PHYSICS

NOTES
CH-1 Force
(A) MOMENT OF A FORCE AND
EQUILIBRIUM

1. TRANSLATION AND ROTATIONAL

MOTIONS
A rigid body when acted upon by a force, can have
two kinds of motion:
-linear or translation motion
-rotational motion

Linear or translation motion

When a force acts on a stationary rigid body which is
free to move, the body starts moving in a straight path
in the direction of the applied force. This is called
linear or translation motion.

ROTATIONAL MOTION
If a body is pivoted at a point and a force is applied on
the body at a suitable point, it rotates the body about
the axis passing through the pivoted point. This is the
turning effect of the force and the motion of the body
is called rotational motion.
2. MOMENT (TURNING EFFECT) OF A FORCE
OR TORQUE
 Factors affecting the turning of a body:
- The magnitude of the force applied
- The perpendicular distance of the line of action of
the force from the axis of rotation (or pivoted point)

The turning effect on the body about an axis is due

to the moment of force (or torque) applied on the
body.

Measurement of moment of force (or torque)

The moment of force (or torque) is equal to the

product of the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the
force from the axis of rotation.

Units of moment of force

Units of moment of force = unit of force x unit of distance
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Clockwise and anticlockwise movements:
Common examples of moment of force
3. COUPLE
Two equal and opposite parallel forces, not acting
along the same line, form a couple. A couple is always
needed to produce a rotation. For example, when we
open a door, the rotation of the door i8s produced by a
 couple consisting of two forces: (I) the force which we
exert on the handle of the door, and (II) an equal and
opposite force of reaction at the hinge.

Moment of couple
The perpendicular distance between the two forces is
AB (= d) which is called the couple arm.

Moment of couple = Either force x perpendicular

distance between the two forces (or couple arm)

4. EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES
When a number of forces acting on a body produce no
change in its state of rest or of linear or rotational
motion, the body is said to be in a state of equilibrium.

Kinds of equilibrium:
- Static equilibrium: when a body remains in a state
of rest under the influence of several forces, the
body is in static equilibrium.
- Dynamic equilibrium: when a body remains in the
same state of motion (translation or rotational),
under the influence of several forces, the body is
said to in the state of dynamic equilibrium.

Conditions for equilibrium:

- The resultant of all the forces acting on the body
should be zero.
 - The algebraic sum of all the forces acting on the
body about the point of rotation should be zero.

5. PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
According to the principle of moments. If the
algebraic sum of moments of all the forces, acting on
the body, about the axis of rotation is zero, the body is
in equilibrium. Thus,
According to the principle of moments, in equilibrium
sum of the anticlockwise moments = sum of the
clockwise moments.
A physical balance (or beam balance) works on the
principle of moments.
Verification of Principle of Moments:

(B) CENTRE OF GRAVITY

CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The Centre of Gravity (C.G.) of a body is the point
about which the algebraic sum of moments of
weights of all the particles constituting the body is
zero. The entire weight of the body can be
considered to act at this point, howsoever the body
is placed.
NOTE:
(1) The position of the centre of gravity of a body of given
mass depends on its shape i.e., on the distribution of
mass (of particles) in it. It changes if the body is
deformed.
(2) It is not necessary that the centre of gravity always be
within the material of a body.
(3) By the concept of centre of gravity, a body of weight
W can be considered as a point particle of weight W at
its centre of gravity.

(C) UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
When a particle moves with a constant speed in a
circular path, its motion is said to be uniform circular
motion.

Direction of velocity at any instant in a circular path:

At any point, the direction of motion is along the tangent
drawn at the point of circular path.
The velocity of the particle in circular motion is variable
or the circular motion is an accelerated motion even
though the speed of particle is uniform.

Differences between uniform circular motion and

uniform linear motion:
In uniform linear motion, the speed and velocity, both
are constant and acceleration is zero i.e., uniform linear
motion is an unaccelerated motion, while in a uniform
circular motion the velocity is variable (although the
speed is uniform), so it is an accelerated motion.

CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

 Centripetal force: It is the force acting on a body
moving in a circular path, in a direction towards the
centre of the circular path.
Examples:
Centrifugal force: A force assumed (by an observer
moving with the body) to be acting on the body in a
direction away from the centre of circular path, is called
centripetal force.
Experiment:
Conclusion: The centrifugal force is not a real force, it
is a fictitious force. The only real force involved here is
the force of tension in the string acting towards the
centre (i.e., the centripetal force). A force which really
does not exist, but is considered to describe (or
understand) a certain motion, is called a fictious force
(or virtual force).

CH-2 WORK, ENERGY AND Power

(A)WORK, ENERGY AND POWER, THEIR
MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS
1. WORK
Work is said to be done when the force applied on a body
makes the body move (i.e., there is a displacement of the
body).

2. MEASUREMENT OF WORK
The amount of work done on a body depends on two
factors:
- The magnitude of the force applied
- The displacement produces by the force
The amount of work done by a force is equal to the
product of the force and the displacement of the point of
application pf the force in the direction of force.

W=FxS

If a force acts on a body and the body does not move i.e.,
displacement is zero, then no work is done.
Work is a scalar quantity.
Expression for work (W = FS cos Θ)
(1) By finding the component of displacement along
the force:
W= F X S cos Θ
Or W = Force x component in the direction of force.
 (2) By finding the component of force along the
displacement:
W = F cos Θ x S
Or Work = component of force in the direction of
displacement x displacement

The work done is equal to the product of

(1) Magnitude of force F
(2) Magnitude of displacement S
(3) Cosine of the angle Θ between the directions of
force F and displacement S (i.e., cos Θ).

Thus, work depends on

(1) The magnitude of force
(2) The magnitude of displacement
(3) The angle between the force and
displacement.
SPECIAL CASES
Conditions for the work done by a force to
be zero:
(1) When there is no displacement (i.e., S =
0).
(2) When the displacement is normal to the
direction (i.e., Θ = 180 degree)

3. WORK DONE BY THE FORCE OF GRAVITY W =

mgh
W = FS = mgh
 Work done by the force of gravity is same whether the
body comes down from a certain height using stairs or
slope or a lift (or elevator).

4. UNITS OF WORK
S.I. unit: The S.I. unit of work is joule. It is abbreviated
as J.
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5. POWER
Definition:
The rate of doing work is called power.
Power is a scalar quantity.
Measurement of power:
P = W/t
The power spent by a source depends on the following
two factors:
(1) The amount of work done by the source
(2) The time taken by the source to do the work.
Note:
If a constant force F acts on a body and it displaces the
body by a distance S (in the direction of force) in time t,
then work done
W=FXS
And power P = W/t = F X S/t
But S/t = v (average speed)
Therefore, Power = Force x average speed
 Or P = F x v

6. UNITS OF POWER
S.I. unit: The S.I. unit of power is watt. It is abbreviated
as W.
1kW = 10^3 W
1mW = 10^6W
1gW = 10^9W
1W = 1J/s = 10^7 erg/s
Horse power: it is another unit of power largely used in
mechanical engineering.
1H.P. = 746 W = 0.746 kW

7. ENERGY (Energy as work done)

The energy of a body is its capacity to do work.
It is a scalar quantity.
8. UNITS OF ENERGY
The S.I unit of energy is joule (J). C.G.S. unit is erg.
1 J = 10^7 erg

(B) DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY

9. MECHANICAL ENERGY AND ITS DIFFERENT
FORMS
The energy possessed by a body due to its state of rest or
of motion, is called mechanical energy. It exists in two
forms:
(1) Potential energy
(2) Kinetic energy
10. POTENTIAL ENERGY
 The energy possessed by a body at rest due to its position
or size and shape is called potential energy.
It is usually denoted by symbol U.
Forms of potential energy
(1) Gravitational potential energy:
Each body experiences a force of attraction due to
earth which is called the force due to gravity or
weight of the body. The potential energy possessed
by a body due to the force of attraction of Earth on
it, is called its gravitational potential energy.

(2) Elastic potential energy

When an external force is applied on a non-rigid
body, it gets deformed due to change in its shape
and size. On removal of the force, it regains its
original form due to the property of elasticity. Some
work is done by the external force in deforming the
body. This work is stored in the body in the form of
its elastic potential energy. Thus, the potential
energy possessed by a body in the deformed state
due to change in its size and shape is called elastic
potential energy. It is the amount of work done in
deforming the body (or in changing the size and
shape of the body).

11. GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY AT

A HEIGHT (U = mgh)
 The gravitational potential energy of a body at a height
above the ground is measured by the amount of work
done in lifting it up from the ground to that height
against the force of gravity (assuming that its
gravitational potential energy on the ground is zero). It is
usually denoted by the symbol U.
Gravitational potential energy U at a height = mgh

12. KINETIC ENERGY (K)

The energy possessed by a body due to its state of
motion is called its kinetic energy.
It is usually denoted by symbol K.
Expression for kinetic energy (K = ½ mv2)
The kinetic energy possessed by a moving body is equal
to the amount of work which the moving body can do
before coming to rest.
13. CONVERSION OF POTENTIAL ENERGY
INTO KINETIC ENERGY
14. DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY
15. CONVERSION OF ONE FORM OF ENERGY
INTO THE OTHER FORM
16.

CH-4 REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT PLANE

SURFACE
 (A) REFRACTION, LAWS OF
REFRACTION AND REFRACTIVE
INDEX
The return of light in the same media after striking a
polished surface is called reflection of light.
Reflection of light obeys two laws:
i. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence.
ii. The incident ray, the normal at the point of
incidence and the reflected ray, all lie in one plane.

Speed of light in vacuum = 3X108 ms-1

Speed of light in air = 3X108 ms-1
Speed of light in water = 2.25X108 ms-1
Speed of light in glass = 2X108 ms-1

While

REFRACTION OF LIGHT

LAWS OF REFRACTION
SPEED OF LIGHT IN DEFFERENT
MEDIA
 PRINCIPAL OF REVERSIBILITY OF THE
PATH OF LIGHT

(B) REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH

A PRISM
(C) SIMPLE APPLICATIONS OF
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
(D) CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL
INTERNAL REFLECTION