Clay-Alteration-in-Exploration-White2005

CLAY ALTERATION:
ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR EXPLORATION

Noel White
We often read reports of "clay alteration", with little other information. Commonly the way it is
reported implies that this alteration is in some way significant for exploration (especially for
gold). But not all clay alteration is a good sign for gold exploration; some is favourable, some is
unfavourable, and some means nothing. When we recognise clay alteration, it is important that
we correctly interpret its significance, and when referring to it in our writing, we must give
enough information for our reader to understand its importance. This memo is intended to
briefly summarise the most common types of clay alteration, where and why they occur, and
their significance.
WHAT IS "CLAY ALTERATION"?
There are many different clay minerals, and because they are typically very fine-grained, they
can be difficult to identify without instruments. In addition there is the problem that there are
many intermediate species, with characteristics lying somewhere between end-members. The
most common species that we encounter are “sericite”, illite, smectite (i.e., montmorillonite),
kaolinite, dickite and pyrophyllite. The significance of these different species varies greatly, so it
is essential to identify which species we have.
Clay alteration (sometimes referred to as phyllic, argillic or advanced argillic alteration,
depending on mineralogy) involves the introduction of clay or related minerals to a rock, either
by hydrothermal alteration of pre-existing minerals, or by metasomatic addition of some of the
chemical components of the clay into the rock. The composition of the rock and its permeability
determine which components, and how much, have to be introduced or removed. The clay
minerals form in response to the chemical and physical conditions prevailing: this is very useful,
because some clay minerals are sensitive to conditions (especially temperature), so they can give
information about the conditions under which the alteration occurred.
Our knowledge of the temperature stability range of various minerals has come from
fluid inclusion studies, and especially from studies of active geothermal systems. Temperature
ranges observed or deduced for a wide range of minerals found in geothermal wells in the
Philippines are shown in Figures 1 (Reyes, 1990). Other studies have not always found the same
precise temperatures, but the order of mineral formation, and their compatibility is generally the
same.
SERICITE
Some people recommend that the term sericite should not be used, however it is useful as a field
term when more precise identification is not available. It refers to what is essentially fine-
grained white micaceous mineral, mostly illite, muscovite or paragonite. Muscovite is the
commonest mica that is referred to as sericite. Muscovite is a relatively high temperature
mineral and so should not be encountered in the epithermal environment. It is commonly found
around higher temperature deposits, such as orogenic (or mesothermal) gold deposits, and many
intrusion-related deposits including porphyry copper deposits.
ILLITE
Dr Noel C. White, PO Box 5181, Kenmore
1 East, Qld 4069, Australia
Tel. +61(7)3878 3041: Mobile +61(0)409 058 375: E-mail White. Noel@Bigpond.com
In epithermal and porphyry environments illite forms by the action of hot (220-320oC)
hydrothermal fluids on feldspathic rocks under neutral to slightly acid conditions. Note that it is
not essential that the fluids be acid, as in this temperature range illite is the stable mineral in
place of feldspar. In the epithermal environment illite is the most common hydrothermal
alteration mineral, extending over a wide range of depths (Figure 2). In porphyry deposits it is
common in phyllic alteration zones.
Temperature oC
Mineral 10 20 300
pH Alunite
Jarosite
Halloysite
a Kaolinite
c Dickite
i Pyrophyllite
ii
Diaspore
d
Zunyite, topaz
Anatase
Rutile
Cristobalite
n Quartz
e Pyrite
ul Marcasite
ta Smectite
t Illite/smectite
r
Chlorite/smectite
a
Illite
l
Chlorite
Epidote
a Biotite
l Adularia
k Calcite
ail
l Mordenite
i Laumontite
n Wairakite
e
Epithermal ore
Figure 1: Alteration zones in geothermal systems in the Philippines. The temperature stabilities have been
deduced from measured temperatures down bore-holes, and from fluid inclusion studies (from Hedenquist et al.,
1996, modified from Reyes, 1990).

In low sulfidation epithermal systems illite is the main alteration mineral associated
with gold ore. It occurs around veins and within disseminated mineralisation formed at
temperatures of greater than 220oC, which corresponds to depths exceeding 250 m. below the
water table.
In high sulfidation epithermal systems illite is mostly very restricted in distribution. It
occurs around the margins of the central siliceous body in Nansatsu-type deposits, where the
acid fluids have been neutralised by wallrock interaction (Figure 3). In deeper-formed deposits it
forms a zone around the central core of pyrophyllite alteration, and in turn grades outwards to
illite-montmorillonite. At El Indio it occurs around gold-bearing quartz veins where they are
remote from massive sulfide veins.
In porphyry copper systems illite forms the innermost part of the phyllic alteration zone,
and may form a zone around the central potassic alteration, or may cut across it. Commonly
associated minerals include pyrite, chalcopyrite and chlorite.
Depth Temp
m o
C
Alteration sinter
Vein
0 100
massive
150
Smectite chalcedony
100 Illite- bande
smectite quartz-
200
200 chalcedony
bande
gold
300 225
400
Illite
quartz
500
lattice
600
calcite
250
700
adularia
Figure 2: Distribution of hydrothermal alteration minerals and vein textures in epithermal deposits where
temperature is controlled by the boiling point with depth curve. Note illite occurs over most of the vertical range,
with relatively narrow ranges for illite-smectite and smectite. This profile assumes conditions were static, which they
rarely are.
ILLITE-SMECTITE (MONTMORILLONITE)
The illite-smectite series is a continuum of mixed layer clay minerals that differ chiefly in the
spacing between their phyllosilicate layers. In detailed alteration studies it may be necessary to
determine this spacing by use of X-ray diffractometry and glycollation. This is slow and

expensive, but it gives information about the temperature at which the alteration formed. Less
precise estimates can also be made using infra-red spectrometers.
In low sulfidation epithermal systems illite-smectite occurs in three situations:
1. Where the deep reservoir fluid has risen to shallow depths, and has cooled below
220oC. In this case it may be associated with low temperature gold ores (e.g. in
association with chalcedony veins at temperatures below 180oC).
2. In a narrow zone above the deep reservoir fluid. It forms here because of the
condensation into groundwater of steam, CO2 and H2S derived from boiling of the
deep reservoir fluid (see Figure 4). Provided no oxygen is available to oxidise the
H2S, an assemblage of illite-smectite ± carbonate ± pyrite forms in response to the
mildly acid, CO2-rich conditions. Above it there is commonly a flat-lying zone with
the assemblage of kaolinite ± pyrite ± alunite, with possibly a silica (quartz or
cristobalite) ± alunite zone (`silica cap') between. Below it may be propylitic
alteration (in peripheral areas) or sericitic alteration (in central areas). This type of
alteration by steam-heated water is not genetically related to ores.
3. In the marginal parts of the geothermal system. In these areas extensive illite-
smectite alteration can occur as a result of mixing between deep reservoir fluid and
marginal ground water. These areas are typically unmineralised, or at best weakly
mineralised. Here the alteration is likely also to contain calcite and pyrite.
In high sulfidation epithermal systems illite-smectite is mostly very restricted in
distribution (Figure 3). It occurs as a very narrow zone around the margins of the upper parts of
the central silica body in Nansatsu-type deposits, where the acid fluids have been neutralised by
wallrock interaction.
commonly 2-3
Silicic Clay Propylitic

alteration alteration alteration
vuggy
to
pH quartz 2 kaolinit 3 kaolinit 4 illite- 5 chlorite
alunite e e smectite albite
pyrite carbonat
kaolinit e
e epidote
Figure 3: Alteration mineralogy and zoning around Nansatsu-type high sulfidation epithermal deposits. This
alteration shows a very narrow sharp gradient.
In porphyry copper systems the phyllic alteration zone grades from muscovite in the
innermost parts, out through an illite-dominant zone to a smectite-dominant zone, and finally to
propylitic alteration. This reflects the progressively lower temperatures of alteration away from

the magmatic core of the system. Common associated minerals are pyrite, chlorite and
carbonate minerals.
KAOLINITE
Kaolinite is produced by alteration by acid fluids at temperatures of less than 220oC (above this
pyrophyllite forms). It is the most common mineral in advanced argillic alteration. It can also
form from low temperature silica-saturated fluids at neutral pH.
In low sulfidation epithermal systems it is extensively developed where boiled off
gases condense above the water table, or into oxidised shallow ground water (Figure 4). The
H2S is oxidised to sulfuric acid which strongly attacks the rock. Typically with the kaolinite
there may also be alunite and/or pyrite. This type of alteration by steam-heated water is not
genetically related to ores.
O2
H2SO4
acid
Kaolinite
+ alunite
“silica cap” – amorphous silica ± alunite
water
H2CO3
+ H2S Illite-smectite
+ carbonate
+ pyrite
Figure 4: Distribution of alteration minerals in steam-heated zones above epithermal systems. This alteration occurs
as extensive blankets overlying boiling hydrothermal systems. Because they are produced by gases derived from the

deeper hydrothermal system, and gases are not capable of transporting ore metals, these blankets are barren unless
they have overprinted ore formed by the deep neutral chloride water.
It can also occur as a hypogene hydrothermal mineral in the upper parts of low
sulfidation vein systems, where silica saturation makes it stable. This style of kaolinite
occurrence can be associated with ore, and is normally of limited extent. Because it occurs high
in the system, it may be difficult to distinguish from kaolinite formed in the steam-heated zone.
The main indication is likely to be the occurrence of kaolinite as an accessory mineral in
unweathered mineralised veins, especially along laminations in the vein.
In high sulfidation epithermal systems kaolinite occurs in or near the central alteration
zone of Nansatsu-type deposits. It may occur with alunite as a minor component of the central
vuggy quartz mass, or as a narrow margin adjacent to it (typically <1m wide). In may occur with
pyrophyllite in a narrow transition zone surrounding the central core of pyrophyllite in some
deeper-formed deposits (e.g., Peak Hill). It also occurs in the high level gas condensation zone
(Figure 4), identical to that formed over low sulfidation systems. If only a gas condensation
zone is exposed it may not be possible to distinguish whether a low sulfidation or high
sulfidation system (or a porphyry system) occurs below.
In porphyry copper systems kaolinite is a common mineral, but it is mainly produced as
a result of high-level gas condensation, as described above, or by weathering of the sulfide-rich
hypogene alteration system.
Weathering of feldspathic rocks can produce kaolinite, especially where sulfides
(usually pyrite) are present. The acidity generated by oxidation of the sulfides breaks down
feldspar or any other aluminous minerals to produce kaolinite. It is commonly difficult to
distinguish early-formed hydrothermal kaolinite alteration from kaolinite that has resulted from
weathering. Careful mapping and alteration mineralogy studies may be required.
DICKITE
Dickite is a polymorph of kaolinite. Where it occurs it is mostly hydrothermal in origin, and is
very rarely a product of weathering. It forms over a temperature range of approximately 250o to
120o. Distinguishing dickite from kaolinite can be quite difficult by conventional X-ray
diffraction methods, but is quite easy when infra-red (IR) spectrometry is used.
PYROPHYLLITE
Pyrophyllite is mostly produced under acid conditions, and in most instances it is a high
temperature equivalent of kaolinite. Experimental work suggests that coexisting pyrophyllite
and kaolinite indicate a temperature of about 280oC, however measurements in geothermal
wells show that they can coexist down to around 220o. If the silica concentration in solution is
above quartz saturation, pyrophyllite can form at much lower temperatures (down to ambient).
Under silica-saturated conditions it can also form by cooling in the absence of acid conditions.
So it is important when assessing the significance of pyrophyllite to note what minerals it is
coexisting with. Accompanied by kaolinite or dickite it indicates high temperature acid
conditions. Accompanied by illite-smectite+chalcedony, it has NO special implications for
temperature or acidity.
In low sulfidation epithermal systems pyrophyllite may occur locally where condensed
sulfuric acid-rich fluids (produced by oxidation of boiled off H2S) descend along fractures into
high temperature regions, or else in shallow (hence cooler) levels where high degrees of silica
saturation locally favour its formation over that of kaolinite (Reyes, 1990).
In high sulfidation epithermal conditions pyrophyllite may occur in deep levels of the
system where it takes the place of kaolinite, especially on the margins of the leached quartz
bodies in the Nansatsu-type deposits. At the Peak Hill high sulfidation deposit large amounts of
quartz-pyrophyllite form a core to the alteration system: in this case the ore occurs near the
contact between this core and the surrounding alteration.
In porphyry copper systems pyrophyllite may occur in barren high sulfidation alteration
above or marginal to the porphyry. In this case it typically coexists with kaolinite or dickite,
indicating high temperature formation. The Island Copper porphyry copper deposit in Canada is
cut by a late-stage diatreme which has extensive alteration of the diatreme breccia to
pyrophyllite plus dumortierite and diaspore, with local kaolinite, dickite and andalusite. This is
an unusual occurrence and most porphyry copper deposits lack large-scale high temperature acid
alteration.
OTHER ASSOCIATED MINERALS
Alunite
Alunite is a potassium-sodium aluminium sulfate. It forms in acid conditions where sulfate and
alkalis are available. It is not an indicator of temperature, as it can form over a wide range; the
Na:K ratio increases as temperature increases (see White, 1993).
In low sulfidation systems alunite commonly occurs with kaolinite in the high level acid
leached zone where condensed H2S (boiled off from below) has been oxidised to sulfuric acid.
It may also occur in the ‘silica cap’ that develops below this zone. In either of these cases the
alunite is unrelated to mineralisation unless the high level alteration has overprinted earlier
mineralisation (see later). Fluids from this high-level condensation zone may also penetrate
deep into the system along faults, producing alunite in local zones (Reyes, 1990).
In high sulfidation conditions alunite commonly occurs with acid clay alteration
(kaolinite or pyrophyllite), and in the vuggy quartz zone of Nansatsu deposits. Less commonly,
it may also occur as crystal aggregates in veins. It also occurs in the gas condensation zone
overlying the ore; this is identical to that overlying low sulfidation systems.
In porphyry copper systems alunite is an uncommon mineral. It is most common in the
zone of supergene leaching which overlies many enriched porphyries in the Southwest USA or
South America.
Supergene alunite can form from oxidation (weathering) of pyritic assemblages of any
type. The sulfate formed by oxidation reacts under acid conditions with the alkalis available in
the rock, and alunite forms. In this case it is likely to be very fine grained and disseminated,
however it also occurs as veins which have an appearance like porcelain. These may be
anomalously hard, as the very fine-grained alunite may be intergrown with kaolinite and
amorphous silica.
Diaspore
Diaspore is AlO(OH). It mostly forms under high temperature acid conditions and is likely to be
associated with the high temperature occurrences of pyrophyllite in high or low sulfidation
systems, or porphyry copper deposits. Its observed temperature range is wide, varying from
>300o to about 130o.
Adularia

Adularia is a form of potassium feldspar which is found in permeable zones in low sulfidation
systems. It occurs where the deep reservoir fluid (originally near neutral-pH) becomes alkaline
due to loss of acid gases (CO2 and H2S) on boiling. It may occur in veins or disseminated in
permeable rocks. It mostly coexists with illite or illite-smectite, generally not with other clay
minerals. It occurs in low sulfidation systems, and not in high sulfidation systems. Its presence
is a favourable indicator, as it demonstrates both high permeability and boiling (both essential
for major low sulfidation epithermal gold deposits). In Philippine geothermal systems it has
been observed from >300o to about 180o, but its coexistence with chalcedony in some deposits
suggests that it might form at even lower temperatures.
PROBLEMS OF OVERPRINTING
Certain minerals can coexist at equilibrium, but some combinations indicate that the same rock
has been exposed to chemically different fluids. For example, these combinations of minerals
commonly occur at equilibrium:
illite - adularia illite - smectite
smectite - kaolinite kaolinite - alunite
pyrophyllite - kaolinite pyrophyllite - alunite.
But these either cannot, or rarely do coexist at equilibrium:
kaolinite - adularia illite - alunite
pyrophyllite - smectite pyrophyllite - adularia.
If incompatible minerals occur together, what could be the cause? In some cases unusual
combinations of physical and chemical conditions may allow them to coexist in equilibrium
(e.g., pyrophyllite - smectite) but usually they will not. So what would allow them to be
together?
The alteration mineralogy of a rock is the response of primary minerals to their changed
(i.e., hydrothermal) conditions. If the altered rock contains minerals indicating two quite
different conditions for the alteration, then the conditions must have changed during the life of
the system, forming the incompatible minerals at different times. That means the pressure and
temperature, or the chemistry of the fluid have changed. In the epithermal environment the
pressure and temperature are mostly fixed in relation to one another, as the rising fluids will
normally stay on (or close to) the boiling point with depth curve for most of the life of the
hydrothermal system. The chemistry of the deep fluid may change during the life of the system
(which may be as much as several million years), but in most cases this is probably minor and
unlikely to produce incompatible mineral assemblages. To produce the effects we see it is
usually necessary either to change the depth below the water table by raising or lowering the
water table (so changing the temperature), or else to weather an earlier formed assemblage.
Overprinting caused by changes in the water table level is more likely to occur in long-
lived systems. Many economically significant low sulfidation systems were probably long-lived,
so they may show this effect. High sulfidation systems form by devolatilising of magma bodies
at shallow depth, which is probably a short-term event, though it may be repeated many times as
new magma is introduced. Of course, the chemistry of the pulses may differ as the magmatic
system evolves, and pressure conditions (and so temperature) may change between pulses.
Volcanic arcs are regions of very rapid deposition and erosion, and they are very
tectonically active as well. In a period of as little as 100,000 years it is quite possible that a
volcano several kilometres high might have formed and then been removed by erosion. In
tectonically active areas today we see annual uplift rates exceeding two centimetres. If
sustained, this would produce uplift of 20 km (more than twice the height of Mt. Everest) in a
million years! Clearly deposition, uplift and erosion can all be very rapid.
1. Raising the Water Table; A Prograding System
Raising the water table has the effect of making any point originally below the water table
deeper below the water table. This also places it deeper on the boiling point with depth curve
(i.e., when equilibrium is re-established, temperatures and pressures will be higher).
Raising of the water table could result from increased rainfall in the area, or burial of the
system, perhaps by volcanic eruptions. The effect will be for deeper (higher temperature)
minerals to be superimposed on shallower (lower temperature) phases. In low sulfidation
conditions smectite may overprint kaolinite, and illite may overprint smectite. Simmons (1991)
describes an example of a low sulfidation deposit where the water table has changed elevation
during the life of the system.
In high sulfidation systems prograding may be difficult to recognise, particularly in
Nansatsu-type deposits. In this case prograding would expand the leached vuggy quartz body
upwards, overprinting earlier kaolinite, however evidence of this would probably be obliterated,
and in any case it is part of the normal development of such deposits, so need not result from a
rise in the water table.
In the case of deposits where pyrophyllite alteration is widespread, prograding of the
system may overprint pyrophyllite on earlier kaolinite and illite. Examples of prograding high
sulfidation systems are described by Muntean et al. (1990), and Vennemann et al. (1993).
2. Lowering the Water Table; A Retrograding System
Lowering the water table has the effect of making any point shallower, placing it at shallower
levels on the boiling point with depth curve (i.e., the new equilibrium temperatures will be
lower).
Lowering of the water table could result from the climate becoming more arid (by
reducing rainfall), or by erosion. The effect will be for shallower (lower temperature) minerals
to be superimposed on deeper (higher temperature) phases. In low sulfidation conditions
kaolinite may overprint illite-smectite or illite, or illite-smectite may overprint illite. Adularia
may be altered to illite, illite-smectite, or kaolinite. An example of this situation is described by
Simmons and Browne (1990).
In high sulfidation systems retrograding may be difficult to recognise, especially in
Nansatsu-type deposits. This is because the alteration assemblage already consists of acid-
altered minerals which are not susceptible to further alteration. One possible effect of
retrograding in high sulfidation deposits is penetration of oxidised fluids into the deeper parts of
the system, resulting in oxidation of pyrite to limonite, formation of crystalline jarosite, and
native sulfur. Fine gold may be coarsened and enriched on fractures in this process. An example
of this situation is described in Hedenquist et al. (1994).
Retrograding effects are common in volcanic rock-hosted deposits. Mineralisation
commonly occurs late in the volcanic history of the belt, when volcanism is waning.
Consequently the rate of erosion commonly exceeds the rate of uplift or of build-up with new
volcanic material. As a result, near-surface alteration and weathering may be pulled down onto
earlier-formed, higher temperature alteration.
3. Weathering
Normal weathering processes convert aluminosilicate minerals to clays. Distinguishing
weathering from hydrothermal alteration is a major problem in some areas, as is the problem of
deciding if weathering has affected a fresh or altered rock. This problem is even worse when
dealing with sedimentary rocks in which clays are the dominant original minerals. The only
positive way to confront these problems is with detailed mineralogical mapping, possibly aided
by isotopic studies.
Which minerals weathering produces depends on various factors, such as the
composition of the parent rock, and the weathering environment (hot, cold, arid, humid, well
drained, poorly drained). Kaolinite and illite-smectite are common products of weathering in all
environments. They are, of course, also common hydrothermal alteration products, which
accentuates the problem. In general, acid alkali-bearing rocks are most likely to weather to
kaolinite, whereas rocks rich in magnesium or calcium are more likely to weather to smectite.
Hydrothermal alteration zones commonly contain pyrite. During weathering the pyrite
accentuates the weathering process by providing acid as it oxidises. Where we can see fresh
pyrite preserved in an altered rock, it can generally be concluded that the alteration is
hydrothermal, not weathering. Where there is evidence of pyrite having been present, but now
oxidised, it is probable that the alteration we see now is at least partly a weathering product. The
question that then needs to be considered is whether the pyrite could have been present in a
fresh rock. If the answer is no, then there must have been some hydrothermal alteration present.
What was it?
If pyrite was originally absent, the hydrothermal alteration products are likely to have
been less susceptible to weathering alteration, so they may be preserved despite subsequent
weathering. In this case it should be possible to map alteration zoning in spite of the weathering.
Many orebodies have zones rich in sulfides, and other zones with little or no sulfides. In those
cases the alteration we see could be a complex mixture of hypogene and supergene alteration.
While the presence of pyrite generally indicates that the altered rock was not produced
by weathering, it is not always true, so this judgement needs to be applied with caution. At the
base of the weathering profile weathered products (clays and alunite) may be transported
downwards and deposited with fresh pyrite, so special care is needed there. Careful detailed
mapping (especially using an infra-red spectrometer) of the distribution of the different minerals
is the best way to determine their likely origin.
IMPORTANCE FOR EXPLORATION
In exploration we are trying to use our observations to help locate ore as quickly and cheaply as
possible. Alteration zones are typically much larger than orebodies, so they can often be more
easily located than orebodies. Once we have found the alteration, we still have to find the ore. If
we understand the mineralogy of hydrothermal alteration, and its zoning around ore, then it can
be used to help locate the ore. Clay alteration can be quite complicated, but there are many
different clay and associated minerals, and many of them are sensitive to the chemical and
physical conditions. Consequently, they have the potential to tell us a lot about the character of
the system, and where we are in it. Understanding clay alteration is crucial for effective
exploration, especially in shallow crustal environments where we search for epithermal and
porphyry styles of mineralisation.
To use clay alteration in exploration, it is essential that the specific clay minerals be
identified. It is simply not good enough to say it is clay - you need to know what clay. In the
past, clay identification was slow and expensive. With the development of portable infra-red
spectrometers it is now possible to get a positive identification in the field in less than one
minute. That allows us to map the distribution of clay and associated minerals, and so better
recognise the zoning patterns that can help guide us to ore.
But knowing the mineralogy does not help much if we do not know its significance. The
distribution of clays, and their significance is different situations varies widely. You need to
know what different clays mean, and how to interpret their significance. It is especially
important to recognise that clay minerals can form by hypogene hydrothermal alteration, by
alteration in steam heated zones, and by weathering. You need to recognise which of these are
found in your prospects (they all may!), and separate them in developing your exploration
models and targets. Their significance is very different!
Even when you have separated the three environments of clay formation, the challenges
do not stop there. Because different mineralising systems involve fluids of different chemistry,
the zoning patterns around ore are very different. Minerals like kaolinite, pyrophyllite and
alunite have very different significance in a low-sulfidation environment, compared to what they
mean in a high-sulfidation environment. To use alteration zoning effectively in our exploration,
these differences must be understood.
Clays are probably the most complex mineral family in alteration zones. They are also
the most important for explorers, as they can provide us with more valuable information than
any other mineral family. We need to understand them.
REFERENCES
Hedenquist, J. W., Izawa, E., Arribas, A. and White, N.C., 1996, "Epithermal gold deposits: Styles,
characteristics and exploration." Resource Geology Special Publication 1: 16 p.
Hedenquist, J.W., Matsuhisa, Y., Izawa, E., White, N.C., Giggenbach, W.F. and Aoki, M., 1994.
Geology, geochemistry and origin of high sulfidation mineralization in the Nansatsu district, Japan.
Economic Geology 89, 1-30.
Muntean, J.L., Kesler, S.E., Russell, N. and Polanco, J., 1990. Evolution of the Monte Negro acid
sulfate Au-Ag deposit, Pueblo Viejo, Dominican Republic: important factors in grade
development. Economic Geology 85, 1738-1758.
Reyes, A. R., 1990. Petrology of Philippine geothermal systems and the application of alteration
mineralogy to their assessment. J. Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 43, 279-309.
Simmons, S.F., 1991. Hydrologic implications of alteration and fluid inclusions studies in the Fresnillo
district, Mexico: Evidence for a brine reservoir and a descending water table during the formation
of hydrothermal Ag-Pb-Zn orebodies. Economic Geology, 86, 1579-1601.
Simmons, S.F. and Browne, P.R.L., 1990. Mineralogic, alteration and fluid inclusion studies of
epithermal gold-bearing veins at the Mt. Muro prospect, Central Kalimantan (Borneo), Indonesia.
In J.W. Hedenquist, N.C. White and G. Siddeley (Eds), Epithermal Gold Mineralization of the
Circum-Pacific; Geology, Geochemistry, Origin and Exploration. Journal of Geochemical
Exploration, 35, 63-104.
Vennemann, T.W., Muntean, J.L., Kesler, S.F. and O'Neil, J.R., 1993. Stable isotope evidence for
magmatic fluids in the Pueblo Viejo epithermal acid sulfate Au-Ag deposit, Dominican Republic.
Economic Geology, 88, 55-71.

White, N.C., 1991. High sulfidation epithermal gold deposits: Characteristics and a model for their
origin. In: Matsuhisa, Y., Aoki, M. and Hedenquist, J.W. (Eds), High Temperature Acid Fluids and
Associated Alteration and Mineralization. Geological Survey of Japan Report 277, 9-20.
White, N.C., 1993. Alunite - what is its significance? BHP Company Memo, 2pp.
White, N.C. and Hedenquist, J.W., 1995. Epithermal gold deposits: styles, characteristics and
characteristics and exploration. SEG Newsletter, 23, pp. 1, 9-13.
Noel C. White
1 July 2005


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CLAY ALTERATION:

ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR EXPLORATION

Dr Noel C. White, PO Box 5181, Kenmore

Dr Noel C. White, PO Box 5181, Kenmore

Silicic Clay Propylitic

Dr Noel C. White, PO Box 5181, Kenmore

Dr Noel C. White, PO Box 5181, Kenmore

Dr Noel C. White, PO Box 5181, Kenmore

Dr Noel C. White, PO Box 5181, Kenmore

Dr Noel C. White, PO Box 5181, Kenmore

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