Unit 04

Wave optics
Interference and Diffraction of light
The physical nature of light is an important to understand. Light is kind of energy which has
dual nature. It can have both wave and particle mode of propagation. To verify the wave nature
of light, the light must exhibit the phenomena i.e., Inference and Diffraction.
Interference of light:
When two or more than two waves of light having same frequency , nearly same amplitude
and constant phase difference with respect to time; are getting superimposed in given region of
space where these waves are present and interfere. It results the modification in their energy.
The modification as redistribution of energy of these waves in region of superposition is called
Inference of light waves.
Cause of Inference:
Superposition of coherent waves
Energy conservation principle is hold.
Interference Pattern:
The phenomena of interference is resulted due to superposition of coherent waves with
accordance of energy conservation Law. It is represented as alternative arrangement of
condition maxima (bright fringe) and condition of minima (dark fringe) with equal width,
spacing and equal intensity of like fringes. This is called interference pattern.
Types of interference:
Interference due to Division of wave front: A wave front emitted from parent source is divided
into two or more coherent wave fronts or virtual or real coherent source e.g., Young’s double
slits experiments
Interference due to Division of Amplitude: The light amplitude of wave emitted from parent
source is dived into two coherent waves by phenomena of reflection and refraction. e.g,
Formation of colour in oil thin film, Newton rings, Michelson Morley Experiment etc.
Condition for interference:
The interfering coherent waves must satisfy following condition (A, B and C: Stated below )
to have interference pattern.
A
Condition of maxima:
The effective path difference between interfering coherent wave is even multiple of half of
𝜆
wavelength ie, 2
. And phase difference is even multiple of π. The bright fringe is
observed.Condition of Minima: The effective path difference between interfering coherent
 𝜆
wave is odd multiple of half of wavelength ie, 2. And phase difference is odd multiple of π.the
dark fringe is observed.
B
Condition for sustained interference:
The interfering waves must be same frequency and same wavelength. It means source is
monochromatic in nature. If this condition is there, the phase difference fluctuates irregularly
with time .Consequently, the intensity at any point fluctuates with time and we don’t not
observe steady interference.
The interfering light waves must be coherent. If the light waves are not coherent, then it should
not able to maintain the fixed phase difference with respect to time and space. Hence, a
stationary interfere pattern will not be produce.
The effective path difference of interfering waves must be smaller than coherence length.
If interfering waves are plane polarized then their states of polarization must be same.
C
Condition of good distinct and good contrast of fringes:
The amplitude of coherent waves must be equal or nearly equal so the visibility of fringe in
pattern must be very much clear because the minima between two maxima has zero of very
small intensity. The visibility of fringes in interference patent is given by
(𝐸 −𝐸 )
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑦 (𝑉) = (𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑖. 𝑒, 0 ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 1
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛

If V is zero (0), then the interference pattern has dark fringe.

If V is one (1), then the interference pattern has bright fringe.
Coherent Source:
The sources which emit the light wave trains which are having zero’0’ or constant phase
difference with respect to time; are called coherent sources. It also maintains condition of
Monchromaticity. The coherent sources can produce the coherent waves.
Coherent source /waves cannot produce but in general, more practical way to produce coherent
sources or coherent waves are mainly two ways which holds the conditions i.e, the phase
difference between coherent source and waves remain constant even any fluctuation caused in
real source or parent source, will also present in secondary sources or coherent waves.
Division of Wave front method: A wave front emitted from parent source is divided into two
or more coherent wave fronts or virtual or real coherent source. e.g, Young’s double slits
experiments
Division of Amplitude method: The light amplitude of wave emitted from parent source is
dived into two coherent waves by phenomena of reflection and refraction. e.g, Formation of
colour in oil thin film, Newton rings, Michelson Morley Experiment etc.
Question: are any two independent coherent source are Coherent sources?
No, any two independent source never be coherent and not able to produce interference because
light emitted by millions of atom radiating independently from various energy level. So that
the phase difference from two independent source are having different fluctuations and random
with time .therefore, two independent sources can’t have constant phase difference with respect
to time
Note:
Laser source is almost coherent source because it emits the light having almost monochromatic
light with very small bandwidth and non-diverging and having almost zero phase difference.
So two independent sources can be coherent and produce sustained and good visibility
inference pattern.
No, any source in real world is perfect coherent source even laser source.
How do we consider a source, is coherent or incoherent? The concept of coherent real source
on the bases of COHERENCE.
Coherence: the coherence is measured of degree of the correlation that exists between phases
of waves measured at different points in beam of light.
A light beam is said to be coherent. All emitted waves from source must be in same phase or
having constant phase difference with respect to time.
Mathematically, concept of coherency is given by
𝜕(∆𝜑)
= 0 𝑜𝑟(∆𝜑) = 0 𝑖. 𝑒, ∆𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜕𝑡
The coherence requires that there is connection between amplitude and phase ate any given
point to amplitude and phase at other point on the wave trains of light. On the bases of it, the
coherence is two types.
Temporal Coherence or Longitudinal Coherence
Spatial Coherence or transverse Coherence
S.No. Attribute Temporal Coherence Spatial Coherence
1. Definition It is measure of Correlation It is measure of Correlation
between the phase at different between the phase at different
points lying on the axis of points lying on the plane
direction of propagation of a perpendicular to direction of
beam, the phase difference on propagation of a beam, the phase
these points are effectively the difference on these points is
same, and It is called effectively the same, and it is
"temporal coherence". This is called "spatial coherence". It is
also called Longitudinal also called Transverse coherence.
Coherence.

2. Formula 𝑙𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ The spatial coherence length is

= 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(𝑐) given
× 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝜏𝑐 ) 𝜆
𝑙𝜔 = 𝛼 where 𝛼 is angle
subtended by source.
 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ(∆𝜈)
1
=
𝜏𝑐
𝑐
So we know that 𝜈 = 𝜆 ,
𝑐
therefore, ∆𝜈 = 𝜆2 ∆𝜆
𝜆2 𝑐
𝑙𝑐 = = = 𝜆𝑄
∆𝜆 ∆𝜈
𝜆
𝑄 = 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
∆𝜆

3. Tell us about Monochromacity of source Non diverging of light beam

source

Optical Path: It is a distance covered by light in vacuum in some time. On the same time in
which light cover a given distance in given medium.
The optical path of light is an equivalent oath which is covered by light in medium of refractive
index to path would be covered by light in vacuum in same time or keeping same frequency.
In air light travels more than any medium.
Expression of optical Path:
In optics, optical path length means the length of light has to travel in air to create the same phase
difference. It is the product of the geometric length of the path light follows through the system and
the index of refraction of the medium through which it propagates.

Let light ray A and B are travelling in free space and medium of refractive index (μ) of length
l.
Time is taken by ray B to cover length l in medium of refractive index (μ) is t

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑡=
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
 𝑙
𝑡= 𝑐
( ⁄𝜇 )

𝑙𝜇
𝑡=
𝑐
The distance covered by light ray A in free space in same time t is 𝑙’
𝑙′ = 𝑡 × 𝑐
𝑙𝜇
𝑙′ = ×𝑐
𝑐
𝑙 ′ = 𝑙𝜇
𝐎𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐡 = 𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐱 × 𝐠𝐞𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐡.
In case of air or free space, the optical path is equal to geometrical path.
Optical Path difference: The path difference between optical paths of two light rays originated
from single point source.
Stoke Reflection:
When light wave are reflected back to a rarer medium at the surface of an optically denser
medium. The light wave suffers a phase difference of 𝜋 and path difference of 𝜆/2 between
incident and reflected.
It is noted that no such phase change is caused when reflection is backed by rarer medium. If
reflection is backed by denser medium a phase difference of 𝜋 is introduce.
.
Inference of Light Due to Thin film:
An optical thinn flm is an optical deivce which is optical tarnspernt and having refractive index
(μ) and it is a slab type tansperent structure whose length (l) is much larger than thickness (t)
of it ,i.e, 𝑙 ≫ 𝑡 And thickness of such optical transparent slab like structure must be order of
wavelength of incident light on it.
Conditions of optical transparent thin film are
𝑙≫𝑡
The length is effectively large than length and width of film.
The thickness is order of wavelength.𝑡 ≅ 𝑂(𝜆)
Best example of it, i.e., Oil thin film at water surface, soap bubble, anti-reflecting coted thin
film on glass.
It has one of best use to observe and study the interference due division of amplitude.
Production of coherent Waves in case of thin film:
In case of thin film, i.e., oil thin film, soap bubble etc, the coherent waves are produced due to
division of amplitude of single wave front with help of multiple reflection and refraction from
upper and lower surface of thin film.

In case of thin film, two set of interference pattern are caused due to superposition of reflected
coherent waves and transmitted coherent waves. It holds the energy conservation. Both pattern
are complementary to each other
Interference Due to reflected light in thin film

A uniform optical transparent thin film having thickness of order of wavelength of light, i.e.
𝑡 ≅ 𝑜(𝜆) and refractive index 𝜇 .It has two parallel optical flat surface 𝑋𝑋’ (𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟) and
𝑌𝑌’ (𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟).
S is a monochromatic source which is emitting a light of wavelength ′𝜆′ and incident on upper
surface of thin film 𝑋𝑋’ at point O with incident angle(𝑖).
Incident wave (Ray) dived into two waves (Rays) i.e., due to reflection and refraction as OA
and OP.
The OA is due reflection which is backed by denser medium. So, it has extra path difference
of 𝜆/2.
The wave (ray) OP is further incident on lower surface YY’ of thin film, get reflected and
transmitted. Then we get waves PQ as reflected. This PQ is refracted from upper surface and
get refracted wave (Ray) QB.
Now, we have two coherent waves due to reflection and refraction from both surface of thin
film i.e. OA and QB.
Such produced coherent waves i.e, OA: Wave1 and QB: Wave 2 get superimposed and give
interference pattern i.e., interference pattern due to reflected light.
Calculation of optical Path difference:
The optical path of Wave 1 is given as
𝑂𝑃1 = 𝑆𝑂 + 𝑂𝐴 (1a)
The optical path of Wave 12 is given as
𝑂𝑃2 = 𝑆𝑂 + 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄) + 𝑄𝐵 (1b)
The optical Path difference between both waves is
∆= |𝑂𝑃2 − 𝑂𝑃1 |
∆= (𝑆𝑂 + 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄) + 𝑄𝐵) − (𝑆𝑂 + 𝑂𝐴)
∆= 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄) − (𝑂𝐴 − 𝑄𝐵) = 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄) − 𝑂𝑀 (1c)
The effective path difference between both waves 1 and 2 is not given by Eq (1c) because wave
𝜆
OA suffers stoke reflection so it introduces path difference ± 2 so effective path difference is
𝜆
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = ∆ ± 2 (1)

Expression for ∆
From Eq (1c),
∆= 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄) − 𝑂𝑀
OM cab be expressed in term of 𝜇 .By using Snell’s law
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑖)
𝜇 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑟) (2)

The value of 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑖) and 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑟) is obtained from geometry. First drop perpendicular from O on
PQ such that N is foot of perpendicular i.e, ON.
In ∆OMQ In ∆ONQ
∠𝑂𝑀𝑄 = 900 ∠𝑂𝑁𝑄 = 900
∠𝑀𝑂𝑄 = 900 − 𝑖 ∠𝑁𝑄𝑂 = 900 − 𝑟
∠𝑂𝑄𝑀 = 𝑖 ∠𝑁𝑂𝑄 = 𝑟
𝑂𝑀 𝑁𝑄
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑖) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑟) =
𝑂𝑄 𝑂𝑄

Using Eq 2, we get
𝑂𝑀
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑖) 𝑂𝑄 𝑂𝑀
𝜇 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑟) = ( 𝑁𝑄 )= 𝑁𝑄
𝑂𝑄

𝑂𝑀 = 𝜇 𝑁𝑄 (3)
Put the value of OM from Eq 3 in Eq 1c, we get
∆= 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄) − 𝑂𝑀 = 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄) − 𝜇 𝑁𝑄
∆= 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄) − 𝜇 𝑁𝑄 = 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + (𝑃𝑄 − 𝑁𝑄))

∆= 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + (𝑃𝑄 − 𝑁𝑄)) = 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑁) (4)

Now, extend back the PQ which meets normal from O to P’ at P’’. So we have right triangles
i.e, ∆𝑂𝑃𝑃" and∆𝑃′𝑃𝑃′′. Using properties of ASA congruency of triangles. ∆𝑂𝑃𝑃" ≅ ∆𝑃′𝑃𝑃′′
so
∠𝑃𝑂𝑃′ = ∠𝑃𝑃′′ 𝑃′ = 𝑟
PP’ is common normal of both triangles.
Therefore, we have
𝑂𝑃′ = 𝑃′ 𝑃′′ = 𝑡 (5a)
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃′′ (5b)
Using Eq 5a in Eq4, we get
∆= 𝜇(𝑃𝑃′′ + 𝑃𝑁) = 𝜇𝑃′′𝑁 (6)
Now using right triangle ∆𝑂𝑁𝑃′′
∠𝑂𝑁𝑃′′ = 90, ∠𝑁𝑃′′ 𝑃 = 𝑟 , 𝑂𝑃′′ = 𝑂𝑃′ + 𝑃′ 𝑃′′ = 2𝑡
𝑃′′ 𝑁 = 𝑂𝑃′′ 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟) = 2𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟) (7a)
Using Eq7a in Eq6, we get

∆= 𝜇𝑃′′ 𝑁 = 𝜇(2𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟)) = 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟) (7)

Putting value of ∆ from Eq7 in Eq1, we get

𝜆
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟) ± 2 (8)

The value of ∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 is function of𝜇, 𝑡, 𝑟. The value of these parameters shall be such that the
condition of maxima or condition of minima should be satisfies in thin film and interference
pattern is caused due to such conditions.
±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = { 𝜆 (9)
±(2𝑚 ± 1) 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎

Where m is order of fringes. From Eq 8 and Eq 9, we get

𝜆
±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟) ± 2 = { 𝜆
±(2𝑚 ± 1) 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
𝝀
±(𝟐𝒎 ± 𝟏) 𝟐 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑹𝟏
𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓) = {
±𝒎𝝀 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑫𝒂𝒓𝒌 𝑹𝟐
The condition of Maxima (bright fringes) and condition of Minima (Dark fringes) are given
as R1 and R2.
Interference Due to Transmitted light in thin film

A uniform optical transparent thin film having thickness of order of wavelength of light, i.e.
𝑡 ≅ 𝑜(𝜆) and refractive index 𝜇 .It has two parallel optical flat surface 𝑋𝑋’ (𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟) and
𝑌𝑌’ (𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟).
S is a monochromatic source which is emitting a light of wavelength ′𝜆′ and incident on upper
surface of thin film 𝑋𝑋’ at point O with incident angle(𝑖).
Incident wave (Ray) dived into two waves (Rays) i.e., due to reflection and refraction as OA
and OP.
The OP is due refraction.
𝜆
There is no wave suffering Stoke Reflection. So no extra path of 2 is introduced.

The wave (ray) OP is further reflected and refracted as PQ and PC.PQ incident on lower surface
YY’ of thin film, get reflected QR. QR is refracted as RD .
Now, we have two coherent waves due to reflection and refraction from both surface of thin
film i.e. PC and RD.
Such produced coherent waves i.e, PC: Wave1 and RD: Wave 2 get superimposed and give
interference pattern i.e., interference pattern due to transmitted light.
Calculation of optical Path difference:
The optical path of Wave 1 is given as
𝑂𝑃1 = 𝑆𝑂 + 𝜇 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝐶 (1a)
The optical path of Wave 12 is given as
𝑂𝑃2 = 𝑆𝑂 + 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄 + 𝑄𝑅) + 𝑅𝐷 (1b)
The optical Path difference between both waves is
∆= |𝑂𝑃2 − 𝑂𝑃1 |
∆= (𝑆𝑂 + 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄 + 𝑄𝑅) + 𝑅𝐷) − (𝑆𝑂 + 𝜇 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝐶)
∆= 𝜇(𝑃𝑄 + 𝑄𝑅) − (𝑃𝐶 − 𝑅𝐷) = 𝜇(𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄) − 𝑃𝑀 (1c)
PM cab be expressed in term of 𝜇 .By using Snell’s law
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑖)
𝜇 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑟) (2)

Using calculation as same way has been done in Reflected part, we get, the effective path
difference between both transmitted waves.
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟) (3)

The value of ∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 is function of𝜇, 𝑡, 𝑟. The value of these parameters shall be such that the
condition of maxima or condition of minima should be satisfies in thin film and interference
pattern is caused due to such conditions.
±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = { 𝜆 (4)
±(2𝑚 ± 1) 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎

Where m is order of fringes. From Eq 3 and Eq 4 , we get

±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟) = { 𝜆 (5)
±(2𝑚 ± 1) 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎

±𝒎𝝀 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒂 𝑻𝟏

𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓) = { 𝝀
±(𝟐𝒎 ± 𝟏) 𝟐 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒂 𝑻𝟐

The condition of Maxima (bright fringes) and codition of Minima (Dark fringes) are given
as T1 and T2.
Finally, from above set of equations, the value of𝜇, 𝑡, 𝑟 such that, the condition of maxima in
case of reflected is condition of minima of transmitted(𝑅1 ↔ 𝑇2) and vice versa is also
true(𝑅2 ↔ 𝑇1).
So, the condition of maxima and condition of Minima are reversed in both cases. Thus, the
interference pattern in thin film are complementary. It is formed accordance with energy
conservation principle.
Attribute Reflected Transmitted Nature of
Firings
∆𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝝀 𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓)
𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓) ±
𝟐
Condition λ 2μt Cos(r) = ±mλ T1 Bright
2μt Cos(r) = ±(2m ± 1) R1
Of Maxima 2
Condition 2μt Cos(r) = ±mλ R2 λ Dark
2μt Cos(r) = (2m ± 1) T2
Of minima 2

Question: Is there any restriction of thickness on thin film?

Yes
We know that interference colours are observed only in thin films but not in thick plates such
as windowpanes or glass slabs. This is due to the fact that light waves can interfere only when
both the conditions of temporal and spatial coherence are satisfied.
In reality, the incident light consists of wave trains of finite length and coherence extends over
the length of each wave train only. Interference can occur only when parts of the same group
of wave trains overlap. Superposition of different wave trains cannot produce interference
because they will be incoherent and do not maintain any constant phase relationship with each
other.
Fig. shows the real situation. Wave trains 1, 2, 3 of finite length are incident in succession on
a thin film. Portions of each wave train are reflected by the top and bottom surfaces of the film.
Each wave train is divided into two reflected wave trains (U1, L1, U2, L2 and U3, L3). In Fig.
(a) The film is thin and the difference in the optical path lengths of U1 and L1 is small
compared to the length of the wave train. Their superposition produces interference, as U1 and
L1 are parts of the same wave train 1 and hence are coherent. In Fig. (b) the film is thicker
and the optical path difference between U1 and L1 is large than the coherence length.
Consequently, superposition takes place between parts of different wave trains, U2 and L1 and
U3 and L2. Therefore interference does not take place
 (a) (b)

t
t

Fig. Role of the thickness of the film—(a) when the film thickness is smaller than
coherence length, superposition of reflected parts of the same wave train occurs leading to
inference. (b) In thick films, different wave trains which are not coherent superpose and
interference does not arise.
It implies that interference occurs only when the optical path difference,∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 , between
the superposing waves is less than the coherence length. So, the interference is caused
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝑅) ≪ 𝑙𝑐
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟) − 2 ≪ 𝑙𝑐
𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟) ≪ 2 + 𝑙𝑐
𝜆
[𝑙𝑐 + ]
2
𝑡 ≪ 2𝜇 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟)

𝜆2
𝑙𝑐 = ∆𝜆
𝜆2 𝜆
[ + ]
∆𝜆 2
𝑡 ≪ 2𝜇 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟)
𝜆 1
𝜆[ + ]
∆𝜆 2
𝑡 ≪ 2𝜇 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟)

𝜆2
[ ] 𝜆2
∆𝜆
𝑡 ≪ 2𝜇 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟) = 2𝜇 ∆𝜆 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟)
𝜆 1
Where ∆𝜆 ≫ 2 and for normal incidence 𝑟 = 0
𝜆2
𝑡 ≪ 2𝜇 ∆𝜆
𝑙
𝑡 ≪ 2𝜇𝑐
The above equation indicates that interference in thin film will be observed if the

13
 thickness of the film is less than the coherence length of the incident light waves.
Normally, the coherence length of the light from ordinary sources is of the order of a
fraction of a millimeter. Therefore, interference is seen with the films of thickness of the
order of a few hundred microns only. It is because of this reason that thick films do not
exhibit interference.
Question: What does happen if?
(1) Film is ultra-thin.
(2) Film is ultra-thick.
(1) If film is ultra-thin film, so the thickness of optical transparent thin film is very small
in comparison to wavelength of interfering waves. i.e.,
𝑡 ≪≪ 𝑂(𝜆)
So the effective thickness of film is tending to Zero. If such thin film produces
interference pattern by reflected part of light, effective path difference between interfering
light is
𝜆
lim ∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝑅) = lim(2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟) ± 2)
𝑡→0 𝑡→0

𝜆
lim ∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝑅) = ± 2
𝑡→0
It results condition of minima mean it causes the dark fringes. In case of ultra-thin
film, the thickness is uniformly same i.e., t tends to zero. So the condition of minima is
satisfies over the complete the film. So the ultra-thin film appears to dark. But it, will
appears bright in case of transmitted light. Because the effective path difference of
transmitted interfering coherent waves must satisfied condition of Maxima
lim ∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝑅) = 0 . Both pattern are complementary to each other. And holds energy
𝑡→0
conservation.
(2) In case of ultra- thick film, a film is considered to be combination of many thin film
which are staked on each other. In such away, the effective path difference is greater
than coherence length.so it does not satisfies the condition of interference. The
values of 𝑡, 𝜇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 such as the condition of maxima and minima satisfied at same
position by different thin film stacked. So we observe the uniform illumination at
that point and complete film due to the reason the effective path difference is much
greater than coherence length.
Question:
1. discuss the formation of Colure in thin film
2. Discuss the formation of colure in oil thin film
3. Discuss the formation of colour in Soap Bubble
Discuss the formation of Colure in thin film:
The formation of colure in thin film is due the phenomena of Interference by White light.
As te white light is combination 7 colure light. It is polychromatic light. So we get 7 colour
light waves which are superimposing after refection and transmission due to thin film.
The colures are appearing in the film due to interference. The colour which is appearing in the
film, are satisfying condition of maxima and those colour are disappear, is satisfying condition

14
of minima from pattern in both cases reflected and transmitted patterns.
As the value of 𝑡, 𝜇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 become such that the condition of maxima (or minima) is satisfied
such colure must appear (or disappear). In case of the Uniform thin film, the value of t remain
fixed. By keeping position fix we can keep the value of r is also constant. But the value of
𝜇 change because it is function of wavelength. So in uniform thin film the formation of colure
is dependent on refractive index. At some position, a colure is satisfying condition of maxima,
it means that colure will present at that position. If some colour is absent than it satisfies
condition of minima.
The condition of maxima and minima in both case reflected and transmitted are
complementary to each other. So the colour is present at any position of thin film in reflected
part pattern. It must disappears from transmitted pattern.

Discuss the formation of colure in oil thin film:

The formation of colure in oil thin film by white light is caused due to interference. The oil
thin film is a non-uniform thin film whose thickness is not same at all position. So t is varing.as
the white light which is having 7 colures so the refractive index is also varying with
wavelength. On value of r can be fixed to view the film. The value of refractive index and
thickness can be such that some of colure satisfies condition of maxima (The effective path
𝜆
difference satisfies condition of maxima i.e, 2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝑟) ± 2 = ± 𝑛𝜆 )so they shall appear and
some of colour satisfies minima so they shall be absent.

Formation of colour in Soap Bubble:

The formation of colure in Soap Bubble by white light is caused due to interference. The
Soap Bubble is a non-uniform thin film whose thickness is not same at all position. The
interference pattern in case of sap bubble is continuous changing because the thinness of
surface of soap bubble is continuous changing. Because the soap detergent solution drains
from top to bottom, the soap film gets thinner at top and colour become more brilliant. Where
the bottom the thickness become thicker and we can’t observe the colour. Due to continuous
drain of solution from top. The thickness become smaller than incident wavelength. The top
of film become dark. So the interference pattern is continuous changing as thickness of top of
soap bubble is reducing. If we view to top of soap bubble. The colorations at top of surface of
soap bubble are continuously changing with change of thickness of top.
Necessity of Extended Source:
Consider ray SA starting from narrow source ‘S’. It suffers reflection and enters the eye
whereas SB incident at a different angle after reflection and internal reflection will not reach
the eye. Hence only limited portion of the film is visible. If an extended source of light is used,
then S1 A and S2A after reflection and internal reflection will reach the eye from a large
portion of film.

15
In case of point source, the complete thin film is not possible to observe at one glance. But it
can be observed completely at one glance. In case of point source, the angel of view at any
point is different because the angle of incident is different accordance to Snell’s law. So to
view the complete film we have to change the position of eyes. But in case of the angle of
incident at different position of film is same so the angle of view must be same to observe the
different position of film. So at one glance the, complete thin film can be observed.

16
Inference due to wedge Shaped thin film:

The wedge shaped thin film is an optical device which is useful to understand the phenomena
of interference by it. It has lot of application such as determine the thickness of ultra-thin
optical film, diameter of wire of ultra-thin dimension diameter of human hair and diameter of
optical Fibre etc.
A wedge is a thin film of varying thickness having a zero thickness at one end
and progressively increasing to a particular thickness at the other end. A thin
wedge of air film can be formed by two glass slides resting on each other at
one edge and separated by a thin spacer at the opposite edge.
Let the light is incident at point B with angle ∠𝑖 on wedge shaped thin film. By multiple
reflection and refraction from the upper and lower surface of film. We get the reflected
coherent wave as R1 and R2. These wave get superimposed and result the inference pattern if
the effective path difference between tem satisfies condition of maxima and minimum.
The optical path of wave (R1)
𝑂𝑃)1 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝑅1 1a
The optical Path of wave (R2)

(𝑂𝑃)2 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) + 𝐷𝑅2 1b

The optical path difference is ∆

17
∆= (𝑂𝑃)2 − (𝑂𝑃)1
∆= 𝐴𝐵 + 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) + 𝐷𝑅2 − (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝑅1 )

∆= 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) + 𝐷𝑅2 − (𝐵𝑅1 )

∆= 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − 𝐵𝐹 1
Using Snell’s Law we get 𝐵𝐹 = 𝜇𝐵𝐸 so

∆= 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − 𝜇𝐵𝐸

∆= 𝜇((𝐶𝐷 + 𝐵𝐶) − 𝐵𝐸)

∆= 𝜇(𝐶𝐷 + 𝐸𝐶) 2
Because, at point B Stoke reflection take place so the effective path difference is
𝜆
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = ∆ ± 2 3
After calculation as made in uniform thin film, we get

𝜆
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝑟 + 𝜃) ± 2 4

The value of ∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 is function of𝜇, 𝑡, 𝑟. The value of these parameters shall be such that the condition
of maxima or condition of minima should be satisfies in thin film and interference pattern is caused
due to such conditions.
±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = { 𝜆 (5)
±(2𝑚 ± 1) 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎

Where m is order of fringes. From Eq 8 and Eq 9 , we get

𝜆
±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑟 + 𝜃) ± 2 = { 𝜆
±(2𝑚 ± 1) 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
𝝀
±(𝟐𝒎 ± 𝟏) 𝟐 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑹𝟏
𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓 + 𝜽) = {
±𝒎𝝀 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑫𝒂𝒓𝒌 𝑹𝟐
The condition of Maxima (bright fringes) and condition of Minima (Dark fringes) are given as R1
and R2.
In case of transmitted the condition of bright and dark is reversed.
±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝒓 + 𝜽) = { 𝜆
±(2𝑚 ± 1) 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎

18
 ±𝒎𝝀 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒂 𝑻𝟏
𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓 + 𝜽) = { 𝝀
±(𝟐𝒎 ± 𝟏) 𝟐 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒂 𝑻𝟐

The condition of Maxima (bright fringes) and condition of Minima (Dark fringes) are given as T1
and T2.
Finally, from above set of equations, the value of𝜇, 𝑡, 𝑟 such that, the condition of maxima in case of
reflected is condition of minima of transmitted(𝑅1 ↔ 𝑇2) and vice versa is also true(𝑅2 ↔ 𝑇1).
So, the condition of maxima and condition of Minima are reversed in both cases. Thus, the interference
pattern in wedge shaped thin film are complementary. It is formed accordance with energy
conservation principle.
Attribute Reflected Transmitted Nature of
fringes
∆𝒆𝒇𝒇 𝜆 2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝑟 + 𝜃)
2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝑟 + 𝜃) ±
2
Condition 𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓 + 𝜽) 𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓 + 𝜽) Bright
Of 𝝀 ±𝒎𝝀 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒂 𝑻𝟏
= {±(𝟐𝒎 ± 𝟏) 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑹𝟏 = {
Maxima 𝟐

Condition 𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓 + 𝜽) 𝟐𝝁𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓 + 𝜽) Dark

Of
minima
={
±𝒎𝝀 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑫𝒂𝒓𝒌 𝑹𝟐 = {±(𝟐𝒎 ± 𝟏) 𝝀 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒂 𝑻𝟐
𝟐

Fringes of equal thickness or Fizeau fringes

The path difference ∆ = 2𝜇t cos𝜃 between the rays reflected from the wedge shaped film of constant
wedge angle depends on the thickness of the film at that place where light is incident normally on the
film. Due to this reason the interference fringes will be the locus of all those points at which the
thickness t of film has a constant value. So there fringes are straight fringes of equal thickness called
Fizeau Fringes. The fringes width of these fringes 𝛽 = 𝜆 2𝜇𝜃 𝑖𝑠 depend on the wedge angle while it is
not depend on the thickness of film. These fringes are formed within film. So they are also called
localized fringes. This types of fringes are observed in Michelson's interferometer

Expression for fringes Width: The spacing between two successive a bright or(dark) fringes is called
fringe width.

19
Let the P will appear dark (bright) so it satisfies condition of minima (maxima).At P we have the n th
dark fringe. And at Q we have (n+1) th dark fringe. So the spacing between both fringes is equal to
Fringes width (β). So the fringe width is given as
𝛽 = 𝑋𝑛+1 − 𝑋𝑛
By using figure, we get
𝑡𝑛 𝑡𝑛+1
tan(𝜃) = =
𝑋𝑛 𝑋𝑛+1
Now the condition of minima satisfies at P and Q , we have
𝟐𝝁𝑡𝑛 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓 + 𝜽) = ±𝒏𝝀 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝑫𝒂𝒓𝒌
𝟐𝝁𝑡𝑛+1 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓 + 𝜽) = ±(𝒏 + 𝟏)𝝀 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝒕𝒉 𝑫𝒂𝒓𝒌
𝜆
𝑡𝑛+1 − 𝑡𝑛 = 𝟐𝝁𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓+𝜽) =(𝑋𝑛+1 − 𝑋𝑛 )𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃) = 𝛽 tan(𝜃)

𝜆
𝛽=
𝟐𝝁𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒓 + 𝜽)𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜽)
A fringe width of bright fringe is also same.
For Normal incidence, ∠𝑖 = 0 = ∠𝑟 so the formula of fringe width becomes
𝜆
𝛽=
𝟐𝝁 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝜽)
For normal incidence and small angle approximation 𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝜽) ≅ 𝜽 we get
𝜆
𝛽=
𝟐𝝁 (𝜽)
The 𝜽 is taken in radian
Application of wedge shaped thin film:
The fringe width formula are very useful to
(i) To find diameter of optical fiber, fine wire, human hair,
(ii) To find the thickness of fine papers.
(The thickness of diameter of order of wavelength of light.)

20
 (iii) Testing the plane of surfaces: For testing the planeness of surface of a glass plate it is
placed on an optically plane surface in such a way that a wedge shaped air film of very
small wedge angle is formed between these surfaces. Now it is illuminated with
monochromatic light. The fringes so produces, are observed in the study of microscope and
if the fringes are of equal width and straight, it means that the testing surface is plane
otherwise it is not plane.
(iv) We will study the extension of wedged shaped thin film in case of Newton Rings.
Which are also equal thickness fringes.

Newton Rings:
•Newton's rings is a phenomenon in which an interference pattern is formed due to
symmetrical wedge shaped air thin film about contact point between lower surface of
Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature and upper surface of glass plate by
superposition of Coherent Waves caused by air thin film.
• It is named after Isaac Newton, who investigated the effect in 1666.
• The newton ring is special class of interference pattern. it is pattern of equal thickness.
• The Newton Rings are concentric rings of increasing radius as order increases. The
separation between NRs is decreasing as order increases. At peripheral, NRs merged to
each other as order of firings are very high. The difference between area of two successive
NRs remain constant. So it is an interference pattern.
Newton’s rings pattern: It is a special case of interference in a film of variable thickness such as that
formed between a plane glass plate and a convex lens in contact with it. When monochromatic light
falls over it normally we get a central dark spot surrounded by alternatively bright and dark circular
rings. When white light is used the rings would be coloured.

Cause of formation of NR

21
 • The cause of formation of Newton’s Ring is phenomena of interference.
• In this experiment, type of interference is Division of Amplitude.
• The total energy of interfering coherent waves is redistributed but remain constant

Experimental Arrangement of Newton Ring

• Let S be the extended source of light, rays from which after passing through a lens L falls
upon a glass plate G at 45°. After partial reflection these rays fall on a Plano convex lens P
placed on the glass plate E. The interference occurs between the rays reflected from the two
surfaces of the air film and viewed through microscope M.

Theory for Newton Ring

22
Due to symmetrical air wedge shaped film is formed so the effective path difference produced between
reflected coherent waves will be ∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 .
𝛌
∆𝐞𝐟𝐟 = 𝟐𝛍𝐭 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝛉 + 𝐫) ±
𝟐
𝜆
The is due to Stoke Reflection, for experimental set up
2
• 𝑟 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• Air thin film 𝜇 = 1
• The wedge angle is very small because R is very large.
Under these condition the effective path difference will be
𝛌
∆𝐞𝐟𝐟 = 𝟐𝐭 ±
𝟐

The effective path difference is given by

±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
∆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = { 𝜆
±(2𝑚 ± 1) 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎

The path difference of coherent wave are related to thickness of air thin film. It is also related to radius
of rings and radius of curvature.

In this figure, 𝑅 is the radius of curvature of the lens, 𝑟𝑚 is the radius of one of the observed rings, and
2t is the path difference for the two coherent waves.
Using triangle properties in ∆ 𝑂𝐴𝐵, ∠𝑂𝐴𝐵 = 900
𝑂𝐵 2 = 𝑂𝐴2 + 𝐴𝐵 2
𝑅 2 = (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 + 𝑟𝑚2
On solving under approximation i.e., 𝑜(𝑡 2 ) is negligible small, so we get we get

23
 𝑟2
𝑚
𝑡 = 2𝑅 .In case of reflected light

±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎

𝛌
∆𝐞𝐟𝐟 = 𝟐𝐭 ± = { 𝜆
𝟐 ±(2𝑚 ± 1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
2

±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎

𝑟𝑚2 𝛌
∆𝐞𝐟𝐟 = 𝟐 ± ={ 𝜆
2𝑅 𝟐 ±(2𝑚 ± 1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
2
±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
𝑟𝑚2 𝛌
∆𝐞𝐟𝐟 = ± ={ 𝜆
𝑅 𝟐 ±(2𝑚 ± 1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
2
2 ±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
𝐷𝑚 𝛌
∆𝐞𝐟𝐟 = ± ={ 𝜆
4𝑅 𝟐 ±(2𝑚 ± 1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
2
2 𝜆
𝐷𝑚 ±(2𝑚 ± 1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
={ 2
4𝑅
±𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
𝜆
2 ±4𝑅(2𝑚 ± 1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
𝐷𝑚 ={ 2
±4𝑅 𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎

𝜆
√4𝑅(2𝑚 ± 1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
𝐷𝑚 = 2
{ √4𝑅 𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎

The diameter of dark rings in case of reflected light are proportional to square of the natural numbers.
And the diameter of bright rings in case of reflected light are to square proportional of the odd natural
numbers.
Spacing between Newton Rings:
In both case the spacing between NR is continuously decreasing as order of rings increases. For
example in case of dark ring

𝐷𝑚 = √4𝑅 𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎 = 𝑘 √ 𝑚 , 𝑘 = √4𝑅 𝜆

𝐷𝑚+1 − 𝐷𝑚 = 𝑘(√ 𝑚 + 1 − √ 𝑚)
𝐷2 − 𝐷1 > 𝐷3 − 𝐷2 > 𝐷4 − 𝐷3……………………..

24
At peripheral, the both bright and dark rings have very small difference. It is nearly zero. For dark
rings

lim 𝐷𝑚+1 − 𝐷𝑚 = lim 𝑘(√ 𝑚 + 1 − √ 𝑚) = 0

𝑚→∞ 𝑚→∞

Note: A similar result can be derived in case of transmitted pattern (Do yourself).
The diameter of Nr in transmitted pattern is given by

√4𝑅 𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎

𝐷𝑚 = 𝜆
√4𝑅(2𝑚 ± 1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
{ 2

1. The Newton rings observed in case reflected and transmitted light are complementary with
each other. We observe the pattern that is just complementary with each other. The center of
reflected is dark where as it appears bright in case of transmitted pattern. Corresponding to
every bright rings in reflected is dark ring in transmitted pattern Visa versa. Due to stoke
reflection caused in reflected part, the ray R2 is suffering stoke reflection. Whereas in case of
transmitted T1 and T2 both are suffering stoke reflection.

𝛌
∆𝐞𝐟𝐟 (𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝) = 𝟐𝐭 ±
𝟐

25
 ∆𝐞𝐟𝐟 (𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐦𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐝) = 𝟐𝐭

2. The transmitted pattern has poorer contrast than reflected pattern because the transmitted rays
have poorer intensity then reflected rays.
3. Determination of Wave length of Na light:
The diameter of the m th dark ring is given by
2
𝐷𝑚 = 4𝑅 𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
Similarly, the diameter of the (𝑚 + 𝑝)𝑡ℎ dark ring is given by
2
𝐷𝑚+1 = 4𝑅 (𝑚 + 1) 𝜆
Subtracting these equations, we get
2 2
𝐷𝑚+1 − 𝐷𝑚 = 4𝑅 𝑝𝜆
Where, p is an integer.
2 2
𝐷𝑚+1 − 𝐷𝑚
𝜆=
4𝑅 𝑝
4. Determination of Refractive Index of the Liquid ()
The diameter of the m th dark ring in air is given by
2
𝐷𝑚 (𝑎𝑖𝑟) = 4𝑅 𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
The diameter of the m th dark ring in liquid is given by
2
𝐷𝑚 (𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) = 4𝑅 𝑚𝜆/𝜇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
𝐷 2 (𝑎𝑖𝑟)
So we get 𝜇 = 𝐷2 𝑚(𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑)
𝑚
Effect of introduction of liquid between plate and Plano convex lens: the diameter of rings
decrease. So the pattern id contracted.
2 2
𝐷𝑚 (𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) < 𝐷𝑚 (𝑎𝑖𝑟)
𝐷𝑚 (𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑) < 𝐷𝑚 (𝑎𝑖𝑟)

5. We can use to determine optical flatness.

6. Effect of placing mirror in place of glass plate In NR setup: the uniform illumination is
observed because the reflected and transmitted patterns are complimentary to each other. And
transmitted pattern get also reflected. And both pattern get superimposed.
7. Effect of uplifting of the distance between lens and glass plate: The firings starts overlapping
𝛌
towards the center. If the separation is order of 𝟐 in case reflected pattern, the center become
bright.
8. Effect of using a lens of small radius curvature: The diameter of Newton ring is related
to the radius of curvature of Plano convex lens as
𝐷𝑚 = √4𝑅 𝑚𝜆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎
𝐷𝑚 ∝ √𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎

If R is small than the diameter of Ring is small vice versa.

9. Effect of non-Monochromatic light: a white light is non monochromatic. It consists of 7

colour light. Therefore we get colour pattern. Note that the center fringes of all wavelengths lie
in the same position and satisfy same condition. In case of reflection, it appears dark. Due to
overlap of interference pattern of different colour only few colour is clearly visible. The
diameter of violet colour of same order is smaller than the red colour of same order.
10. Newton Rings formed by curved Surfaces (Do yourself)

26
 (i) When Plano convex les is resting on Plano concave surface of lens
1 1 4𝑚𝜆
− = 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐷𝑚
1 1 2(2𝑚 − 1)𝜆
− = 2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐷𝑚
(ii) When Plano convex les is resting on Plano convex surface of lens
1 1 4𝑚𝜆
+ = 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐷𝑚
1 1 2(2𝑚 − 1)𝜆
+ = 2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐷𝑚

11. Why Newton's rings are circular?

The path difference between the reflected ray and incident ray depends upon the thickness of
the air gap between lens and the base. As the lens is symmetric along its axis, the thickness is
constant along the circumference of a ring of a given radius. Hence, Newton's rings are circular.
12. Why is the centre of Newton's Ring Dark?
The centre of the ring dark in Newton's Rings experiment with reflected light is dark because
at the point of contact the thickness of air thin film is zero (t=0) but due to stoke reflection,
one of the interfering ray is reflected so the effective path difference becomes λ/2.
𝛌
∆𝐞𝐟𝐟 (𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝) = 𝟐𝐭 ±
𝟐
𝛌
∆𝐞𝐟𝐟 (𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝) = ±
𝟐
Therefore the effective path difference is λ/2 thus the condition of minimum intensity is
created at centre.
13. Why monochromatic light is used in Newton ring?
The interference pattern can be observed clearly when monochromatic light is used. When
white light is used the interference pattern will not be very clear because different
wavelengths of light interfere at a different thickness. It results the interfering pattern.
Important questions:
1. Explain the formation of Newton’s ring in reflected monochromatic light. Prove that in
reflected light diameters of dark rings are proportional to square root of natural
numbers.
2. What are Newton’s Rings? Prove that in reflected light diameters of bright rings are
proportional to square root of odd natural numbers.
3. Discuss the formation of bright and dark circular rings by reflected monochromatic
light in Newton’s ring experiment. How these rings are used to determine wavelength
of the light used? Derive the expression for the diameter of the bright ring of order n in
Newton’s ring Experiment immersed in a liquid of refractive index µ.
4. Describe how Newton’s Ring Experiment can be used to determine the refractive index
of liquid
5. In Newton’s ring experiment what happens when
(i) A point source of light is used

27
 (ii) Light is not monochromatic
(iii) Lens is lifted up slowly from the flat surface
(iv) Effect of placing the lens on sliver polished glass Plate or Mirror
(v) How do you get bright centre in case of reflected light?
.

Diffraction of light
The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners and the encroachment of light within the
geometrical shadow of the opaque obstacles is called diffraction. This phenomena is used to prove
the wave nature of light wave.

Conditions of diffraction: the size of obstacle or narrow path is order of wavelength of light.

Cause of Diffraction: the superposition of secondary wavelet of same wave fronts which diffracted
from diffracting elements i.e., obstacle or narrow path .

1. Suppose there is a dark room, a completely dark room and through the window, there is a small hole.
When light enters through that tiny hole, what happens? We see that through the small hole light enters
but instead of just bright light, we see a region of bright and dark bands. This is nothing but the
diffraction of light.
2. At times diffraction of sunlight in clouds produces a multitude of colors. Example of diffraction in
nature is diamond rays in the solar eclipse.

28
Types of Diffraction
There are two types of diffractions
1. Fresnel Diffraction
2 Fraunhoffer Diffraction
Differences between Fraunhoffer Diffraction and Fresnel Diffraction
Fraunhoffer diffraction Fresnel diffraction

 Source and the screen are far away
(infinite distances) from each other.
 Incident wave fronts on the diffracting
obstacle are plane.
 Diffracting obstacle give rise to wave
fronts which are also plane.
 The effect of a number of diffracting
elements can be combined.
 Plane diffracting wave fronts are
converged by means of a convex lens to
produce diffraction pattern.
 The observed diffraction pattern is an
image of the source.
 Source and screen are not far away from
each other.
 Incident wave fronts are spherical.
 Wave fronts leaving the obstacles are
also spherical.
 While it is not so in Fresnel class.
 Convex lens is not needed to converge
the spherical wave fronts.
 The observed pattern is a projection of
diffracting element.

Difference between Interference and Diffraction

29
Fraunhoffer diffraction at a single slit
Description: The adjacent figure represents a narrow slit AB of width ‘e’. Let a plane wave front of
monochromatic light of wavelength 'λ' is incident on the slit. Let the diffracted light be focused by
means of a convex lens on a screen.
According to Huygens’s theory, every point of the wave front in the plane of the slit is a source of
secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelets traveling normally to the slit i.e., along OPo are brought
to focus at Po by the lens. Thus Po is a bright central image. The secondary wavelets traveling at an
angle 'θ' are focused at a point P1 on the screen.

The intensity at the point P1 is either minimum or maximum and depends upon the path difference
between the secondary waves originating from the corresponding points of the wave front.
Theory:
In order to find out the intensity at P1, draw a perpendicular AC on BR.
The path difference between secondary wavelets from A and B in direction q is BC i.e.
∆ = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2𝜋 2𝜋
So, the 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝜆 𝜆
Let us consider that the width of the slit is divided into ‘n’ equal parts and the amplitude of the wave
from each part is ‘a’.
So, the phase difference between two consecutive points
1 2𝜋
𝛿 = × 𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (1)
𝑛 𝜆
Then the resultant amplitude R is calculated by using the method of vector addition of amplitudes

30
The resultant amplitude of n number of waves having same amplitude 'a' and having common phase
difference of 'δ' is
𝑛𝛿
𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝑅 = 2
(2)
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛿/2
From eq. (1)
1 2𝜋
𝑛 × e Sin θ
𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝜆
R = 1 2𝜋
2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 × e Sin θ /2
𝑛 𝜆
𝜋𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛
R = 𝜆
𝜋𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝑛𝜆
𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝜋𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
R = where α =
𝛼/𝑛 𝜆
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼
R = na 𝛼
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼
R = A 3
𝛼
Where 𝑛𝑎 = 𝐴, this is the resultant amplitude when all the vibrations are in same phase.
Therefore, the Intensity is given by
2
𝐼 = 𝑅2 = 𝐴2 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼
(4)
𝛼
This equation gives the variation of intensity as function of the direction
Case (i): Principal Maximum:
Eqn (3) takes maximum value for 𝛼 = 0
𝜋𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝛼 = = 0
𝜆
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝜃 = 0
The condition θ = 0 means that this maximum is formed by the secondary wavelets which travel
normally to the slit along OPo and focus at Po. This maximum is known as “Principal maximum”.
2
Intensity of Principal maxima 𝐼0 = 𝐴2 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝛼2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼
𝛼→0
So 𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴2
Case (ii): Direction of Minimum:

31
 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼
It is clear from equation (4), intensity will be minimum when =0
𝛼
or 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 0 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝛼 ≠ 0
𝛼 = ± 𝑚𝜋 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, … ..
𝛼 = ± 𝜋, ± 2𝜋, ± 3𝜋 … …
𝜋𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
or = ± 𝑚𝜋
𝜆
𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ± 𝑚𝜆
This is the condition for minimum intensity.
Case (iii): Direction of secondary maxima:
In addition to principal maximum at = 0 , there are weak secondary maxima between minima
positions. The positions of these weak secondary maxima can be obtained with the rule of finding
maxima and minima of a given function in calculus. So, differentiating eqn(4) and equating to zero,
we have
2
𝑑𝐼 𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼
= 𝐴2 𝑑𝛼 ( 2 ) =0
𝑑𝛼 𝛼

𝑑𝐼 2𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 (𝛼𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 −𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼)

= 𝐴2 2
𝑑𝛼 𝛼 𝛼

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼
This gives either =0
𝛼
Or
𝛼𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 −𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼
2 =0
𝛼
Here 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ≠ 0 𝑠𝑜 𝛼 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 0
This gives 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 (5)
The values of 'α' satisfying the Eq (5) are obtained graphically by plotting the curves
𝑌 = 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼
on the same graph. The points of intersection of the two curves gives the values of 'α' which satisfy
eqn (5). The points of intersections are
𝜋
𝛼 = ± (2𝑚 + 1) , 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3,
2
𝜋𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜋
= ± (2𝑚 + 1) , 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3,
𝜆 2
𝜆
𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = ± (2𝑚 + 1) 2 ;

32
 (1) Intensity of first secondary maxima

(2 )Intensity of second secondary maxima

Relative intensity of successive maxima are

Or

Fraunhoffer Diffraction at Double slit

33
Description: Let 𝐴1𝐵1 and 𝐴2𝐵2 be two parallel slits of equal width ‘e’ and separated by an opaque
distance ‘𝑑’.

When the plane wave front is incident normally on the slit, all points with in the slit become the sources
of secondary wavelets which travel in all directions.
According to the theory of diffraction at a single slit, the resultant amplitude R due to all secondary
waves diffracted from each slit in the direction θ is given by
𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝜋𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑅 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 =
𝛼 𝜆
Hence the path difference between the two resultant waves of each slit = (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2𝜋
Therefore phase difference 𝜙 = (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝜆
Hence the resultant amplitude at P1 will be due to the interference between the two waves of same
amplitude R and a phase difference ϕ.
𝑅’2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 + 2𝑅. 𝑅. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝑅’2 = 2𝑅2(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
𝑅’2 = 4𝑅2𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜙/2
Substituting the value of R and ϕ, we get
2
𝑅’2 = 4𝐴2 𝛼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛽 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽 = 𝜙/2 = 𝜆 (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝜋

Therefore Intensity at P1
𝐼 = 𝑅’2
2
𝐼 = 4𝐴2 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼
2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝛼
Resultant intensity depends upon two factors:
1. 𝐴2 2 Gives diffraction pattern of individual slit.
𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
𝛼
2. 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 Gives interference pattern due to diffracted light waves from two slits.
Explanation for Intensity distribution curve:
𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
The diffraction term 𝐴2 :
𝛼2
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝛼 = 0 𝜃 = 0
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 0, 𝛼 ≠ 0

34
 𝛼 = ± 𝑚𝜋, 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, …
3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎, 𝛼 = ± , ± , ± , … … .
2 2 2
𝜋
𝛼 = ± (2𝑚 + 1) , 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3,
2
The term 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 :
Intensity will be maximum Intensity will be minimum

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛽 = 1 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛽 = ± 𝑛𝜋 , 𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛽 = 0

= 0,1,2,3 𝜋
𝜋 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛽 = ± (2𝑛 + 1) , 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3
2
𝑂𝑟 (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = ± 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝜆 (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = ± (2𝑛 + 1) ,
𝑂𝑟 (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 𝜆 2
𝑎𝑡 𝑛 = 0, 𝜃 = 0 λ
𝑜𝑟 (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 1)
At this point all the waves arrive in the same 2
phase. Hence at the center intensity is maximum.

Combination of interference and diffraction for 2 slits

Missing Orders in a Double Slit Diffraction Pattern

35
Direction for interference maxima
(𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = ± 𝑛𝜆 − − − −(1)
And the direction for diffraction minima as
𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = ± 𝑚𝜆 − − − −(2)
If the values of e and d are such that both these equation are simultaneously satisfied for some
value of θ, in that case position of interference maxima corresponds to that of diffraction minima.
Dividing equation (1) by (2), we get
(𝑒 + 𝑑)/𝑒 = 𝑛/𝑚
𝑛
Case (1) 𝑖𝑓 𝑒 = 𝑑, 𝑚 = 2 𝑛 = 2𝑚 (𝑚 = 1, 2, 3 … )
𝑛 = 2, 4, 6 …
This means that the second, fourth, sixth,… etc, orders of the interference maxima will be coincide
nd
with first, second, third,….etc order diffraction minima. Thus the 2 ,
th th
4 , 6 ,… order interference maxima will be missing in the diffraction pattern.
𝑛
Case (2) 𝑖𝑓 2𝑒 = 𝑑, 𝑚 = 3 𝑛 = 3𝑚 (𝑚 = 1, 2, 3 … )
𝑛 = 3, 6, 9 …
So the third, sixth, ninth, etc., orders of the interference maxima will be missing in the diffraction
pattern.

Fraunhoffer Diffraction due to N parallel Equidistant Slits (Plane Diffraction Grating)

Description: It is an optical device which is used to observe the diffraction phenomena. It consist
of the N parallel equal with and equal separated over on 1 inch glass plate. Let a plane wave front
of monochromatic light be incident normally on N parallel slits each of width e and separated by a
distance d.

From the theory of diffraction at a single slit, the resultant amplitude R due to all secondary waves
diffracted from each slit in the direction θ is given by

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 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝜋𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑅 = 𝐴 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 =
𝛼 𝜆
Thus the waves of amplitude R diffracted from all the slits in direction θ are equivalent to N parallel
waves. So the path difference between two consecutive waves
∆= (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2𝜋
Hence the phase difference 𝜙 = (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 2𝛽
𝜆
Resultant amplitude of N Waves
(as discussed in single slit diffraction)

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽

𝑅’ = 𝑅 == 𝐴 .
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝛼 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽

The resultant intensity at P1 is given by

𝐼 = 𝑅’2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 2
𝐼 = 𝐴2 ( )
𝛼 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽
For 𝑁 = 1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽 2
𝐼 = 𝐴2 ( )
𝛼 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
𝐼 = 𝐴2
𝛼2
This result matches with result of single slit diffraction.
For N=2
𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
2
𝐼=𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽
𝛼2
This result matches with result of single slit diffraction.
Principal Maxima:
The maximum intensity will come for 𝛼 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽 = 0, 𝛽 = 𝑛𝜋 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = 0, which
gives the position of central maximum.
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑁𝛽) 0
𝛼 = 0 lim = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = 𝑛𝜋 lim =0
𝛼→0 𝛼 𝛽→𝑛𝜋 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛽)
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑁𝛽) 𝑁𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝑁𝛽)
lim = lim =𝑁
𝛽→𝑛𝜋 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛽) 𝛽→𝑛𝜋 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽)

So the intensity will be maximum. 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑁 2 𝐴2

Direction of principal maxima are given by
𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, ….
𝜋
𝛽= (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = ± 𝑛𝜋
𝜆

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 (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 (2)
For n = 0, maximum is zero order principal maximum and for n = ±1, n ± 2….etc. are called first order,
second order ….etc. of principal maxima respectively.

Minima:
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑁𝛽) = 0 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛽) = 0
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 2
𝐼 = 𝐴2 ( )
𝛼 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛽

We get
𝐼 = 0 (𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚)
𝜋
𝑁 (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ± 𝑚𝜋
𝜆
𝑁 (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ± 𝑚𝜆 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3 … … . (𝑁 − 1) (3)
This equation gives the direction of minima.
If m = 0 gives principal maxima and m = N also gives principal maxima, then m = 1, 2, 3… (N-1)
gives minima. There are (N-1) minima between two maxima.
Secondary maxima:
Since there are (N-1) minima between two maxima, there must be (N-2) other maxima between two
consecutive principal maxima. These maxima are called secondary maxima.
𝑑𝐼
To find position of these maxima, put 𝑑𝛽 = 0

Then we have,

Thus the intensity of secondary maxima from eq. (1),

38
From this equation we can see that if N is very large then the intensity of secondary maxima is less.
Since in the grating the number of slits is very large (15000 per inch), the secondary maxima are not
visible in grating spectrum.

Angular Width of principal Maxima:

The angular width of principal maxima is angular separation between first two minima laying on either
side of any principal maxima.
The 𝑛𝑡ℎ principal Maxima lies in direction of 𝜃𝑛 .It is given by equation
(𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆

The direction first adjacent minima in direction of 𝜃𝑛 ± 𝑑𝜃𝑛 .So the angular width of 𝑛𝑡ℎ principal Maxima is
2𝑑𝜃𝑛. The minima satisfies condition of minima as
𝑁(𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑛 ± 𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) = (𝑛𝑁 ± 1)𝜆
𝑁(𝑒 + 𝑑) [𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑛 )𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) ± 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑛 )𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) ] = (𝑛𝑁 ± 1)𝜆
For small angle approximation 𝑑𝜃𝑛 → 0 so 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) → (𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) → 1 so we get
𝑁(𝑒 + 𝑑) [𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑛 ) ± 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑛 ) (𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) ] = (𝑛𝑁 ± 1)𝜆
𝑁(𝑒 + 𝑑)𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜃𝑛 ) ± 𝑁(𝑒 + 𝑑)𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑛 ) (𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) = (𝑛𝑁 ± 1)𝜆
𝑁𝑛𝜆 ± 𝑁(𝑒 + 𝑑)𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑛 ) (𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) = (𝑛𝑁 ± 1)𝜆
𝑁(𝑒 + 𝑑)𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑛 ) (𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) = 𝜆
𝜆
(𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) =
𝑁(𝑒 + 𝑑)𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑛 )
This expression is half angular width.
Now put the value of (𝑒 + 𝑑) , we get

1
(𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) =
𝑁𝑛𝐶𝑜𝑡 (𝜃𝑛 )
So the Angular width is given as
2𝜆 2
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = (2𝑑𝜃𝑛 ) = =
𝑁(𝑒 + 𝑑)𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑛 ) 𝑁𝑛𝐶𝑜𝑡 (𝜃𝑛 )

The angular width of 𝑛𝑡ℎ principal Maxima is inversely proportional to N and 𝜃𝑛

39
 (i) If the (𝑒 + 𝑑) become small. The line become closer so the AW become laser.
(ii) If width of ruled surface increases, the AW decreases and Principal maxima become sharper.
(iii) If the Number of line increase, the AW decreases and Principal maxima become sharper.

Condition for absent spectra in N slit diffraction pattern

The direction for principal maxima in N slit diffraction pattern (diffraction Grating)
(𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = ± 𝑛𝜆 (1)
And the direction for diffraction minima due to single slit
𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = ± 𝑚𝜆 (2)
If the values of e and d are such that both these equation are simultaneously satisfied, then
principal maxima of order n will not be present in the diffraction pattern
(Grating spectrum). Dividing equation (1) by (2), we get
𝑒+𝑑 𝑛
=𝑚
𝑒
𝑒+𝑑
𝑛=( )𝑚
𝑒
th
This is the condition for n order to be absent in the grating spectrum.
𝑛
For example: If 𝑒 = 𝑑 so = 2, then 𝑛 = 2𝑚 where (𝑚 = 1, 2, 3 … )
𝑚
n = 2, 4, 6…
This means that the second, fourth, sixth,… etc., orders of the principal maxima will be coincide with
first, second, third,….etc. order of diffraction minima. Thus the 2nd, 4th, 6th… order principal maxima
will be missing in the diffraction pattern.
Diffraction Grating Spectrum: An arrangement consisting of a large number of equidistant parallel
narrow slits of equal width separated by equal opaque portions is known as a diffraction grating.
The plane transmission grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque rulings are
made with a fine diamond pointer.
The rulings act as obstacles having a definite width d and the transparent space between the rulings act
as slit of width e. The combined width of a ruling and a slit is called grating element. i.e.
𝟏′
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = (𝒆 + 𝒅) = 𝑵 =
Direction of principal maxima is given by (𝒆 + 𝒅) 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = ± 𝒏𝝀
This equation is also known as grating equation of order n.

40
Grating Spectra:
From grating equation it is clear that for n = 0, θ = 0 for all values of λ. Light for all wavelength lie in
the same direction. Thus the zero order principal maxima will be white.
For other values of n, the angle of diffraction varies with the wavelength. The angle of diffraction
increases as wavelength increases. The spectra of each order consists of spectral colors in the order
from violet to red.
Dispersive Power of a Diffraction Grating
Dispersive power of grating is defined as the change of angle of diffraction with wavelength of
monochromatic light. It is denoted by 𝑑𝜃/𝑑𝜆.
For plane transmission grating, grating equation is
(e + d) Sin θ = nλ
Differentiating this w.r.t. λ
(e + d) Cosθ dθ/dλ = n

dθ n
=
dλ (e + d)cosθ

2
nλ
√
Cos(θ) = 1 − ( )
(e + d)
dθ n
=
dλ 2
nλ
(e + d)√1 − ( )
(e + d)

dθ n
=
dλ 2
√(e + d) − (λ)2
n

Where dθ is angular separation between two lines having wavelength difference dλ. The angular
sepration is independent of width of spectral line s and the total number of lines on ruled surface.
Thus Dispersive power is-
(i) Directly proportional to n i.e. dθ/dλ ∝ n
(ii) Inversely proportional to grating element(e + d), i.e. dθ/dλ ∝ 1/(e + d)
(iii)Inversely proportional to cosine of angle cosθ, i.e. dθ/dλ ∝ 1/cosθ

41
(iv)If θ is small so cosθ = 1 and hence, dθ ∝ dλ such spectrum is called normal spectrum.
Resolving Power of an Optical Instrument
The resolving power of an optical instrument is ability of the instrument to produce separate image of
object which are very close to each other
Rayleigh’s Criterion for resolution:
According to Rayleigh`s criterion, two-point sources are just resolved by an optical instrument when
the central maximum of the diffraction pattern due to one falls over the first minimum of the diffraction
pattern of the other and vice versa.

Thus the two spectral lines can be resolved only up to a certain limit expressed by Rayleigh Criterion.
2
At just resolved condition the intensity at the dip in the middle is 8/π times the intensity at either of
the maxima
Resolving Power of a Plane Diffraction Grating
It is defined as the capacity of a grating to form separate diffraction maxima of two wavelengths which
are very close to each other.
It is measured by λ/dλ, where d𝜆 is the smallest difference in two wavelengths which are just
resolvable by grating and λ is the wavelength of either of them or mean wavelength.
Let AB represent the surface of a plane transmission grating having grating element
(𝑒 + 𝑑)
And N total number of slits.
Let P1 is nth primary maximum of a spectral line of wavelength λ at an angle θ of diffraction and P2 is
the nth primary maximum of wavelength (λ+dλ) at diffracting angle (θ+dθ)

According to Rayleigh criterion, the two wavelengths will be resolved if the principal maximum (𝜆 +
𝑑𝜆) of nth order in a direction (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) falls over the first minimum of nth order in the same direction
(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) .
Let us consider the first minimum of λ of nth order in the direction (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) as below.

42
 th
The n principal maximum of λ in the direction θ is given by

(𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 (1)
The first minimum of λ in the direction of (θ+dθ) is given by the grating equation of minima,
𝑁 (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) = 𝑚𝜆 (2)
Where m is an integer except 0, N, 2N… n N, because for these values of m, the condition for maxima
is satisfied. It is clear from the diagram (of previous slide) m=nN+1, from eq. (2)
𝑁 (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) = (𝑛𝑁 + 1) 𝜆 (3)
The principal maximum of (𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) in direction (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) is given by
(𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) = 𝑛 (𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆)
Or 𝑁 (𝑒 + 𝑑) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) = 𝑛𝑁 (𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) (4)
From eqns. (3) and (4), we get
(𝑛𝑁 + 1) 𝜆 = 𝑛𝑁 (𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆)
𝑛𝑁 𝜆 + 𝜆 = 𝑛𝑁 𝜆 + 𝑛𝑁 𝑑𝜆
𝜆 = 𝑛𝑁 𝑑𝜆
𝜆/𝑑𝜆 = 𝑛𝑁
This is called resolving power of Grating.
Thus the resolving power of a grating is independent of the grating element (𝑒 + 𝑑) and directly
proportional to
(i) The order of the spectrum ‘n’
(ii) The total number of lines on the grating ‘N’

Important questions:
Part A
Q1. Discuss the phenomenon of diffraction at a single slit & show that intensities of successive maxima
are
4 4 4
1: 2
: 2
:
9𝜋 25𝜋 49𝜋 2
Q.2. Differentiate Fraunhoffer and Fresnel’s diffraction.

Q.3. Difference between Interference and Diffraction

Part B
Q.1 what is Rayleigh’s criterion of resolution?
Q.2 Show that only first order spectra is visible if the width of grating is less than twice the wavelength?
Q.3 what do you understand by dispersive power of grating? Show that dispersive power of grating
1
can be expressed as (𝑒+𝑑)2 where all terms have their usual meanings.
√{ }−𝜆2
𝑛2

43
Q.4 what do you mean by resolving power of an optical instrument? Explain the Rayleigh criterion of
resolution.
Q.5 what do you understand by resolving power of a grating? Obtain a necessary expression for
resolving power of grating.
Q.6. Discuss the Diffraction due to Plane diffraction Grating. Derive the expression for intensity. Also
discuss the Condition of Principal maxima, Secondary maxima and Minima.
Q.7. A slit is illuminated with monochromatic light. The light emerging from it is culminated by a
lenses 𝐿1 and focused on screen by lens 𝐿2 . A large diffraction grating is interposed midway between
the lenses s with grating lines parallel to slits. What will be the effect on diffraction pattern when;
(i) The grating is moved forward or backward between lenses.
(ii) The grating is shifted in its own plane and perpendicular to slits.
(iii)The grating plane is rotated round the axis parallel to slits.
Q.8. Two PDG A and B have same width of ruled surface but A has larger number of slits than B.
Compare intensity of fringes, width of principal maxima and dispersive power in both cases.

44