. Then,
he became a teacher. At age 19, he married Qiguan, and a
year later the couple had their first child, their son Kong Li.
Qiguan and Confucius would later have two daughters
together, one of whom is thought to have died as a child.
- He is said to have worked in various government jobs during
his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep
and horses, using the proceeds to give his mother a proper
burial. When his mother died, Confucius (aged 23) is said to
have mourned for three years, as was the tradition.
- He did not start out as a wise teacher; he worked a number of normal jobs first. He started
out as the governor of a small town and worked his way up until he became an advisor at the
top levels of government. He developed his own philosophy which he taught to others.
Today, his philosophy is known as Confucianism. His ideas did not become popular until
years after his death when they became the basic philosophy of the Chinese culture for over
two thousand years.
- He quit his government jobs at the age of 51. He was disappointed that the leaders were not
following his teachings. He then traveled throughout China for many years teaching his
philosophy. Some of his followers wrote down his ideas in a book that would later be called
―The Analects of Confucius.‖
- Confucius died on November 21, 479 BCE because of natural causes in Qufu, China, a year
after losing his son, Tzu-lu, in battle. He spent his last few years in his hometown of Qufu
teaching his disciples. At the time of his death, Confucius was convinced that his teachings
had not made a significant impact on Chinese culture, even though his teachings would go on
to become the official imperial philosophy of China. His followers held a funeral and
established a mourning period in his honor.
- His teachings, preserved in the Analects, focused on creating ethical models of family and
public interaction and setting educational standards. After his death, Confucius became the
official imperial philosophy of China, which was extremely influential during the Han, Tang
and Song dynasties. Confucius was not worshiped as a deity until the Tang dynasty (618-
907) when the emperor ordered a Confucian temple built in every Chinese province and
county.
- Notably, Confucianism is the worldview on politics, education and ethics taught by
Confucius and his followers in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C. Although Confucianism is
not an organized religion, it does provide rules for thinking and living that focus on love for
humanity, worship of ancestors, respect for elders, self-discipline and conformity to rituals.
As of the fourth century B.C., Confucius was regarded as a sage who had deserved greater
recognition in his time. By the second century B.C., during China‘s first Han Dynasty, his
ideas became the foundation of the state ideology. Today, Confucius is widely considered
one of the most influential teachers in Chinese history. The philosophies are still followed by
many people living in China today and have influenced thinking in Japan, Korea and
Vietnam.
- In short, Confucius‘ teachings became the state philosophy of China during the Han
Dynasty. His teachings were the basis of the government civil service exams. The
government liked Confucianism because it taught to respect authority and that a strong
central government was important. Confucius‘ teachings remained an important part of
Chinese culture and government up until the 20th century.
**********
1.3 Concepts of Moral Philosophy and Teachings of Confucianism
- The key concepts of Confucius’ moral philosophy can be concisely delineated as follows:
* The merging of self-cultivation and social-political reform: Confucius believed that
political order must be established on social order, and social order must come from
individual cultivation. Therefore, he said, ―From the Son of Heaven down to the mass of the
people, the cultivation of the self is the foundation of everything besides.‖ ―Their hearts
being rectified, their persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, their families
were regulated. Their families being regulated, their States were rightly governed. Their
States being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made tranquil and happy.‖
* The pursuit of dao: Dao generally means road or path, method, way, doctrine, the truth, or
moral teachings. It has been interpreted as the supreme metaphysical force that exists
everywhere in everything and dominates the exercise and function of all things in the
universe, as well as the universal moral order and the ideal status of moral achievement for
man to define, pursue, and accomplish. According to Schwartz, it is ―an all encompassing
state of affairs embracing the ‗outer‘ socio-political order and the ‗inner‘ moral life of the
individual‖. Humankind should seek the comprehension and pursuit of life in accordance
with dao. Therefore, Confucius said, ―What Heaven imparts to man is called human nature.
To follow our nature is called the dao. Cultivating the dao is called education‖. ―If a man, in
the morning, hears the dao; he may die in the evening without regret!‖ Mencius explained,
―Humanity (jen) is the distinguishing characteristic of man. When embodied in man‘s
conduct, it is the dao.‖
* The ethical system of jen (humaneness) - yi (righteousness) - li (rules of propriety):
Confucius‘ teachings of jen, yi, and li comprise the most fundamental thought and principles
in Confucius‘ ethics. Jen has been translated as love, benevolence, humanity, human
heartedness, virtue, perfect virtue, true manhood, and humaneness; it also signifies the ideal
relationship between people. Yi generally means righteousness, appropriateness, obligation,
and justice, and is ―the principle of setting things right and proper‖. Li indicates ceremony,
rites, decorum, courtesy, etiquette, rules of propriety, and at first represents the ceremonial
order, but in the full sense connotes the sociopolitical order. Jen (humaneness) and yi
(righteousness) could be said to be the inner core of morality that motivates and guides man
to pursue the dao, and li (rules of propriety) could be described as the outer form and
standard of morality that is concrete for man to abide by in the context of human society.
* The moral ideal of chun-tze (the superior man or gentlemen): Chun-tze is the man of
high moral achievement who constantly tries to improve and cultivate himself to achieve
various stages of perfection. The moral character of Chun-tze demonstrates both the qualities
of ―an autonomous person‖, which includes self-activation, self-determination, self-reliance,
and self-cultivation, and ―a relational person‖ who is committed to other-regarding morality
and altruism. The ultimate concern and self-realization of a Confucian ideal person consists
in giving security and peace to people, yet in order to achieve this goal one must become a
chun-tze first, which requires incessant moral self-cultivation.
* The wu-lun (five basic human relationships): Confucius stresses family values and filial
piety through articulating the five basic human relationships ―which govern the relationship
between ruler and minister, between father and son, between husband and wife, between
elder and younger brothers, and those in the intercourse between friends.‖ The wu-lun gave
form to Chinese society and social institutions from government down to interpersonal
transactions and has far reaching influence on the East Asian, Confucian ethics based
cultures. Confucius believes good family breeding naturally leads to good social intercourse.
Therefore: ―A superior man is devoted to the root. When the root is firmly established, the
moral law (dao) will grow. Filial piety (shaw) and brotherly respect (ti) are the root of
humanity (jen).‖
- In addition to these fundamental concepts, it is important to recognize that Confucius‘ ethics
were developed in an epoch of chaos aiming at restoring social order and promoting general
welfare through everyone‘s moral self-cultivation and fulfilling one‘s own responsibilities.
Therefore, apart from the strong deontological and virtue ethics characteristics, Confucius
inevitably adopted a consequentialist approach in many sociopolitical contexts in order to
pursue public interest. Confucius‘ morality, with its cardinal claims of ―cultivating oneself so
as to bring peace and prosperity for people‖ and ―sagely within and kingly without‖,
professes a sense of solidarity and selflessness that communitarians advocate.
- The teachings of Confucius are focused on two interrelated areas: Social Teachings, which
deal with the proper behaviour of the individual in society and to his fellow men, and
Political Teachings, which deal with the art of governance and the proper relationship of the
Ruler to the ruled. He viewed education as central to achieving proper conduct both within
Society and in Government.
- Social Teachings of Confucius: Confucius taught that people should have compassion for
one another, and to avoid treating others in ways that they themselves would not wish to be
treated: What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others. In order to be compassionate,
people should avoid self-aggrandizement and be simple in manner and slow of speech. They
should practice altruism and self-restraint.
- Confucius taught that the key to achieving proper self-mastery was adherence to correct
ritual. In Confucius‘ teachings, ritual encompassed both quasi-religious practices as
veneration of dead ancestors, as well as the broader concept of etiquette and correct social
interaction. Confucius taught that there were mutual obligations arising between members of
social relationships, for example as between Husband and Wife, Parents and Children, Older
Brother and Younger Brother, and so on. Adherence to the proper conduct expected between
members of these groupings would guarantee a harmonious relationship between them and
also serve as the foundation of a just a stable society.
- Although the subordinate members of a relationship (children to their parents, wives to their
husbands) were required to be obedient, their obedience was not absolute and depended upon
the superior member of the relationship (parent, husband for example) acting in accordance
with his own obligations.
- Confucius‘s teachings strongly emphasized the importance of following ritual. He said:
―Look at nothing in defiance of ritual, listen to nothing in defiance of ritual, speak of nothing
in defiance or ritual, never stir hand or foot in defiance of ritual.‖
- Within society, Confucius prescribed the following main ceremonies or rituals: Capping (a
joyous occasion when a son achieved manhood on his twentieth birthday - analogous to a Bar
Mitzvah), marriage, mourning rites, sacrifices, feasts, and interviews. These ceremonies were
quite complex and highly ritualized.
- While to Westerners the emphasis on ritual may seem stultifying and oppressive, it must be
remembered that the guiding principal in Confucius‘s social teachings is that people should
follow the Five Virtues and love one another and treat each other with kindness, which is a
concept shared by all great religions and humanistic philosophies.
- Political Teachings: Much of Confucius‘s teachings focused on the art of governance and
how a ruler should act. Unlike Machiavelli, who expounded a concept of amoral statecraft in
which he counseled the ruler on how to appear just in order to gain the trust of the people,
while at the same time engaging in oppression and stratagems, Confucius advocated for true
justice and compassion on the part of the ruler and the ruled. Only by being a just ruler
would the ruler enjoy the Mandate of Heaven and continue to have the right to rule.
- As with his social teachings, Confucius believed that the key to good governance lay in
each man carrying out his duties as prescribed by his position within the hierarchy. He
stated: Good government consists in the ruler being a ruler, the minister being a minister, the
father being a father, and the son being a son.
- It was essential that the ruler possess virtue. Virtue would enable the ruler to retain the
supreme position. He who governs by means of his virtue is, to use an analogy, like the pole-
star: it remains in its place while all the lesser stars do homage to it. Remarkably, given the
violent nature of his times, Confucius believed that rulers should not have to resort to force or
the threat of punishment to maintain power. He stated: ―Your job is to govern, not to kill.‖
- As in the case of social relationships such as those between parents and children, husbands
and wives, Confucius believed that the rulers should observe proper ritual in order to
maintain their position and right to rule. These rituals included giving proper sacrifices to the
ancestors at the ancestral temples, the exchange of gifts between members of the nobility
which bound them together in a web of obligation and indebtedness, and acts of etiquette and
decorum such as bowing.
- Confucius Teachings on Education: Confucius taught that one the key to self-mastery was
through scholarship and study. He stated ―He who learns but does not think is lost. He who
thinks but does not learn is in great danger.‖ In his own teachings, Confucius did not
expound, but rather used asked questions of his pupils and used analogies to classic texts.
According to Confucius, I only instruct the eager and enlighten the fervent. If I hold up one
corner and a student cannot come back to me with the other three, I do not go on with the
lesson.
- In exhorting men to become gentlemen or Superior Men, Confucius recommended diligent
study under a master familiar with the rules of correct behaviour. He recommended learning
from the classics. In time, Confucius‘s emphasis on education and his belief that position and
rank should be based on merit, led to the establishment of an imperial bureaucracy in which
admission was based not on birth but on how well the applicant did on the imperial
examinations. This was an admirable system which in theory at least rewarded merit and
therefore recruited the best candidates; however in practice, the school curriculum, which was
based on meeting the requirements of the state examinations became stultified. Too great an
emphasis was placed on knowing and being able to quote classical authors while science and
economics were neglected. Although this had not been Confucius‘s intent, the result was that
China‘s education system produced a traditionalist bureaucracy which was ill equipped to
deal with military and economic problems.
- China was eventually conquered by neighboring barbarians, who established their own
dynasties, though they maintained the educational and examination system. When the rapidly
rising European powers came to China, China was slow to adopt Western technological
innovations and as a result China suffered further humiliations as it was partitioned among
spheres of influence by Germany, England and other European powers from the 1800s to
World War 2.
- Confucianism became a major system of thought in Ancient China, developed from the
teachings of Confucius and his disciples, and concerned with the principles of good conduct,
practical wisdom, and proper social relationships. Throughout the feudal societies, it almost
became dominant thinking. Confucianism has to some extent influenced the Chinese attitude
toward life, set the patterns of living and standards of social value. Its legacy and beliefs
spread from China to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and other Asian nations.
- While some Western scholars take it for a Chinese religious thinking, it is actually only a
philosophy.
- Its founder, Confucius, or K‘ung-tze, or K‘ung-Qiu, was born in 551 B.C., in what was then
the feudal state of Lu, now included in the modern province of Shandong. Confucius was
only three when his father died. From childhood he showed a great aptitude for study and
became very learned. In the past, education was the privilege of the rich and the nobles, but
Confucius broke this rule by opening his own school.
- His 3000 disciples came from various social classes. Confucius taught them his own
political thoughts, moral thinking, as well as code of conduct. Many of his disciples had also
become important philosophers who continued or expanded upon Confucius thinking.
- The reason Confucianism was favored and even taken as an orthodox system of thought
during the feudal society was mainly because of its emphasis on class distinctions and
obedience to one‘s superior, meeting the need and desires of the ruling class. He emphasized
that every person should a role in society: the emperor should well manage the state, officials
should be loyal to the emperor, a son should obey his father, and a wife should obey her
husband, and so on and so forth. On different occasions, one might have different roles to
play, so he should act accordingly and properly. This way, the whole society would be kept
very stable. The Emperor exercised an absolute authority over his subjects, as the father over
his children.
- The book Lun Yü or Analects contains a collection of maxims by Confucius and
conversations with his disciples that form the basis of his moral and political philosophy. In
the feudal society, the book was beheld somewhat like the Holy Bible. Commoners had to
regulate one‘s code of conduct according to it. Lun Yu and other Confucius classics secured
a firmer hold on Chinese intellectuals as candidates for responsible government positions, for
they received their appointments on the strength of their knowledge of it.
- Nonetheless, the book Lun Yu was not all made up of dogmatic preaching. In fact, the
language is witty and lively and the content ranges from politics to study to music. Quite a
few of the sentences have become proverbs that were popularly used in daily life.
- Key Ideas: Confucius is considered the most important thinker in all of Chinese history.
Confucius‘ ideas became the basis for the organization and functioning of the Chinese state
from the 2nd century until the Communist takeover in the 20th century.
* For Confucius, an individual did not have to be born noble but could improve himself and
become a ―superior‖ person by cultivating five virtues: humanity or goodness (ren or ji),
righteousness (yi), proper conduct (li), wisdom (chi), and trustworthiness (xin).
* The basis for all of these virtues was what Confucius called ―filial piety (xiao),‖ the
respect and obedience of children to their parents.
* Confucius maintained that when family relationships are in order, that is when each person
performs his duties and responsibilities and shows proper respect, to those both above and
below him in the family, society will be ordered and function smoothly.
* For Confucius, this model of proper relationships within the family could be translated to
the political sphere where a wise and virtuous ruler acts as a father to his subjects.
*****************************************
Chapter 2
General Introduction to Taoism (Daoism)
Taoism (pronounced ―dow-ism‖) is one type of ‗Chinese Folk Religion‘ also known
as Daoism. It was founded by Chinese philosopher, Lao Tzu or Laozi in about 500 or 600
BCE. It is a philosophical and spiritual tradition originating in what is now the eastern
Chinese province of Henan, having approximately 8.7 million followers of Taoists (Daoists)
worldwide. It has strongly influenced the culture and religious life of China and other East
Asian countries ever since. It is also a major religion in Taiwan and claims adherents in a
number of other societies, in particular in Hong Kong, Macau and Southeast Asia.
2.1 The Origin, Definition and Symbols of Taoism (Daoism)

Picture 8: Main Symbol of Taoism (Daoism)
- Tao (Dao) + ism = Taoism (Daoism). Tao or Dao is a Chinese word
signifying the ―way, path, route, road, course, speech, method‖ or
sometimes more loosely ―doctrine, principle or holistic beliefs.‖ Taoism
(Daoism) is a philosophy, a religion, and a way of life. It is a system of
ideas based on the teachings of Lao Tzu or Laozi. It teaches about the
various disciplines for achieving ―perfection‖ by becoming one with the
unplanned rhythms of the universe, called ―the way‖ or ―Tao (Dao).‖
Table 2: What is Taoism (Daoism)?

Classifications of Taoism (Daoism) In Terms of Causes
01 Chinese Religion - Originated in ancient China (geographically)
- It is a philosophical and spiritual tradition based on the
02 Philosophical Religion
teachings of Lao Tzu or Laozi.
- Action and Karma Taoism, the Way of Right Action,
focuses on accumulating merit by doing charitable works.
Its origin lies in the traditional Chinese belief that good
deeds bring reward and unethical deeds invite retribution.
03 Ethical Religion After Buddhism was introduced into China, the belief in
karmic retribution was incorporated into this form of
Taoism. Action and Karma Taoism became a sophisticated
system of ethics in which the rewards of an ethical life are
Taoism (Daoism)
health and well-being.

- Magical Taoism, the Way of Power, is the oldest form of
Taoism practiced today. In Magical Taoism, power from
the natural elements and from the spirits, immortals, and
04 Magical Religion
deities is invoked and channeled by the practitioner.
Talismans are an important part of Magical Taoism: power
can be channeled into objects for protection and healing.
- Divinational Taoism, the Way of Seeing, is based on
understanding the workings of the universe and seeing the
patterns of change. Celestial divination is based on skylore
and the observation of the sun, moon, and stars; terrestrial
divination is based on earth science and the observation of
05 Divinational Religion
the features of landforms. Divinational Taoism believes
that seeing and understanding the patterns of the universe
will help us live in harmony with change, and to live in
harmony with change is to live according to the principles
of the Tao.
- Ceremonial Taoism, the Way of Devotion, believes that

the destiny of humanity is governed by sacred powers. By
performing the correct ceremonies, humanity enters into a
bond with the sacred powers and receives blessings and
protection from them. Liturgies and rituals are integral to
06 Ceremonial Religion
this form of Taoism. There is a clear distinction between
practitioner and believer. In Ceremonial Taoism, the
practitioner is a person trained to perform the ceremonies;
the believer is the individual who trusts the leader of the
ceremony to represent him or her before the sacred powers.
- Internal-Alchemical Taoism, the Way of Transformation,
advocates changing mind and body to attain health,
longevity, and immortality. Central to its beliefs is the idea
Internal-Alchemical
07 that internal energy, or ch‘i, in the body is the foundation of
Religion
health. Thus, Internal-Alchemical Taoism advocates
cultivating, gathering, and circulating energy. Of all the
paths of Taoism, this one is the most dangerous.
- If the periods known as Spring and Autumn and the
Warring States were the golden age of Taoist philosophy,
then the era between the beginning of the Eastern Han
dynasty (25–219 CE) and the end of the Southern and
08 An Organized Religion Northern dynasties (304–589 CE) was the golden age of
Taoist religion. During this era, Taoism became an
organized religion, instituted a priest-hood, developed a set
of sacred ceremonies and scriptures, and acquired a large
number of followers.
- Taoist (Daoist) Symbols and Their Meaning: Taoism or Daoism is one of the oldest and
most significant religions, as well as spiritual and philosophical traditions in Chinese culture.
Originating from a rich tradition that‘s been developed by multiple different schools, Taoism
is also full of various symbols, many of which have been preserved to this day. As is the case
with other religions and philosophical traditions from the Far East, most Taoist symbols are
clean-cut and simple in their meanings. They say what they represent, and they represent
what they say without too many convoluted and hidden meanings.
- Taoist symbols are unlike most symbols in other religions. While this teaching has a couple
of ―standard‖ symbols similar to what most of us understand as symbols, most other symbols
in Taoism are charts and diagrams that represent the teachings of Taoism. Taoists would fly
triangular and rectangular flags with these diagrams over their temples and houses.
- Instead of each Taoist school coming up with a different symbol for its denomination (like
the different Christian crosses, for example) each school just flew a flag with the key diagram
that the school followed. That way, whenever a traveler approached a particular Taoist
temple, they always knew exactly what the people in it believed.
Picture 9: Yin-Yang Symbol
- The Yin Yang symbol is probably the most popular Taoist symbol and
Chinese symbol in general. It is also often used in Confucianism which also
focuses on achieving balance and harmony. The Yin Yang symbolizes the
harmony between opposite forces and the duality of all things. The symbol‘s
white and black shapes are often interpreted as ―good‖ and ―bad‖ as well as
with a range of other dual concepts, such as femininity and masculinity, light and dark, night
and day, dry and moist and so on. Although painted as a stationary object, the Yin Yang
symbol is believed to be in constant motion, an ever-shifting fluid dance between the two
opposites.
Picture 10: Taijitu Shuo
- Taijito Shuo is the name of a complex diagram that represents the
Supreme Polarity in Taoism. Simply put, this diagram shows the
entire Taoist Cosmology as it was understood back then. The symbol
comprises of five main components:
 An empty circle at the top that stands for Wuji or the
undifferentiated timelessness of the Cosmos
 Below is an early version of the Yin yang or Taijito symbol –
the balance and harmony all Taoists strive for
 In the middle is a simpler version of the Five Element Chart,
representing the building blocks of the Universe
 Below the Five Element Chart are two other empty circles –
these represent the ―myriad things‖ of the world
Picture 11: Five Element Chart

- ―The Five Element Chart‖ is a complex teaching tool that
showcases Taoist Cycles of Generation and Control as
well as the Five Elements of Nature, according to Taoism.
These included:
 Wood (green)
 Fire (red)
 Earth (yellow)
 Metal (white)
 Water (blue)
- ―The Five Element Chart‖ also expressed the complex
relationships between the five elements – the Sheng
Creation Cycle, the Cheng Overacting Cycle, the Cycles of
Imbalance, and much more.
Picture 12: Ba Gua

- The Ba-Gua, or the Eight Triagrams, symbol is a
complex diagram that directly showcases a large
part of the Taoist teachings. In this respect, the Ba-
Gua is different to most other religious or spiritual
symbols, which tend to be simpler in design. The
Ba-Gua consists of the symbols for the Supreme
Yang, the Lesser Yang, the Supreme Yin, and the
Lesser Yin. Around the Yin Yang system, there are
eight circles and corresponding complex triagrams,
each representing a different virtue:
1. Family/Past, represented by wood, foot,
east, and the color green
2. Knowledge/Spirituality, represented by a
hand or the colors black, blue, and green
3. Career, represented by water, ear, north,
and the color black
4. Helpful People/Traveler/Father,
represented by a head or the colors gray, white, and black

5. Children/Creativity/Future, represented by metal, mouth, west, and the color white
6. Relationships/Marriage/Mother, represented by organs, and the colors red, pink,
and white
7. Fame, represented by fire, eye, south, and the color red
8. Wealth, represented by hip, and the colors green, purple, and red
- Each of these eight circles and values is accompanied by three lines (which is why it is
called the Eight Triagrams), some of which are broken (the Yin lines), while the rest are solid
(the Yang lines). This complex symbol is one of the core components of the Taoist teachings
and what this religion represents.
Picture 13: Luo Pan Compass
- The Luo Pan Compass is a complex device that helps Taoists to
evaluate the spiritual energies of a particular place and figure out how to
arrange or rearrange their homes according to it. There are several
different variants of the Luo Pan Compass, but each is shaped like a
circular disk with a magnetic center with multiple numbered rings
around it, each containing a complex symbol or a Taoist orientation
system.
Picture 14: He Tu & Luo Shu Diagrams
- The above 2 diagrams, maps, or patterns show the Luo Shu and He Tu. The Hetu ―Yellow
River Chart‖ and the Luo Shu ―Inscription of the River Luo‖ were two cosmological
diagrams used in ancient China. They were employed by both Daoists and Confucians and
served to explain the correlation of the hexagrams of the Yijing ―Book of Changes‖ with the
universe and human life. They are also used in geomancy (fengshui). It looks like random
dots with connecting lines, but the relationship between the black and white dots is very
important. First, each group of dots shows a specific number. Number 5 is in the center, 1 is
at the bottom of the map, and 9 is at the top. Each number has a related direction. In the
ancient Chinese map, the North is at the bottom and the South is on the top, the east is on the
left, and the west is on the right side of the map. All the odd numbers or Yang numbers (the
empty circles) are in the middle cross (North, South, East, West, and Center), while all the
even numbers or Yin numbers (the solid circles from the Luo Shu) are at the 4 corners.
- The white circles in the Hetu chart sum up to an odd number (25), the black circles to an
even number (20), with a total sum of 45. The white circles in the Luoshu chart are 25, black
circles 30, with a total sum of 55. While the Hetu symbolized the theory and substance
behind all things, the congenital and innate (pre-natal) nature of things, the Luoshu
symbolized that practical aspect and the state of things how they were and live (post-natal).
- The highest number of the Hetu is 10 (note that the ―ten‖ is distributed over two lined on
top and below the central ―five‖); 1 and 6 express the ancestral (Celestial) nature, 2 and 7 the
Way (dao), 3 and 8 friendship, 4 and 9 mutual support, and 5 and 10 protection and safety.
- The highest number of the Luoshu in 9; head is 9, feet is 1, left is 3, right is 7, 2 and 4 are
the shoulders, 6 and 8 the legs, and 5 is the number of the physical centre.
- The Hetu also expressed geographical directions, each of the nine regions of the empire
represented by one symbol of the chart. The cipher 9 also stands for the Nine Palaces of the
earth, while the cipher 5 represented in the centre of the Luoshu symbolized the Five Agents.
The elements in the chart might also have symbolized the elements of which the cosm, or the
human body were believed to consist.
Picture 15: Nei Jing Tu
- The Nei Jing Tu represents the transformations that
happen within the bodies of inner alchemy
practitioners. It is a Daoist ―inner landscape‖ diagram
of the human body illustrating Neidan ―Internal
alchemy,‖ Wu Xing, Yin and Yang, and Chinese
mythology. Like other Neidan pictures of the body, the
Chart of the Inner Warp should be ―read‖ from the
bottom upwards. The three main parts of picture, which
shows a side view of the body, focus on the lower,
central, and upper Cinnabar Fields, following the
course of the Neidan practice.
- In the lower part, a boy and a girl who represent Yin
and Yang are working on a treadmill placed in the
Caudal Funnel, at the bottom of the spine. Inverting the
stream of energy (actually the jing or Essence, depicted
by the water course along the spine), they avoid that it
flows downwards and is wasted. (With the Spinal
Handle and the Jade Pillow mentioned below, the
Caudal Funnel is one of the Three Barriers.) Water thus
turns into a fiery furnace, which heats the lower
Cinnabar Field placed near the four Yin-Yang symbols;
these stand for the four external agents (Wood, Fire,
Metal, Water), with the fifth one (the central Soil)
represented by their conjunction. On the left of the
Cinnabar Field is the ―iron buffalo ploughing the earth
and planting the golden coin,‖ an image of the first seed of the Golden Elixir.
- At the center is the middle Cinnabar Field, shaped as a spiral and located in the region of the
heart. Just above it is the Herd Boy, who holds the constellation of the Northern Dipper, a
symbol of the center of the cosmos. According to a famous Chinese story, the Herd Boy
(corresponding to the constellation Altair) only once a year can meet and conjoin with the
Weaving Girl (corresponding to Vega), who is pictured below him. At the level of the
Weaving Girl, along the spine, is the Spinal Handle.
- The upper part of the picture represents the upper Cinnabar Field. Above and behind the
Twelve-storied Pavilion (the trachea), is the Jade Pillow. Behind the mountains, on the left,
the Control vessel (which runs on the back of the body) emerges; the old man sitting next to it
is Laozi. Below the Control vessel, the Function vessel (which runs on the front of the body)
begins; the monk standing with raised arms next to it is Bodhidharma (who, according to
tradition, brought Chan Buddhism to China). The two dots stand for the eyes, and represent
the Sun and Moon.
Picture 16: Guodian Bamboo Strips

- One of the most exciting events for Taoist
scholars and practitioners alike, has been the
discovery of the Guodian Bamboo Strips. The
number of Guodian bamboo strips is about 800,
together bearing approximately 10,000 Chinese
characters. Some of the strips comprise the
oldest existing version of Laozi‘s Daode Jing.
The remaining strips contain the writings of
Confucian disciples.
- There are in total about 804 bamboo slips in
this cache, including 702 strips and 27 broken
strips. The bamboo slip texts consist of three
major categories, which include the earliest
manuscripts of the received text of the Tao Te Ching, one chapter from the Classic of Rites,
content from the Classic of History and other writings. After restoration, these texts were
divided into eighteen sections, and have been transcribed into standard Chinese and published
under the title Chu Bamboo Slips from Guodian in May 1998. The slip-texts include both
Taoist and Confucian works, many previously unknown, and the discovery of these texts in
the same tomb has contributed fresh information for scholars studying the history of
philosophical thought in ancient China.
2.2 History of Taoism (Daoism)

Picture 17: A Statue of Lao Tzu (Laozi)
- Founder of Taoism (Daoism) (6th Century -
Late 4th Century BCE = Unknown): Lao Tzu
or Laozi (commonly translated as ―Old
Master‖), proper name Li Er, courtesy name
Boyang, was an ancient Chinese philosopher
and writer, believed to have lived in the 6th
century BC and died in late 4th century BC. He
is the reputed author of the Tao Te Ching
(translated as ―The Way of Virtue‖ or ―The
Classic of the Way and Virtue‖ which offers an
iconoclastic spiritual philosophy, based on an
underlying unity of the universe), the founder of
philosophical Taoism, and a deity in religious
Taoism and traditional Chinese religions. He is
venerated as a philosopher by Confucians and
as a saint or god in popular religion and was worshipped as an imperial ancestor during the
Tang dynasty (618–907). He was viewed as a perfect personification of the Tao and
throughout history; he has appeared to lead humanity towards its goal.
- According to ―records of the Historians,‖ Laozi was a native of Chu, a southern state in the
Zhou dynasty. His surname was Li; his given name was Er, and he was also called Dan. He
was one of the curators at the Royal Library in the state of Chu and was known as a
philosopher. He advocated a deep, connective empathy between people as the means to
peace and harmony and claimed that such empathy was possible through recognition of the
cosmic force of the Tao which had created all things, bound all things, moved all things, and
finally loosed all things back into their original state. Aligning one‘s self with the Tao,
according to Lao-Tzu, brought one into harmony with the universe and enriched one‘s life;
opposition to the Tao only brought frustration, unhappiness, and anger which resulted in bad
behavior.
- In one version of Lao Tzu‘s life, he married and had a son called Zong who became
separated from him and went on to be a celebrated soldier. At a later time, Lao Tzu comes
across a great military figure who is celebrating a military victory. It is at this point that Zong
recognizes his long-lost father. Lao Tzu then gives advice to his son - in particular, the value
of respecting the defeated army and giving his foes a proper burial. Through listening to his
father and avoiding a sense of triumphalism, Zong was able to broker a peace between the
warring parties which lasted for many years.
- In another version of Lao Tzu‘s life, based on the writings of Sima Qian (a Chinese
Historian of the early Han dynasty 206 BBC) Lao Tzu lived in Changzhou. However, he
became discouraged by the moral decay and worldliness of the city. Seeking peace to
meditate, he resolved to leave the city and live as a hermit in the mountains. However, at the
western gate of the city, he was stopped by a guard Yinxi, who asked Lao Tzu to write his
knowledge down for the benefit of citizens before he was given a pass to leave. It was at this
juncture that Lao Tzu wrote the Tao Te Ching. In some versions of the story, Yinxi was so
impressed with Lao Tzu that he became his disciple and followed Lao Tzu into exile. Yinxi
then followed the different Taoist disciples of preparation and obedience to his Master - after
completing a long period of preparation and training. He became the model Taoist student.
- According to legend, Lao-Tzu tried his best to instruct people in the way of the Tao, the
creative and binding force which runs through the universe, but no one would listen. His
explanation that people could live happier, more fulfilling, lives by aligning themselves with
the natural flow of the Tao, instead of placing themselves in opposition to it, went unheeded
and, finally, he decided to leave humanity behind and retire into seclusion after writing the
Tao-Te-Ching.
- Tao-te ching is the most famous and translated work from the Taoist inheritance. Its
traditional author, Lao-tzu, is considered to be the father of Taoism. Even in ancient China
his work enjoyed a great popularity and was one of the three ―scriptures‖ that made the
official canon. According to tradition, the work originates in the 4th century BC, but recent
discoveries showed that it is no early than the 4th or 3rd century. The oldest existing copy is
from 206 or 195 BC. The book consists of 81 short chapters among which 37 form the first
part - the Classic of the Way (Tao) -, and the next 44 form the Classic of Te (―te‖ means
―characteristics‖ in the translation of James Legge so the entire title of the book would be
Classic about Tao and its Characteristics). This division in chapters is considered to be the
result of the remarks of mysterious Ho-shang kung (Han dynasty). The philosophy of the
book focuses on concepts like Tao, Te , wu (emptiness), wu-wei (non-doing) and fu (return).
- In short, concerning the Taoist sage, he should follow the Tao (or unite with it) by
emulating its conduct. In this respect, he must achieve wu and practice non-doing. The
second part of the book, which insists on the method of governing the country, seems to be
compiled by the Confucians since Taoists didn‘t bother too much with this topic. Still
Taoism is not outdated. One can follow this path today to find the cure for the
insurmountable problems of the modern world. There‘s no need of retreat, seclusion,
worship and special diet receipts. One starts simply from here and now and acquires a new
understanding of the world as it is, and the remedy for its pitfalls. The best practice of
Taoism, for most people, is to be a good person and to do a good job in the secular world.
2.3 Beliefs, Principles and Practices of Taoism (Daoism)

* Taoists’ (Daoists’) Beliefs: Dao (the way), the Value of Life, Ying and Yang
- Dao (the way): The heart of the very earliest Chinese vision of the cosmos is the Dao, the
origin of all. Dao means ‗the way.‘ The Dao is the origin of everything and the ultimate aim
of all Daoists. The Dao is Heaven, Earth and Humanity. The Dao cannot be defined because
it exists beyond all forms. In the words of the great Daoist sage, Lao Zi: ‗That which can be
named is not the true Dao‘. The Dao teaches wu-wei, the way of no-action and no-
selfishness. This means to live in a plain and modest way and not to struggle for material
gain.
- The value of life: Daoism regards life as the most valuable thing and pursues immortality.
Life can be prolonged through meditation and exercise. People should train their will,
discard selfishness, and seek to be a model of virtue. With high moral sense and good
exercise, one can maintain energy throughout one‘s life. To achieve this, Daoism stresses the
need for a peaceful and harmonious environment as a very important external condition.
- Yin and Yang: The process by which the Dao gave rise to reality is defined in the classic
text, Dao-De Jing: ‗The Tao gives birth to the One. The One gives birth to the Two. The
Two gives birth to the Three. The Three give birth to the Ten Thousand.‘ These words
describe how the Tao, the essence of all, gives birth to Nature—the One—which in turn gives
birth to Yin and Yang—the Two. Yin is female, moist, cold, the moon, autumn and winter,
shadows and waters. Yang is male, dry, hot, the sun, spring and summer, brightness and
earth. From the perpetual striving of Yin and Yang arises the Three—Heaven, Earth and
Humanity. Humanity must try to balance the opposites of Heaven and Earth.
* Four Main Principles between Humanity and Nature
1. Follow the Earth: The Dao De Jing says: ‗Humanity follows the Earth, the Earth follows
Heaven, Heaven follows the Dao, and the Dao follows what is natural.‘ Daoists therefore
obey the Earth. The Earth respects Heaven, Heaven abides by the Dao, and the Dao follows
the natural course of everything. Humans should help everything grow according to its own
way. We should cultivate the way of no-action and let nature be itself.
2. Harmony with nature: In Daoism, everything is composed of two opposite forces known
as Yin and Yang. The two forces are in constant struggle within everything. When they reach
harmony, the energy of life is created. Someone who understands this point will not exploit
nature, but will treat it well and learn from it. It is obvious that in the long run, the excessive
use of nature will bring about disaster, even the extinction of humanity.
3. Too much success: If the pursuit of development runs counter to the harmony and balance
of nature, even if it is of great immediate interest and profit, people should restrain
themselves from it. Insatiable human desire will lead to the over-exploitation of natural
resources. To be too successful is to be on the path to defeat.
4. Affluence in bio-diversity: Daoism has a unique sense of value in that it judges affluence
by the number of different species. If all things in the universe grow well, then a society is a
community of affluence. If not, this kingdom is on the decline. This view encourages both
government and people to take good care of nature. This thought is a special contribution by
Daoism to the conservation of nature.
- Taoist Practices: Taoists use meditation to cultivate health and longevity and to attain the
highest level of spiritual development, the union with the Tao. In the early stages of spiritual
development, meditation is used to clear the mind, minimize desire, balance the emotions,
and circulate internal energy. In the later stages, it is used to help the practitioner to be united
with the Tao, the undifferentiated origin of all things.
- Many people practice meditation for mental relaxation and the reduction of stress. Some
practice it to cultivate spiritual sensitivity, enhance physical health, and prolong life.
However, Taoist meditation is not only a technique of health and longevity; it is a tool for
attaining a union with the Tao, of which health and longevity are the by-products.
- Today, one can learn Taoist meditation for health and relaxation without being initiated into
a Taoist sect or having to commit to a lifetime of training in internal alchemy. Notably,
different spiritual traditions have different approaches to meditation, and not only are
Buddhist and Hindu forms of meditation different from the Taoist, but even within Taoism
there are different kinds of meditation. Different sects practice different styles of meditation,
and within the same sect the form of meditation changes as one progresses in practice. There
are twelve kinds of Taoist meditation practiced today:
(1) The method of internal observation: It is very similar to Vipassanā meditation. There are
no specific physical postures associated with this style of meditation. The practitioner
initially watches and attends to the rise and fall of thoughts, emotions, and sensations. Once
he becomes adept at watching the rise and fall of mental activities, he becomes familiar with
their patterns of occurrence and can anticipate and stop them before they arise. When
thoughts, emotions, and sensations are stopped, the mind becomes still. In stillness, it
becomes clear. In clarity, it becomes bright—and this brightness is the radiance of the Tao
within.
(2) The method of focusing on the center: In this form of meditation, attention to the outside
world is gradually withdrawn until the practitioner no longer has attachment to the sights,
sounds, and events of the outside world. When the causes of thoughts, emotions, and
sensations cease to stir the mind, the mind becomes still, and centering can begin. This style
of Taoist meditation requires the practitioner to focus on something, although practitioners
disagree on what is the focus. It does not require the practitioner to adopt specific physical
postures during meditation.
(3) The method of holding/guarding the one: Holding the One refers to keeping the Oneness
of the Tao within. Holding the One involved visualizing the various manifestations of Lao-
tzu or other deities, which are images of the Tao. These visualizations serve to keep the
deities or the guardian spirits within. In modern practice, however, the method of Holding the
One no longer requires visualization. The key to this meditation lies in dissolving the duality
between the self and the world so that oneness can be attained. In the early stages, the
practitioner first stills the mind and body so that no thoughts, emotions, or sensations arise.
Once the stillness is attained, the ―mind of the Tao‖ will emerge. The mind of the Tao is
consciousness that is rooted in the Tao and sees all things as one. With continued practice, the
experience of oneness will take hold, and the union with the Tao is achieved.
(4) The method of stopping thoughts and emptying the mind: It is similar to Zen meditation.
To attain complete emptiness of the mind, the practitioner must cut off all attachments
cleanly and abruptly.
(5) The method of recovering the real mind: The real or original mind is the Tao mind, the
consciousness capable of directly intuiting the nature of the Tao. The practitioner enters this
stage of training after the mind is emptied of thoughts. Freed from the domination of analytic
thinking and idle internal chatter, the practitioner can now develop another kind of stillness.
In this stillness, not only are thoughts extinguished, but the mind and body begin to develop a
natural tendency toward stillness.
(6) The method of focusing on the cavities: The practitioner to draw attention away from
things external and focus on a certain cavity in the body. There are two kinds of focusing.
The first involves awareness and directing attention to a particular cavity in the body. This
kind of focusing is used to calm the emotions, stop stray thoughts, and minimize sensations.
In the advanced stages, another kind of focusing, which involves directing internal energy to
an area, is practiced.
(7) The method of visualizing the valley spirit: In this form of meditation, the visualized
images include the Kun-lun Mountains (used to channel energy through the spinal column);
the Yellow Palace (to gather and transform vital energy in the middle tan-t‘ien); the Sea of
Energy, or ch’i-hai (to light the fires of the internal stove and gather and transform generative
energy in the lower tan-t‘ien); and, ultimately, the Valley Spirit (to gather and transform spirit
energy in the upper tan-t‘ien). Visualizing the Valley Spirit is the highest stage in this type of
meditation. This style of meditation is rarely practiced.
(8) The method of emptying the mind and filling the belly: Emptying the mind is letting the
fires of desire sink, and filling the belly is letting the abdomen be filled with energy. Taken
together, the dual process is called immersion of fire in water. Sinking the fires of desire is
minimizing attachment to objects, be they material things, thoughts, or emotions. Filling the
belly is cultivating and storing energy in the lower tan-t‘ien.
(9) The method of uniting intention with breath: In the early stages, the practitioner focuses
on the movement of the breath, sometimes counting breaths and sometimes just paying
attention to inhalation and exhalation. Initially, the breathing follows a normal pattern, and
the practitioner simply uses it to focus the mind. Once the mind is focused and detached
from the outside world, the pattern of breathing will begin to change. This change is not
under the conscious control of the practitioner; rather, it is a function of the state of mind.
When the mind is still, breathing will slow down and become soft and deep. This is called
fetal breathing because it resembles the breath of the fetus inside the womb. When yin
reaches the height of its development, yang emerges. Thus, when the mind has attained
complete stillness, it will be set in motion.
(10) The method of gathering and circulating the light of the spirit: It is divided into two
stages: gathering the light of the spirit and circulating the light. To cultivate the original
spirit, one must first overcome the knowledge spirit and then use it to help the original spirit
to develop. Simultaneously the practitioner must prepare her body for conception of the
immortal fetus. When the immortal fetus is conceived, original spirit is born. Initially, the
light of the original spirit is dim, and the practitioner has only a vague experience of its
presence. As the original spirit is nurtured by internal energy, it becomes strong and its light
brightens. When the original spirit is fully developed, the practitioner is bathed in a golden
light. Light emanating from the body is then gathered and drawn within. With time, the light
becomes less dazzling and takes on a soft but radiant glow. This is the time for circulating the
light. At first, the circulation follows set pathways: inside, it follows the meridians; outside, it
hovers around the practitioner. In the advanced state, the circulation does not follow any
pathway but is diffused throughout the body, spreading like smoke. This also happens outside
the body, as the practitioner feels that he or she is enveloped by a diffused golden light.
(11) The method of drawing the light inward: After the foundations of internal alchemy are
complete and the original spirit is developed, the practitioner uses this method to nurture it.
During meditation, the practitioner gathers the light into three spots when he or she
experiences a light hovering around. The spot on the top is drawn into the area between the
eyes. This region is also known as the third eye, the upper tan-t‘ien, or the Mysterious Cavity.
The spot in the lower left is drawn into the left eye, and the spot in the lower right is drawn
into the right eye. In this way, the lights of the sun, moon, and stars are united with the light
inside, and the barrier between the internal universe of the practitioner and the external
universe of the cosmos is dissolved. As the light enters the practitioner, the body becomes
weightless and the mind becomes clear and empty. When filled with the light, the bones,
muscles, tendons, and internal organs are nourished by the primordial energy of the Tao.
Body and mind are renewed, and in a state of bliss and ecstasy, the practitioner is merged
with the timeless and undifferentiated state of the Tao.
(12) The method of returning to earlier heaven: It consists of seven stages: the lower cavity,
the front cavity, the back cavity, the middle cavity, the upper cavity, the lowest cavity, and
the mysterious gate. In each stage, a specific area of the body is focused on and transformed.
- Among twelve methods, instruction in the first five is often given in weekend courses or at
seven-day retreats. These methods are relatively safe to practice on one‘s own, once one has
been given formal instructions. However, it is advisable to attend follow-up courses, to

receive feedback.
- The final seven methods described are used to take the practitioner to the highest levels of
development in Taoist spirituality. These forms of meditation are usually practiced together
with techniques that strengthen the skeletal system and regulate the internal physiology. Only
those who are ready to commit to a rigorous and disciplined program of training should
consider learning these forms of meditation. Initiation into a sect is usually required, and
constant supervision from a teacher is necessary.
- The practice of Taoist meditation requires commitment, patience, and discipline. The
physical, mental, and spiritual benefits of meditation can occur only when the practitioner
accompanies practice with the appropriate lifestyle and attitude.
*****************************************
Chapter 3
A Comparative Study of Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism)
The two great indigenous philosophical and religious traditions of China, Daoism and
Confucianism, originated about the same time (6th–5th century BCE) in what are now the
neighboring eastern Chinese provinces of Henan and Shandong, respectively. Both traditions
have permeated Chinese culture for some 2,500 years. Both are associated with an individual
founder, though in the case of Daoism the figure, Laozi (flourished 6th century BCE), is
extremely obscure, and some aspects of his traditional biography are almost certainly
legendary. A conventional but unlikely story has it that Laozi and Confucius (551–479 BCE),
the founder of Confucianism, once met and that the former (older) philosopher was not
impressed. Be that as it may, their respective traditions share many of the same ideas (about
humanity, society, the ruler, heaven, and the universe), and, over the course of millennia, they
have influenced and borrowed from each other. Even since the end of the dynastic period
(1911) and the establishment of the communist People‘s Republic (1949), which was often
violently hostile to religion, the influence of both Daoism and Confucianism in Chinese
culture remains strong.
3.1 Characteristics of Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism)

- Characteristics of Confucianism: Confucianism emphasizes on ethics, morality and
activism i.e. it encourages social harmony and mutual respect. They valued ethics and respect
for elders and propriety.
 It focuses on social teachings, which deal with the behavior of an individual in society
and to his fellow men.
 It is characterized by focusing on political teachings whereby it emphasized on the
mode of governance and the existence of good relationship between the ruler and the
ruled.
 It heavily emphasized on education as the main tool for achieving greater conduct
between and within the society and in government.
 It heavily emphasized that the key to achieving proper self-mastery was adherence to
correct ritual in which ritual composed both quasi-religious practices as veneration of
dead ancestors, as well as the broader concept of etiquette and correct social
interaction.
- Characteristics of Taoism (Daoism): Taoism teaches its followers on how to progress in

life, and evolve as immortal aspects of the divine. It teaches that Tao is the first cause of the
universe hence the term Tao can be translated as meaning ‗the path‘ or the way of nature. By
upholding the teachings of the ancient knowledge of both the east and west is regarded as the
ultimate goal and the most sacred objective of the followers is to become one with Tao. Their
symbol is referred as Yin-Yang which is regarded to represent the balance of the opposites in
the universe. They perceive that calmness and harmony is achieved when yin and yang are
equal and balanced. When one of them becomes dominant over the other then confusion and
disarray becomes inevitable. Yin and yang are considered as the opposing forces in nature in
which humans can involve themselves hence by doing so they can upset the balance of
nature.
 It emphasizes on positive and active attitude towards the nature of reality
 The most essential concept in Taoism is that of Tao in which it‘s teaching is relied
upon.
 It disapproves of killing, stealing, lying and promiscuity, while promoting altruistic,
helpful and more kindly behavior.
 Taoism tend not to acknowledge initiation of action but it teaches to wait for events to
make certain actions necessary and to avoid being controlled by their own desires and
compulsions which may push them to do certain things.
**********
3.2 Similarities between Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism)
1. Both Confucianism and Taoism have a one goal and focuses on self-improvement
from being individuals by welcoming greater whole to contribute to society.
2. They were both invented so as to offer solutions to the chaos that erupted as a result
of the fall of Zhou Dynasty.
3. Both Confucianism and Taoism teach about family and one‘s rightful place in society.
Confucius stressed that elders were superior to you whereas Lao suggested that men
were superior to women hence both of this had a sort of social hierarchy.
4. Both of these two religions exhibited respect for what they taught.
5. Both share common beliefs about man, society and the universe.
Confucius taught that there are mutual relationships and obligations that exist between
member of society hence there is need to adhere to the proper conduct between members of
these groupings so as to guarantee a proper and harmonious relationship between them and to
serve as the foundation of a just stable society. Confucius emphasized on importance of the
following rituals i.e. he said that look at nothing in defiance, speak of nothing in defiance,
and listen to nothing in defiance of ritual. Taoism has a core of self-reflection and oneness
with cosmos and refused to look into matters that they thought defied solutions.
Both Confucianism and Daoism disfavored harsh government. Both also accepted the
presence of a supernatural entity without providing a clear explanation on it. Confucianism
and Daoism (Taoism) both focus on the goal of self-improvement. Taoism was more focused
on improving the individual‘s relationship with himself, creating an inner harmony. On the
other hand, Confucianism focused on the ―social, earthly orientation‖ of everyday life. In the
East, many people unite elements of each of these philosophies in their daily lives. They have
a strong belief that together, the two philosophies can work together in harmony.
**********
3.3 Differences between Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism)

Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism) are both ancient Chinese styles of living.
Confucianism believes in setting good examples for others to follow, primarily in 5 key
relationships: ruler and subject, wife and husband, older and younger sibling, friend and
friend, and father and son. Taoism (Daoism) focuses on living harmoniously; this is where
the concept of yin and yang originates.
Table 3: Differences between Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism)

No. Description Confucianism Taoism (Daoism)
Use of statues and They can be used as meditation
01 Permitted.
pictures objects, but they are not that common.
If immortality isn‘t attained during
life, the Tao will continue to evolve
Ancestors and heritage is and manifest in different forms, in
02 Life after death important, but not accordance with the entity‘s general
worshiped. conduct during a state of existence.
This applies to all sentient and
insentient beings.
Daozang, a collection of 1400 texts
Analects of Confucius
organized in 3 sections which include
03 Scriptures and Mencius; I Ching;
the Tao Te Ching, Zhuang Zi, I
Doctrine of Mean, etc.
Ching, and some others.
Visit to temples to pay
homage to Ti‘en (while it
can refer to God or
Heaven, it traditionally
Philosophical maturity, virtuous
refers to social power),
04 Practices conduct, internal alchemy, and some
Confucius, and ancestors;
sexual practices.
To practice (‗Jing zuo,‘)
or ‗Quiet Sitting‘, a neo-
Confucian seeking of
self-cultivation.
Chinese New Year,
Holy days/Official Chinese New Year, 3 Day Festival of
05 Teacher Day, Ancestor
Holidays the Dead, Ancestor Day.
Day.
If humans are in tune with the Tao,
Humans should respect
their sufferings will cease. Taoism
06 Human Nature those who are superior to
teaches that humans are capable of
them.
experiencing immortality.
Tao literally means the Way, which
Confucianism is not
indicates the movement of a dynamic
strictly a religion but
07 Belief in God existence that is composed of
rather advises a schema
opposing forces. Taoists do not
of social order.
believe in a personal God.
08 Concept of God One God. Numerous deities.
Taoist clergies are led by the daoshis,
masters of the Tao, and followed by
09 Clergy Bureaucrats. daojiaotus, followers of Taoism who
also support the clergy, although it is
not common.
Original
10 Mandarin or Cantonese Old Chinese
Language(s)
11 Goal of Philosophy Social Harmony. To gain balance in life.
Geographical
China, Korea, to lesser extent
12 distribution and Asia.
Vietnam and Japan.
predominance
Confucianists usually Taoism has many similarities with

View of other
13 follow Buddhism, which Buddhism. Taoists are neutral against
Dharmic religions
is a Dharmic religion. other Dharmic religions.
Socially inferior to men. No distinctions between men and
14 Status of women women, as both are seen as
manifestations of the Tao.
Most believe in One Being manifestations of the Tao,
God, but this is not Gods are seen as higher life forms.
necessary since
15 Concept of Deity Confucianism is not a
religion but a belief
system about social
ordering.
Confucianism is all about
The Tao is the only principle. The rest
16 Principle the brotherhood of
are its manifestations.
humanity.
Confucianists see no
Taoism teaches that all religions are
Views on Other contradiction in
17 as anything else; manifestations of the
Religions following more than one
impersonal Tao.
religion.
Some Taoists argue that the Buddha
was a student of Lao Tzu, although
View of the Buddha is followed by
18 there is no concrete evidence for it.
Buddha many Confucians.
Most Taoists respect and follow the
Buddha‘s teachings.
Usually follows other
View of other Usually follows other Oriental
19 Oriental religions,
Oriental religions religions.
especially Taoism.
Originally sites of the
administration of
imperial examination, not
religious places of
worship. Confucian
Place of worship/
20 temples today are for the Shrines.
veneration
veneration of Confucius.
Confucian temples are
not really religious sites
and have no priests and
spiritual beings.
21 Place of worship Temples. Taoist monasteries, temples, shrines.
To have a structured
22 Goal of religion To be one with the Tao.
society.
*****************************************

3. (1-21) Chapter 1, 2 and 3 (Confucianism & Taoism or Daoism)

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Paper VIII - Study of Religions B.A.

(A) (2nd Semester)

1.1 The Origin, Definition and Symbols of Confucianism

Table 1: What is Confucianism?

05 Sociopolitical Religion ―ethical-sociopolitical teaching.‖

Picture 7: A Statue of Confucius

2.1 The Origin, Definition and Symbols of Taoism (Daoism)

Table 2: What is Taoism (Daoism)?

health and well-being.

- Ceremonial Taoism, the Way of Devotion, believes that

Picture 11: Five Element Chart

Picture 12: Ba Gua

represented by a head or the colors gray, white, and black

Picture 16: Guodian Bamboo Strips

2.2 History of Taoism (Daoism)

2.3 Beliefs, Principles and Practices of Taoism (Daoism)

been given formal instructions. However, it is advisable to attend follow-up courses, to

3.1 Characteristics of Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism)

- Characteristics of Taoism (Daoism): Taoism teaches its followers on how to progress in

3.3 Differences between Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism)

Table 3: Differences between Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism)

Confucianists usually Taoism has many similarities with

You might also like

3. (1-21) Chapter 1, 2 and 3 (Confucianism &amp; Taoism or Daoism)

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3. (1-21) Chapter 1, 2 and 3 (Confucianism &amp; Taoism or Daoism)

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Paper VIII - Study of Religions B.A.

(A) (2nd Semester)

1.1 The Origin, Definition and Symbols of Confucianism

Table 1: What is Confucianism?

05 Sociopolitical Religion ―ethical-sociopolitical teaching.‖

Picture 7: A Statue of Confucius

2.1 The Origin, Definition and Symbols of Taoism (Daoism)

Table 2: What is Taoism (Daoism)?

health and well-being.

- Ceremonial Taoism, the Way of Devotion, believes that

Picture 11: Five Element Chart

Picture 12: Ba Gua

represented by a head or the colors gray, white, and black

Picture 16: Guodian Bamboo Strips

2.2 History of Taoism (Daoism)

2.3 Beliefs, Principles and Practices of Taoism (Daoism)

been given formal instructions. However, it is advisable to attend follow-up courses, to

3.1 Characteristics of Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism)

- Characteristics of Taoism (Daoism): Taoism teaches its followers on how to progress in

3.3 Differences between Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism)

Table 3: Differences between Confucianism and Taoism (Daoism)

Confucianists usually Taoism has many similarities with

You might also like

3. (1-21) Chapter 1, 2 and 3 (Confucianism & Taoism or Daoism)

3. (1-21) Chapter 1, 2 and 3 (Confucianism & Taoism or Daoism)