GENERAL BIOLOGY II

S.Y. ‘23 - ‘24 | SEM #2 Q4 | MODULE 1: PLANT AND ANIMAL ORGAN SYSTEMS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
(REPRODUCTION, DEVELOPMENT, AND NUTRITION)

- Gymnosperm means “naked seeds” that

LESSON 2: PLANT AND ANIMAL is based on the unenclosed condition of
DEVELOPMENT their seeds and the

A. PLANT DEVELOPMENT ★ ANGIOSPERMS

- Plants are the antennae by which the
energy of sunlight is captured in the
ecosphere and then stored in food for
later slow, catabolic release in the living
cells of both plants and animals.
- To many of us, plants are little more than
a green mass in the background of life.
- Yet more than 99% of our planet’s living
matter is composed of plants; this
includes a tremendous variety of algae,
vines, shrubs, trees, grasses, and herbs.
- a plant that has flowers and
produces seeds enclosed within a
carpel.
- The angiosperms are a large group
and include herbaceous plants,
shrubs, grasses, and most trees).
- The angiosperms are then divided
into the monocots and the dicots,
mostly on the basis of their seed
structure.
SEED STRUCTURE

- Almost all of these diverse plant shapes

are variations on a common theme, and
almost all tracheophytes (vascular
plants) are composed of just three main
parts: leaves, stems, and roots.

- Although a plant begins life as a seed, the

seed has a history of development all its
own.

- The fundamental body plan of a plant is

laid down even before a seed leaves the
parent plant (Villee, Solomon & Davis)
THE MONOCOT SEED

SEEDS - In a typical monocot such as a grass, the

seed is surrounded with a protective seed
- The seed plants are classified into two coat.
major groups:
ALEURONE LAYER
★ GYMNOSPERMS
- both male and female
- lies under the seed coat, functions as a
- that is, each reproductive
kind of digestive organ in seed
organ is either male or
germination.
female.
- They are a group of
seed-producing plants that
includes conifers, cycads,
Ginkgo, and gnetophytes.

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ENDOSPERM
- Most of the seeds consist of starchy
endosperm.
- It is a food storage tissue that forms
separately from the embryo while the
seed is still attached to the parent plant.
COLEORHIZA
- In some monocots the embryo proper is
demarked from the endosperm by a
tough scutellum, and often by another
layer
- protects the future root, or radicle, as it
grows out of the seed into the
surrounding soil.
★ All of these structures will be discarded once
they have served their function, leaving only
the radicle, the mesocotyl (future stem) and
the shoot apex, which by then will have
developed into the mature versions of
these structures.
★ Monocot means “single leaf,” which refers
to its only seed structure that appears to
be homologous with a leaf – the single
cotyledon.
★ The monocot cotyledon absorbs digested
food from the endosperm.
★ In grass embryos, a very large cotyledon
develops, which is known as the
scutellum (Villee, Solomon & Davis)
THE DICOT SEED
- Dicots, as their name implies, have two
cotyledons.
- Sometimes, as in the castor bean plant,
these do function as actual leaves.
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- More typically, as in beans, peas, and
maple seeds, the cotyledons serve as
food storage organs in place of the
endosperm.
- Other dicot seed structures include the
radicle and the plumule, which
corresponds to the shoot apex in
monocots.
- In most dicot seeds, however, there is
nothing comparable to the aleurone or
coleorhiza, although some do have a
functional endosperm.
- The embryo and its cotyledon(s) are the
result of one of two distinct fertilizations:
in one of these, the endosperm (if any) is
produced.
- The other fertilization process, which
gives rise to the embryo, yields a zygote,
which then undergoes cleavage.
- The cell divisions that the zygote
undergoes following fertilization first
produce a basal cell and a terminal cell.
- From the basal cell develops a filament of
cells called a suspensor.
- The terminal cell divides, forming a
rounded mass of cells; from this mass
grow the two cotyledons and a central
axis.
HYPOCOTYL
- the part of the axis below the point of
attachment of the cotyledons
EPICOTYL
- the part above it (HYPOCOTYL)
The embryo is in this state of development when
the seed becomes dormant.
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SEED GERMINATION
DORMANCY
- The embryonic plant is kept in a state of
suspended development
- ends when germination takes place
BREAKING DORMANCY
GIBBERELLIN
- A hormone that diffuses through the seed
at the first step in breaking dormancy.
- In monocots, the hormone then triggers
the production of digestive enzymes by
the aleurone;
- In dicots, the digestive enzymes are
produced by the cotyledons.
- These enzymes then proceed to break
down the stored food in the endosperm
or cotyledons.
- For example, amylase breaks down starch
to form maltose, which is then cleaved by
maltase to yield glucose; and other
enzymes attack stored proteins, fats, and
oils, mobilizing them for the seedling’s
use.
THE EARLY ROOT AND EMERGENCE
- Microscopic examination of the root tip
will disclose a cap consisting partly of
dead or moribund cells at its apex, whose
function is largely to protect the tender
tissues from abrasion by soil particles,
and in addition to serve as a source of
growth hormones.
- The actual living tissue, however,
undergoing vigorous mitosis.
- For that reason, this part of the root tip is
known as the zone of division.
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- It is an apical meristem, a growing tip of
embryonic, differentiating tissue.
- By the time they have begun to enlarge,
they are left behind in a zone of
elongation, which is responsible for most
of the lengthwise growth of the root tip.
- Since new cells are constantly added to
this zone by mitosis, however, growth
continues indefinitely.
- At the same time, the older portions of
the zone of elongation cease to grow and
become incorporated into the zone of
maturation, where tissue differentiation
now begins.
MERISTEMS AND BUDS
PRIMARY MERISTEMS
- For the most part, the primary meristems
give rise to differentiated tissues such as
phloem and xylem.
- However, some tissues derived from the
primary meristem remain
undifferentiated and form the cambium
layers of the stem and the similar
pericycle layer of the root.
- These eventually form differentiated
tissues themselves, but in such a way as
to produce lateral growth and increase in
girth.
THE LEAF BUD
LEAF GROWTH
- Each leaf originates on the side of the
meristem, growing upward as it enlarges
and begins to differentiate.
is
- Once its growth is well under way,
another group of cells next to it and
somewhat above it begins to grow
outward and upward.
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LEAF FALL
- Leaves age and die in all plants, and in
some cases the plant senescence as a
whole.
- As xylem ages, for example, it becomes
clogged with resins and turns to
heartwood.
- As cells produced by the cork cambium
age, they die and become converted to
cork.
- The part of a perennial plant that ages
most obviously – and sometimes
spectacularly – is the leaf.
- In deciduous trees, however, all leaves
age and die at about the same time in
what happens to be basically a water
conservation measure.
THE ECOLOGY OF ABSCISSION
- Abscission is the process by which plants
shed one of their parts, and an abscission
layer is an adaptation that specifically
permits loss of leaves.
- The abscission layer also represents a
point of weakness, so that in due time,
the yellowed leaves are swirled away by
the winds of winter.
SECONDARY GROWTH
IN DICOTS
- If root and shoot (stem) meristems give
rise to all plant tissues, a process of
differentiation must occur behind the
growing tips of the stem and the root.
- In stems, the earliest trace
differentiation occurs just behind
- the apical zone of active mitosis.
- In the center of the apical bud is a
cylinder that develops into the vascular
tissues as it matures.
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- It is appropriately known as the
provascular cylinder.
- On the exterior, potential epidermis
called the protoderm develops.
- Between the two lies a layer called
ground meristem or ground tissue, which
becomes the cortex and the pith.
IN MONOCOTS
- Secondary growth usually does not occur
in monocots.
- The trunk of a treelike monocot such as
bamboo or a palm tree remains roughly
the same diameter from base to crown.;
in fact, the diameter of a palm trunk can
be somewhat smaller at the base than
midway between it and the crown.
- Yet the trunk of a palm seedling is
obviously not nearly as great as is that of
the mature tree.
- What happens is a bit different than what
occurs in dicots.
- Immediately behind the apical meristem
is a primary thickening meristem that is
as great in diameter as the trunk.
- It is derived from the apical meristem,
which continuously enlarges to produce
it.
- The primary thickening meristem then
lays down vascular and other
differentiated tissues to form the stem of
the palm tree.
EARLY DEVELOPMENT
ZYGOTE
of
- a fertilized egg that has the potential to
give rise to all the diverse cell types of
the complete individual
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 - In most vertebrate zygotes, the cytoplasm
contains yolk, which serves as food for
the developing embryo.
- The amount and distribution of yolk vary
among different animal groups.
- Yolk is absent from the human zygote.
CLEAVAGE: FROM ONE CELL TO MANY
CLEAVAGE
- a process wherein the zygote undergoes a
rapid mitosis.
- By about 24 hours after fertilization, the
human zygote has completed the first
mitotic division and reached the two-cell
stage.
- Each of the cells of the two-cell stage
embryo undergoes mitosis, bringing the
number of cells to four.
- Repeated divisions continue to increase
the number of cells making up the
embryo.
- At about the 16-cell stage, the embryo
consists of a tiny cluster of cells called
the morula.
- As cleavage takes place, the embryo is
pushed along the uterine tube by ciliary
action and muscular contraction.
- By the time the embryo reaches the
uterus, on about the fifth day of
development, it is in the morula stage.
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THE BLASTOCYST
- During this period, its cells arrange
themselves into the form of hollow ball
called blastocyst (blastula), eventually
forming nutritive membranes (the chorion
and placenta) that surround the embryo.
- A little cluster of cells, the inner cell
mass, projects into the cavity of the
blastocyst.
- These cells give rise to the embryo itself.
IMPLANTATION
- Implantation of the embryo in the
endometrium (lining) of the uterus begins
on the seventh day of embryonic
development.
- During this period, enzymes destroy some
tiny maternal capillaries in the wall of
the uterus.
- Blood from these capillaries comes in
direct contact with the trophoblast of
the embryo, temporarily providing a rich
source of nutrition.
- Implantation is completed by the ninth
day of development.
FORMATION OF GERM LAYERS
- The cells of the inner cell mass of the
blastocyst arrange themselves to form a
two-layered disk.
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- The cells of the lower level then merge to
line an inner cavity, the primitive gut, or
archenteron, which will eventually
develop into the digestive tract and
certain other structures.
- These cells make up the endoderm, while
the cells that remain to cover the embryo
and become its outermost layer form the
ectoderm.
- A third layer of cells, the mesoderm,
proliferates between the ectoderm and
endoderm.
- Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are
known as the three germ layers, or
embryonic tissue layers.
- Each gives rise to specific structures in
all vertebrate embryos (Villee, Solomon &
Davis).
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LESSON 3: PLANT AND ANIMAL NUTRITION
A. PLANT NUTRITION
- The basic photosynthetic reaction
combines carbon dioxide with water in
two stages to yield glucose and oxygen.
- Glucose contains the elements carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen – the only
elements occurring in complex sugars
and in most fats.
- Thus, the carbohydrates and fats
occurring in plants can be made from
water and carbon dioxide alone.
- However, plants do also require various
other inorganic nutrients.
- Biosynthesis of compounds such as
amino acids, phospholipids, nucleic acids,
and ATP requires the elements
phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur.
- Often the very nutrients a plant requires
in modest amounts can poison it when
present in excess.
- Overuse of fertilizer, for instance, can
make the soil hypertonic to the plant,
resulting in osmotic stress that injures or
kills the plant.
- Plants like animals, have optimum ranges
in which nutrients are present in
concentrations that best promote their
health and growth.
- The uptake of nutrients by a plant: a
review.
- From CO2, O2, H20, and minerals, the
plant produces all of its own organic
materials.
PAGE 6
PLANT NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS
NUTRIENT
- refers to any substance required for the
growth and maintenance of an organism.
- The two types of organisms based on the
mode of nutrition are:
A. AUTOTROPHS - organisms that
obtain energy from sunlight and
chemicals to produce their own
food. Example: plants
B. HETEROTROPHS - organisms that
cannot make their own food and
obtain their energy from other
organisms. Example: fungi
- A deficiency may produce yellowing of
older leaves or a general lightening of all
the green parts of the plant, combined
with a stunting of growth.
- An excess produces hypertrophy of
foliage and suppresses fruit production.
- Nitrogen is mainly important as a
component of proteins and nucleic acids.
B. POTASSIUM
- Another early known plant nutrient, is
traditionally added to the soil in the form
of wood ash.
- The main intracellular cation, potassium,
is probably most important for
maintaining the membrane potential of
plant cells,

THE MACRONUTRIENTS - and perhaps their turgidity as well

(especially in the guard cells of the
- are those nutrients needed by all plants
stomata).
in relatively large amounts.
- Deficiency produces general symptoms of
- The following list of required nutrients
poor health, which can include localized
should be considered as of more than
chlorosis (low chlorophyll content), or
passing interest, for our lives depend
mottling of leaves with small spots of
upon them.
dead tissue at the tips and between the
1. Nitrogen veins of lower leaves.
2. Potassium
3. Phosphorus C. PHOSPHORUS
4. Sulfur
5. Calcium - Deficient in a great many soils,
6. Magnesium phosphorus is essential for the
production of such vital compounds as
A. NITROGEN the nucleic acids and ATP.

- It is needed for flowering, fruiting, and

- one of the first nutrients to be
root development.
discovered.
- Deficiency results in small dark green
- Although it can be provided in the form of
leaves over the entire plant and the
nitrate or ammonia, it is usually absorbed
abnormal presence of red and purple
in the form of nitrate.
colors in the leaves and stalks.
- Nitrogen is needed for proper leaf growth
and development.

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 D. SULFUR
- Sulfur is an essential component of
protein because of its occurrence in the
amino acids cysteine and methionine.
- Deficiency produces chlorosis in new
leaves and buds, usually without spotting,
and poor root development.
- Sulfur cannot be absorbed in elemental
form but must be present as sulfate.
E. CALCIUM
- Calcium deficiency results in abnormal
growth and cell division, since calcium is
an important component of the middle
lamella of cell walls (along with pectin).
- Typically, the terminal bud dies, following
a period in which small leaves with
dried-up tips are produced.
- Calcium has a multitude of cellular
functions in the plant body.
F. MAGNESIUM
- Magnesium is required for the action of
many enzymes and is needed also in the
synthesis of chlorophyll, which contains
it.
- Deficiency, therefore, produces mottled
chlorosis.
THE MICRONUTRIENTS
- Micronutrients are as vital as
macronutrients but are required only in
extremely small amounts.
- The following elements in trace amounts
are now known to have a significant role
in maintaining plant health.
1. Iron 5. Chlorine
2. Boron 6. Molybdenum
3. Zinc 7. Copper
4. Manganese
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A. IRON
- Iron is needed in several of the electron
transport substances of the cell
(ferredoxin, cytochromes), and in some
other materials (e.g., phytochrome).
- It is also required for chlorophyll
synthesis.
- Deficiency in iron absorption can occur in
soils with high or low pH.
- If there is a deficiency, it results to
interveinal chlorosis characterized by
yellowing of the leaf along the veins, that
is confined to the youngest leaves.
B. BORON
- The function of Boron is unknown.
- Deficiency results in abnormally dark
foliage, growth abnormalities, and
malformations.
- Root tip elongation also shows.
C. ZINC
- Zinc is required for the production of
amino acid tryptophan.
- Since auxins are derived from tryptophan,
zinc is indirectly required for the
production of auxins as well; it is also
required as a cofactor for some of the
DNA polymerase enzymes.
- Deficiency produces small leaves and
stunted stems owing to short internodes.
- In excess, zinc is poisonous to plants.
D. MANGANESE
- Manganese is required as a cofactor for
enzymes in oxidative metabolism and in
photosynthetic oxygen production.
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- Its deficiency produces a mottled,
characteristic form of chlorotic leaf
yellowing.

E. CHLORINE

- Probably required for ionic balance and

maintenance of cellular membrane
potentials, chlorine (in the form of
chloride) is apparently also needed for
oxygen production in photosynthesis.

- Its deficiency results in very small leaves

and slow growth.

- Leaves become wilted, chlorotic, or even SPECIALIZED ABSORPTIVE STRUCTURES

necrotic and may eventually become
bronze-colored. A. ROOT HAIRS

- slender extensions of specialized

F. MOLYBDENUM epidermal cells that greatly
increase the surface area available
- Molybdenum is needed as part of the for absorption.
denitrifying and nitrogen-fixing enzymes
of microorganisms. B. ROOT NODULES

- Molybdenum is also needed by the nitrate - localized swellings in roots of

reductase enzyme present in most plant certain plants where bacterial cells
roots. exist symbiotically with the plant.

- Plants must utilize this enzyme if they are - The bacteria help the plant fix
to employ nitrate as a nitrogen source. nitrogen and in turn, the bacteria
are able to utilize some organic
- However, plants that absorb ammonia as compounds provided by the plant.
a nitrogen source do not need
molybdenum. C. MYCORRHIZAE (SINGULAR, MYCORRHIZA)

- Low productivity was related to - a symbiotic interaction between a

molybdenum deficiency. young root and a fungus.

- The fungus obtains sugars and

G. COPPER nitrogen-containing compounds
from root cells while the plant is
- Copper is a component of some enzymes able to get some scarce minerals
and cytochromes. that the fungus is better able to
absorb from the soil.
- Its deficiency results in a lowered rate of
protein synthesis and sometimes in ROUTES FOR THE ABSORPTION OF WATER
chlorosis. AND MINERALS ACROSS PLANT ROOTS:

- Young leaves may be dark green and A. Symplast route – through plasmodesmata
twisted, with dead spots. B. Apoplast route – along cell walls

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 - The most important source of BNF
is the symbiotic interaction
between soil bacteria and legume
plants, including many crops
important to humans.

- The NH3 resulting from fixation can

be transported into plant tissue
Note that the water and minerals from the soil and incorporated into amino acids,
need to reach the conducting tissues of plants, which are then made into plant
specifically the xylem. proteins.

- Some legume seeds, such as

soybeans and peanuts, contain
high levels of protein and are
NUTRITIONAL ADAPTATION BY PLANTS
among the most important
A. Symbiosis of plants and soil microbe agricultural sources of protein in
Nitrogen Fixation: Root and Bacteria the world
Interactions
DIAGRAM OF THE NITROGEN CYCLE
- Nitrogen is an important
macronutrient because it is part of
nucleic acids and proteins.

- Atmospheric nitrogen, which is the

diatomic molecule N2, or
dinitrogen, is the largest pool of
nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems.

- However, plants cannot take

advantage of this nitrogen because
they do not have the necessary
enzymes to convert it into
biologically useful forms.

- However, nitrogen can be “fixed.” It Mycorrhizae: The Symbiotic Relationship

can be converted to ammonia
(NH3) through biological, physical,
or chemical processes.
- Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF),
the conversion of atmospheric
nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3),
is exclusively carried out by
prokaryotes, such as soil bacteria
or cyanobacteria.
- Biological processes contribute 65
percent of the nitrogen used in
agriculture.
between Fungi and Roots
- A nutrient depletion zone can develop
when there is rapid soil solution uptake,
low nutrient concentration, low diffusion
rate, or low soil moisture.
- These conditions are very common;
therefore, most plants rely on fungi to
facilitate the uptake of minerals from the
soil.
- Mycorrhizae, known as root fungi, form
symbiotic associations with plant roots.
In these associations, the fungi are
actually integrated into the physical
structure of the root.

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 - The fungi colonize the living root tissue
during active plant growth.
- Through mycorrhization, the plant obtains
phosphate and other minerals, such as
zinc and copper, from the soil.
- The fungus obtains nutrients, such as
sugars, from the plant root. Mycorrhizae
help increase the surface area of the
plant root system because hyphae, which
are narrow, can spread beyond the
nutrient depletion zone.
- Hyphae are long extensions of the fungus,
which can grow into small soil pores that
allow access to phosphorus otherwise
unavailable to the plant.
- The beneficial effect on the plant is best
observed in poor soils.
- The benefit to fungi is that they can
obtain up to 20 percent of the total
carbon accessed by plants.
- Mycorrhizae function as a physical barrier
to pathogens.
- They also provide an induction of
generalized host defense mechanisms,
which sometimes involves the production
of antibiotic compounds by the fungi.
- Fungi have also been found to have a
protective role for plants rooted in soils
with high metal concentrations, such as
acidic and contaminated soils.
PLANT PARASITES
- A parasitic plant depends on its host for
survival.
- Some parasitic plants have no leaves.
- An example of this is the dodder, which
has a weak, cylindrical stem that coils
around the host and forms suckers.
- From these suckers, cells invade the host
stem and grow to connect with the
vascular bundles of the host
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- The parasitic plant obtains water and
nutrients through these connections.
- The plant is a total parasite (a
holoparasite) because it is completely
dependent on its host.
- Other parasitic plants, called
hemiparasites, are fully photosynthetic
and only use the host for water and
minerals.
- There are about 4,100 species of parasitic
plants
B. ANIMAL NUTRITION
- According to Johnson and Raven, Calorie
is a unit of energy that indicates the
amount of energy contained in food.
- It specifically refers to the amount of
heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of water by
1oC (1.8oF).
- And so, the greater the number of
Calories in a quantity of food, the greater
energy it contains.
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF ANIMALS
1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Fats
CARBOHYDRATES
- serve as a major energy source for the
cells in the body.
- These are usually obtained from grains,
cereals, breads, fruits and vegetables.
- On average, carbohydrates contain 4
Calories per gram.
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 PROTEINS ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS

- can also be used as an energy source but - used for making special membrane lipids;
the body mainly uses these as building an example is linoleic acid in humans
materials for cell structures and as
enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles,
VITAMINS
and bones.

- Proteins come from dairy products, - organic molecules required in small

poultry, fish, meat, and grains. amounts for normal metabolism;
examples include fat-soluble Vitamin:
- Like carbohydrates, proteins also contain ★ A
4 Calories per gram. ★ D
★ E
FATS ★ K,
- water soluble Vitamins:
- are used to build cell membranes, steroid ★ B
hormones, and other cellular structures; ★ B2
also used to insulate nervous tissue., and ★ B3
also serve as an energy source. ★ B12
★ C.
- Fats also contain certain fat-soluble
vitamins that are important for good
TRACE ELEMENTS OR MINERALS
health.

- Fats are obtained from oils, margarine, - inorganic nutrients needed by the body in
butter, fried foods, meat, and processed minute amounts, these form part of
snack foods. enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids;
examples include:
- They contain a higher amount of energy ★ Iodine
per gram than carbohydrates and ★ Cobalt
proteins, about 9 Calories per gram. ★ Zinc
★ Molybdenum
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
★ Manganese
1. Essential amino acids ★ Selenium
2. Essential fatty acids
3. Vitamins
4. Trace elements or minerals FOOD UPTAKE IN CELLS VIA THE THREE
TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
1. PHAGOCYTOSIS

- needed for synthesis of proteins and - engulfment of organic fragments

enzymes; among the 20 amino acids, or big particles, e.g. pseudopod
eight could not be synthesized by formation in Amoeba.
humans:
1. Lysine 5. Phenylalanine 2. PINOCYTOSIS
2. Tryptophan 6. Leucine - uptake of extracellular fluid by a
3. Threonine 7. Isoleucine cell using small vesicles derived
4. Methionine 8. Valine from the plasma membrane.

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 3. RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
- this relies on membrane receptor
recognition of specific solutes
which are then taken up by the cell
via receptor-coated pits.
TYPES OF ANIMALS BASED ON FEEDING
MECHANISMS
1. Substrate-feeders
2. Filter-feeders
3. Fluid-feeders
4. Bulk-feeders
SUBSTRATE-FEEDERS
- animals that live in or on their food
source.
- Examples: earthworms that feed through
the soil where they live in; caterpillars
that eat through the leaves where they
live on
FILTER-FEEDERS
- include many aquatic animals which draw
in water and strain small organisms and
food particles present in the medium.
- Examples: whales and coelenterates
FLUID-FEEDERS
- suck fluids containing nutrients from a
living host.
- Examples: mosquitoes, leeches, head lice,
aphids
BULK-FEEDERS
- eat relatively large chunks of food and
have adaptations like jaws, teeth,
tentacles, claws, pincers, etc. that help in
securing the food and tearing it to pieces.
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DIFFERENT KINDS OF DIGESTIVE
COMPARTMENTS IN ANIMALS
1. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms
- These fuse with lysosomes that
contain hydrolytic enzymes.
- Example: food vacuole in a
protozoa like Paramecium
2. Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete
digestive system
- composed of a single opening
through which the food is taken in
and where wastes are disposed of.
- It is a sac-like body cavity.
- Examples: cnidarian Hydra and
flatworm Planaria
3. Complete digestive system
- essentially like a tube with an
opening at one end for taking in
food (mouth) and an opening at
the outer end where unabsorbed
waste materials are eliminated
(anus).
- In between the mouth and anus,
are specialized organs that carry
out transport, processing, and
absorption of digested nutrients.
ACCESSORY ORGANS FOR DIGESTION IN A
COMPLETE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats.
2. gallbladder – stores bile produced by the
liver.
3. pancreas – secretes enzymes that break
down all major food molecules; secretes
buffers against HCl from the stomach;
secretes the hormone insulin for control
of glucose metabolism.
GEN BIO II | SEM2 Q4 REVIEWER PAGE 13