AF1600j

Three-dimensional Drag Models

User Guide

© TecQuipment Ltd 2019

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BW/0119
Symbols Used in this Manual
 AF1600j Three-dimensional Drag Models

Contents
Introduction and Description ............................................. 1

Technical Details ............................................................ 3

Assembly and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Drag and Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
To Fit the Models to the Three Component Balance (AF1600t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Typical Results and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Useful Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Maintenance, Spare Parts and Customer Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Spare Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Customer Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

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 AF1600j
Three-dimensional Drag Models

User Guide

Introduction and Description

Figure 1 The AF1600j Three Dimensional Drag Models

The Three-dimensional Drag Models (AF1600j) are for use with the TecQuipment Subsonic Wind Tunnel
(AF1600). All models have the same diameter, presenting the same frontal surface area to the airflow
for three-dimensional airflow studies, comparing the coefficient of drag for popular shapes.

The model shapes include:

• a plain sphere

• a dimpled sphere (similar to a golf ball)

• a hemisphere

• a flat plate

• a streamlined shape (tear drop) based on a revolved NACA0040 profile.

Students use the Three Component Balance (AF1600t) for direct measurement of drag due to each
model. TecQuipment supply a dummy stem with the models to allow students to mathematically cancel
out the drag due to the support arm of each model.

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To enhance the experiments, the Smoke Generator (AFA11) (available separately) can be used to show
the airflow around the models.

Dimpled Plain
Streamlined Sphere Sphere
Shape

Collar and fixings

Flat Hemisphere
Plate

Dummy Stem

Figure 2 The Drag Models

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Technical Details

Item Details

Plain Sphere 75 mm diameter sphere with smooth surface

1100g
Approximately 660 mm long x 175 mm x 75 mm

Dimpled 75 mm diameter sphere with dimpled surface

Sphere 1100 g
Approximately 660 mm long x 175 mm x 75 mm

Hemisphere 75 mm diameter hemisphere with smooth surface

800 g
Approximately 660 mm long x 155 mm x 75 mm

Flat plate 75 mm maximum diameter flat plate taper-edged

670 g
Approximately 660 mm long x 145 mm x 75 mm

Streamlined 75 mm diameter teardrop shape

Shape 1800 g
Approximately 660 mm long x 188 mm x 75 mm
Based on revolved NACA0040 aerofoil

Assembly and Installation

Refer to the test procedure for full details.

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Theory

Notation

Symbol Description Units

CD Coefficient of Drag -

D Drag Newton (N)

p Air pressure (absolute) Pa or N.m-2

R Gas constant 287 J.kg-1.K-1

S Frontal area of object 0.0019635 m2

presented to the for 50 mm diameter
airflow models

T Air temperature (absolute) K

V Air Velocity m.s-1

 Air Density kg.m-3

Drag and Coefficient

The drag value (sometimes called air resistance) on a model is simply the force that acts on it in the
direction of an applied airflow.

The coefficient of drag is a dimensionless value that helps to quantify drag, but with respect to an object’s
dimensions and the fluid (air) velocity that passes around it. It helps to compare the drag of objects of
different sizes, allowing engineers to scale results.

D
Coefficient of Drag: C D = ---------------------
2
0.5V S

p
Where  = -------
RT

Generally, in the direction of flow, more streamline shapes and small area shapes give lower values of
drag coefficient. Less streamline shapes and large area shapes give larger values of drag coefficient.

The drag coefficient depends on how well the air passes around the object and leaves it. This means
that the wake (flow pattern behind the object) also affects drag. A large wake creates more drag than a
narrow wake behind an object. Therefore, even the shape of the object behind the frontal area affects
drag.

Figure 3 shows examples of different shapes and their typical drag coefficients.

Note that a dimpled sphere (such as a golf ball) has a lower drag coefficient than a plain sphere. This is
due to the way the dimples work to allow the airflow to remain attached to its surface, giving a smaller
wake.

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These models are only for experiments with drag, so they are mounted
directly in the line of airflow, (at 0 degrees incidence) giving no lift values.
NOTE
It is possible to experiment with lift on the models, but that is beyond the
scope of this guide.
Drag coefficient varies with Reynolds number and Flow velocity, so results
are typical only.

Figure 3 Typical Drag Coefficients

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Test Procedure

Aim
To determine the relative drag and drag coefficient for the different model shapes.

NOTE This experiment includes the use of the AF1600t Three Component Balance
(supplied).

To Fit the Models to the Three Component Balance (AF1600t)

These instructions assume that the Three Component Balance is fitted to the working section and is set
up correctly. Refer to the Three Component Balance User Guide.

1. Switch off the electrical isolator of the Wind Tunnel.

2. Remove the side window opposite the Three Component Balance.

3. Tighten the Centering Clamps of the Three Component Balance. From outside the Wind Tunnel,
insert one of the models into the collet of the Three Component Balance, so that its support shaft
passes into the Wind Tunnel Working Section (see Figure 4).

Figure 4 Insert the Model from Outside the Working Section

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4. Inside the working section, measure the distance from the centre of the model shaft to the bottom
surface of the working section (see Figure 5). This is nominally 300 mm.

5. Remove the model from the balance.

Figure 5 Measure from the Centre of the Shaft to the Base of the Working Section

6. From inside the Working Section, insert the model into the model clamp of the balance. Set the
angle of the Three Component Balance scale to zero degrees. Do not tighten the model clamp yet.

7. Looking into the wind tunnel from its inlet, make sure the model is in the centre of the working section
(see Figure 6).

8. Hold the model so that it faces into the airflow and adjust its centre line to the same height as that
measured in step 4 and tighten the model clamp of the balance (see Figure 7). The model is now
perfectly straight (zero incidence angle) and at right angles to the airflow.

9. Recheck the adjustments and release the centering clamps of the Three Component Balance.

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Figure 6 Model in Middle of Tunnel

Figure 7 Setting the Model Centre line

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10. Refit the side window and fix the collar to the outside of the circular mounting in the window using
the three thumbscrews provided (Figure 8).

11. Slide the Dummy Stem through the collar so that it almost touches the model or its arm (leaving just
over 1mm gap) (Figure 9). Tighten the collar so that the Dummy Stem is firmly gripped in place.

NOTE If the Dummy Stem touches the model during tests, it will affect the drag
readings and give poor results.

Figure 8 Fit the Dummy Stem

12. Create a blank table of results similar to Table 1. If using the optional VDAS® software, it will
automatically create a results table. Record the ambient temperature and pressure (in absolute
units).

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Model:
Ambient Pressure:
Ambient Temperature (K):
Air Density:

Air Velocity Drag of Dummy

(V) Drag of Model Stem Total Drag (D)
(m.s-1) (N) (N) (N) Drag Coefficient

Table 1 Blank Results Table

13. Start the Wind Tunnel, set the RPD to give a velocity (V) of about 15 m.s-1. If using the optional
VDAS®, it will calculate this automatically, but remember to enter the correct values of ambient
pressure and temperature.

14. Record the Drag value from the Three Component Balance display unit.

Remember to zero the AF1600t display before starting the Wind Tunnel.
NOTE If the lift value rises above around 0.2 N during the tests, the model is not
correctly set at right angles to the airflow. Theoretically, there should be no lift
value.

15. Increase the Wind Tunnel air velocity to 20, 25, 30 and its maximum velocity (usually around 
35 m.s-1). At each step record the drag value.

16. Repeat the test, but with the Dummy Stem held in the Three Component Balance and the model
held in the removable window (see Figure 9). The Balance will now measure the Drag caused by
the Dummy Stem.

17. Repeat the test for all models.

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Figure 9 View From Above - Testing the Model and the Dummy Stem

Results Analysis
Use the pressure and temperature to find the air density.

For each model and each line of results, subtract the drag of the Dummy Stem from the drag of the
Model. This gives a sensible ‘Total Drag’ caused by just the model. Use the Total Drag and the density
to calculate the coefficient of drag.

Plot a chart of drag coefficient (vertical axis) against air velocity for all model to help compare the results.

Compare the drag coefficients for each model. Do they compare well with theory?

What is noticeable about the change in drag coefficient as velocity changes? Why does this happen?

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Typical Results and Conclusions

NOTE Any results are for guidance only, actual results may differ slightly.

Figure 10 Chart Comparing Results

Conclusions
Most of the drag coefficients are reasonably steady with increasing velocity, a slight reduction if anything.
The dimpled sphere gives a drastic drop from 15 to 25 m.s-1 and levels out. This would change if the
dimples were larger, deeper or if there were fewer of them.

Over a given range of air velocity and Reynolds numbers, the dimpled sphere creates its own surface
coating (boundary layer) of turbulent air which strengthens with increasing air velocity, reducing the wake
and overall drag - within a range.

The other models do not use this technique, so their wake simply increases with air velocity, increasing
the drag.

As one would expect, the streamline shape has the lowest CD compared with the rest with the flat plate
having a good margin over the sphere.

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Useful Books
Aerodynamics

by LJ Clancy

Published in 1991 by Longman Scientific &Technical

ISBN 0582 988802

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Maintenance, Spare Parts and Customer Care

To clean the models, wipe clean with a damp cloth - do not use abrasive cleaners.

Store the models in a dry and dust free area, suitably covered.

Spare Parts
Refer to the Packing Contents List for any spare parts supplied with the apparatus.

If technical assistance or spares are required, please contact the local TecQuipment agent, or contact
TecQuipment direct.

To assist us in processing the request quickly and efficiently, when requesting spares please include the
following:

• Contact name
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• Contact email address
• The TecQuipment product name and product reference
• The TecQuipment part number (if known)
• The serial number
• The year of purchase (if known)

Please provide us with as much detail as possible about the parts required and check the details carefully
before contacting us.

If the product is no longer under warranty, TecQuipment will advise a price quotation for confirmation.

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