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Chapter 7: Communication 158
CHAPTER OUTLINE
The Communication Process

Choosing a Channel
Barriers to Effective Communication
Filtering
Selective Perception
Information Overload
Emotions
Language
Silence
Lying
Organizational Communication
Direction of Communication
Small-Group Networks
The Grapevine
Modes of Communication
Oral Communication
Written Communication
Nonverbal Communication
Cultural Barriers to Communication
Cultural Context
A Cultural Guide
Summary
OB at Work
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the communication process and formal and informal communication.
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.

2. Show how channel richness underlies the choice of communication channel.
3. Identify common barriers to effective communication.
4. Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication.
5. Compare and contrast formal small-group networks and the grapevine.
6. Contrast oral, written, and non verbal communication.
7. Show how to overcome the potential problems in cross-cultural communication.
CHAPTER SYNOPSIS
This chapter presents the communication process and importance of choosing the right
communication channels. It then explores barriers to effective communication and suggestions for
overcoming these barriers. The chapter covers organizational communication networks and the
importance of recognizing the impact of the direction of internal communication in organizations.
Current issues in communication place emphasis on technology based methods and the importance
of social media for business. The chapter concludes with an overview of cultural issues in
communications and their importance in today’s global business world.
STUDY QUESTIONS
It is impossible to cover all the material contained in the chapter during one or two lectures. To
deal with this problem, I present my students with a list of study questions to indicate what material
they will be responsible for on exams. I tell them that they will be responsible for these, even if the
material is not covered in class. I have found that this reduces anxiety overall, and I find it helps to
make students aware that not everything in a chapter is required material. I realize instructors vary
in their approach, so this is simply my approach.
My study questions for this chapter are:
• Explain the process by which communication occurs.
• How important is selecting the right channel in communication?
• What are the major barriers to effective communication?
• How do networks affect communication?
• What is a grapevine and how is it used in communication?
• Does nonverbal communication really make a difference?
• Does silence have any place in communication?
• How can one improve cross-cultural communication?

SUGGESTED TEACHING PLAN
We generally use two classes for communication: one on the communication process and barriers
to effective communication and the other on organizational communication and issues in
communication. The exercise for feedback that we use is in the introductory chapter of this
instructor’s resource manual. Lecture notes for feedback are included in the supplemental material
at the end of this chapter.
Communication
I often start this class trying to get the students to think about communication difficulties they’ve
faced by asking such questions as these:
Describe an awkward communication experience you’ve had. How do you know another person is
really listening to you when you’re talking with them? Have you ever noticed difficulties when
men and women try to communicate with each other? Have you ever noticed difficulties when
people of different cultures try to communicate with each other? What gives you the most difficulty
when you’re trying to communicate with someone?
Feedback
We spend most of this class doing the group exercise on giving feedback (see introductory chapter
to this IRM). The exercise comes on the day that they are handing in their first major group
assignment, so it allows them to reflect on how they and others in their group did, and learn how to
give feedback on that.
I usually spend a few minutes at the end of the class giving tips on how to give feedback. At the
end of the exercise, I ask them to talk about what was difficult in giving feedback, what was easy,
and what they learned about themselves from the experience. Lecture notes for feedback are
included in the supplemental material at the end of this chapter.
Be sure to examine “Exploring Topics on the Web” in the supplemental section below for possible
additional ideas to cover in class or assign for homework.
Be sure to check the Supplemental Material section for additional material that can be used in class
or assigned as homework.
LECTURE OUTLINE
The Communication Process
Communication is the transfer and understanding of a message between two or more people.
Communication is an important consideration for both individuals and organizations. People spend
nearly 70 percent of their waking hours communicating—writing, reading, speaking, listening.
Communication is the basis for workplace issues such as motivation, information sharing,
behaviour control and expression of emotions.

The communication process
(See Exhibit 7-1 The Communication Process Model)
Sender initiates an idea that needs to be communicated.
The message is the actual product of the process.
Encoding is putting the message into some kind of form using words.
Channel is the medium through which the message travels.
Channels can be formal or informal within an organization.
Decoding represents how the receiver understands the message.
Noise represents communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message.
Feedback is the check on how successful the communication is.
Choosing a Channel
How do we make a decision on which channel to select for best impact?
Communication apprehension or anxiety may lead some individuals to avoid direct oral channels.
A model of channel richness explains channel selection.
(See Exhibit 7-2 Information Richness of Communication Channels)
• Rich channels have the ability to:
• Handle multiple cues simultaneously and facilitate rapid feedback
• Be very personal; face-to-face conversations scores highest in channel richness because it

provides for the maximum amount of multiple information cues (words, postures, facial
expressions, gestures, intonations), immediate feedback (both verbal and nonverbal), and the
personal touch of “being there.”
• The choice of a channel depends on whether the message is routine or nonroutine. Nonroutine
messages are more effective using rich channels.
• Research indicates that managers preferred to deliver bad news (layoffs, promotion denials, and
negative feedback) via email; however, this is not recommended.
• Nonroutine messages, high in ambiguity, are most effective using rich channels.

Teaching Tip: Ask students how they would prefer to learn to be fired: via email or face-to-face.
Ask them which strategy they would most likely use if they had to fire someone. This allows you to
explore channel richness, what kinds of messages can be conveyed in each approach, ethical issues
in dealing with difficult situations, and personal feelings about communication.
Teaching Tip: This is a good time to cover the case incident Powerpoint Purgatory. Have students
discuss and make suggestions for improvement in the ”richness” of this communication channel.
Barriers to Effective Communication
Filtering
Refers to a sender manipulating information so that it will be seen more favourably by the receiver.
The more vertical layers there are, the more opportunities there are for filtering.
Selective Perception
Receivers in the communication process selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations,
experience, background, and other personal characteristics. Receivers also project their interests
and expectations into decoding messages.
Defensiveness
When individuals interpret another’s message as threatening, they often respond in ways that
hinder effective communication.
Emotions
Extreme emotions are most likely to hinder effective communications, by disregarding rational and
objective thinking.
Information Overload
When the information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity, the result is
information overload. The result is that we tend to select out, ignore, pass over, or forget
information. The result is lost information and less effective communication.
Language
Words mean different things to different people. Our use of language is not uniform. We modify
the language and we don’t even know it.
Age and context are two of the biggest factors that influence such differences.
Senders tend to assume that the words and terms they use mean the same to the receiver.
Silence
We usually ignore silence because it is defined by the absence of information.

Sometimes the real message in a communication is buried in the silence.
Silence and withholding communication are common and problematic.

Employee silence means managers lack information about operational problems.
Silence is less likely where minority opinions are treated with respect.
Silence can be a powerful form of communication. It can mean someone is thinking, or it can mean
a person is anxious and fearful of speaking, it can also signal agreement, dissent, frustration, or
anger.
Teaching Tip: This maybe a good time to cover the Breakout Group Exercises, 1 and 2.
Lying
The final barrier to effective communication is outright misrepresentation of information, of lying.
What is the definition of a lie?
Is it deliberately withholding information about a mistake?
There is a prevalence of lying in organizations.
People are more comfortable lying over the phone and in emails than face to face.
People who lie take steps to guard against being detected.
Many lies are embedded in truths.
The frequency of lying and difficulty in detecting liars makes this as especially strong barrier to
effective communication.
Organizational Communication
Direction of Communication
Downward: communication that flows from one level of a group to a lower level.
It is important for managers to explain reasons for directives, decisions, delegation, and work
orders. Explanations increase employee commitment and support of decisions.
Problems with downward communication:
Employees may not believe that the senior leaders are communicating honestly and openly.
It is one-way communication and rarely is feedback or opinions solicited.
Upward: Communication that flows from one level of a group to a higher level.
Provide feedback, inform of progress, and relay problems.
For effective upward communication reduce distractions, communicate in headlines, provide action
items and prepare an agenda to maximize attention of managers.
Lateral (or horizontal): Communication among members of the same work group, or individuals at
the same level. Often necessary to save time and to ease coordination.
Small-Group Networks
(See Exhibit 7-3 Three Common Small-Group Networks and Their Effectiveness)
Communication networks define the channels by which information flows. Two types of channels:
• Formal networks: Task-related followimg the authority chain (vertical communication).
• The chain: rigidly follows the formal chain of command.
• The wheel: relies on the leader to act as the central conduit.
• The all-channel: permits all group members to communicate actively with one another.
• Informal networks: Communications that flow along social and relational lines. The most
common is the grapevine.
The Grapevine
Grapevine is the organization’s most common informal network. 75 percent of employees hear
about matters first through rumours on the grapevine.
Characteristics of grapevine:
Not controlled by management.
Most employees perceive it as more believable and reliable than formal communication from top
management.
Largely used to serve the interests of the people within it.
Rumours emerge as a response to situations that are important to employees, where there is
ambiguity, and under conditions that arouse anxiety.
Management can reduce the negative consequences of rumours by explaining decisions and openly
discussing worst-case possibilities.
Modes of Communication
Oral Communication
A primary means of conveying messages including speeches, formal one on-one and group
discussions, and the informal rumour mill or grapevine are popular forms of oral communication.
Written Communication
Includes letters, email, instant messaging, organizational periodicals, and any other method that
conveys written words or symbols.
Interestingly, research indicates that when we write by hand, the content is much more memorable
to us than when we type.
Electronic Communications
Organizational boundaries have become less relevant as a result of electronic communications. An

indispensable, and primary, medium of communication in today’s organizations is electronic.
Email Benefits:
• Email messages can be quickly written, edited, and stored.
• They can be distributed to one person or thousands with a click of a mouse.
• They can be read, in their entirety, at the convenience of the recipient.
• The cost of sending email messages to employees is a fraction of the cost of printing,
duplicating, and distributing a comparable letter or brochure.
Drawbacks:
• Email has added to the number of hours worked per week.
• Misinterpreting the message. Decoding intent and tone is accurately done only about 50 percent
of the time.
• Communicating negative messages. Too often negative messages are done via email as it seems
to be the “easy way out”.
• Time consuming. Less than half of all emails are actually important to the organization.
• Employees have trouble handling all of their email.
• Less than half those surveyed thought that email increased their efficiency at work.
• Privacy can be an issue and under current laws, employee information, including email, may
not be private.
Teaching Tip: This is a good opportunity to discuss problems students have encountered with
emails, difficulties in communication, and how easy/difficult it is to communicate some things via
email. You might also note that many employees are now drowning in email and those individuals
are increasingly faced with trying to figure out how to deal with the onslaught.

Instant Messaging and Text Messaging
Instant messaging (IM) is a synchronous technology and one needs to be present to receive the
message. Responses are in real time.
Text messaging (TM) is usually done vial cellphone and can be a real-time alternative to phone
calls.
The guidelines for the business use of texting are still evolving.
Social Networking
Nowhere has communication been more transformed than in social networking.
There are professional websites that allow users to set up lists of business contacts. Some
companies have their own social networks.
To get the most out of a social networks and avoid irritating your contacts, use them for high-value
items only.
Beware of what is posted on your social networking site as the information could be accessed/used
in ways that you did not intend.
Blogs
Blogging is another new generation tool used both for business and personal communication.
Blog (or web log) is discussion or information site where people post commentary about news,
events and personal views on regular basis.
Twitter is a “micro-blog” that allows people to post short entries about any topic including work.
Teaching Tip: This maybe a good place to cover OB in Action, Using Social Media Responsively.
Teaching Tip: This could be a good opportunity to engage students in a debate over social media
through the Point/Counterpoint Exercise: Employees’ Social Media Presence Should Matter to
Managers.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication includes body movements, facial expressions, and the physical distance
between the sender and the receiver. We act out our state of being with nonverbal body language,
even if we are no aware of doing so.
Body language conveys:
• The extent to which an individual likes another and is interested in his or her views.
• The relative perceived status between the sender and the receiver.
• Facial expressions, along with intonations, can show arrogance, aggressiveness, fear, shyness,
and other this that would never be communicated in writing.
Body language adds to and often complicates verbal communication.
Physical distance (or proxemics) can send differing messages especially in cultural context. There
are “contact” and “noncontact” cultures where proxemics can lead to confusion.
Look for nonverbal cues in communication, and monitor your own body language with care.
Teaching Tip: Discussing nonverbal communication is a great opportunity for the instructor to have
some fun. Ask students to express to you nonverbally ideas like “I really agree!” or “I don’t buy
that” or “What a great person” or “What a jerk!” This exercise will be entertaining, and will
illustrate quite well the persuasiveness of nonverbal communication.
You can also have the students do the Experiential Exercise, “An Absence of Nonverbal
Communication.”
Global Implications
Cross-cultural factors create potential for increased communication problems.
Cultural Barriers to Communication
Barriers caused by semantics
Words mean different things to different people, especially people from different national cultures.
Barriers are caused by word connotations. Words imply different things in different languages.
Barriers caused by word connotations
Words imply different things in different languages. For effective

cross-cultural communication or negotiation, understanding the differences can be highly
important.
Barriers caused by tone differences
In some cultures, the tone changes depending on whether the context is formal or informal, social
situation or work.
Differences in tolerance for conflict and for resolving conflicts
Individualistic cultures are more comfortable with direct conflict.
Collectivistic cultures are more likely to acknowledge conflict only implicitly and avoid emotional
disputes.

Cultural Context
(see Exhibit 7-5 High- vs. Low-Context Cultures)
Cultures tend to differ in the degree to which context influences the meaning individuals take from
communication.
In high-context cultures people rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues. What is not
said may be more significant than what is said. Also, seniority and rank in the organization or
society carry much weight.
People in low-context cultures rely essentially on words to convey meaning.

They value directness and highly legalistic, precisely worded contracts.
Communication in high-context cultures implies considerably more trust by both parties.
A Cultural Guide
We often don’t communicate well with people outside of our own culture.
Attempts to be culturally sensitive to another person are often based on stereotypes propagated by
the media.
How to reduce misperceptions, misinterpretation, and misevaluations?
• Know yourself – recognize your own cultural identity and biases.
• Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness, and democracy – establish a climate of equality and
mutual concern.
• Learn the cultural context of each person – be careful not to categorize by culture of origin.
• When in doubt, listen – this increases understanding of the other person.
• State facts, not your interpretation – let the other person interpret their culture to you.
• Consider the other person’s viewpoint – put yourself in the recipient’s shoes.
• Proactively maintain the identity of the group – focus on establishment of a common-ground

“third culture” to reach common goals, mutual respect and need to adapt to individual
communication preferences.
Teaching Tip: Since many of us teach in multicultural classrooms, this is a good opportunity to ask
for specific examples of communication difficulties that students have encountered. This can be
followed by a discussion of possible resolutions and recommendations.

Summary
You have probably discovered the link between communication and employee satisfaction in this
chapter: the less uncertainty, the greater the satisfaction. Distortions, ambiguities, and incongruities
between verbal and nonverbal messages all increase uncertainty and reduce effective
communication
OB AT WORK
For Review
(Note to instructors: The answers here are starting points for discussion, not absolutes!)
1. What are the key parts of the communication process, and how do you distinguish formal from
informal communication?
The communication process relays a message from a sender, by way of some channel, to a receiver
who decodes the message and provides/asks for feedback if necessary.
For example, when a boss speaks to a subordinate, the message is the words; they are carried
through the air from the boss (the sender) to the employee (the receiver). The employee decodes
the message by listening to what is said and attempting to understand its contents. The same would
hold with a written e-mail from a boss to an employee. The boss chooses the e-mail channel, writes
the message, and hits the send button. The employee reads the message and (hopefully)
understands it. An important point here is to stress that communication has not occurred until the
receiver has accurately decoded the message.
Formal communication flows through channels established by an organization to transmit messages

related to the professional activities of its members. Informal communication, on the other hand,
flows through cannels that are created spontaneously and emerge as responses to individual
choices.
2. How does channel richness underlie the choice of communication?
Channels differ in their capacity to convey information. Some are rich in that they have the ability
to handle multiple cues simultaneously, facilitate rapid feedback and be very personal. The amount
of information transmitted often depends on the channel richness. Some channels offer multiple
information cues, immediate feedback and the personal touch. Face-to-face conversations offer the
highest level of channel richness and memos and letters the lowest level.
3. What are some common barriers to effective communication?
Filtering – occurs when a sender manipulates information so that the receiver will view it more
favourably.
Selective perception – receivers in the communication process selectively see and hear in the
message that which meets their needs, motivations, experiences, background, and other personal
characteristics.

Emotions – we tend to interpret the same message differently depending on the emotional state.
Extreme emotions are most likely to hinder effective communication.
Information overload – when the information we have exceeds out ability to process it, the result is
we tend to select out, ignore, pass over, or forget the content.
Language – words mean different things to different people and often things such as “corporate
lingo” may confuse the communicated message.
Silence—defined as an absence of speech or noise—can be interpreted as an “inaction” or non-

behavior. Silence can be a powerful form of communication. It can mean someone is thinking, is
anxious and fearful of speaking, and it can signal disagreement, dissent, frustration, or anger.
Nonverbal communication – includes body movements, facial expressions, and the physical
distance between the sender and receiver. Body language adds to and often complicates verbal
communication.
Lying – outright misrepresentation of information. People are more comfortable lying over the
phone or in emails than face to face. Difficulty in detecting liars makes this an especially strong
barrier to effective communication.
4. What are the differences among downward, upward, and lateral communication?
Downward communication flows from one level of a group or organization to a lower level. Group
leaders and managers use this approach to assign goals, provide job instructions, inform employees
of policies and procedures, identify problems that needs attention, and offer feedback about
performance. Upward communication is used to provide feedback to high ups, inform them of
progress toward goals, and relay current problems. Upward communication keeps managers aware
of how emplo0yees feel about their jobs, co-workers, and the organization. Lateral communication
occurs among members of the same work group, or employees at the same level. Often these are
informally created to short-circuit the vertical hierarchy and speed up action. However, lateral
communication can create dysfunctional conflicts when the formal vertical channels are breached.
5. What are the differences between formal small-group networks and the grapevine?
The formal small-group networks are considered to be formal communication channels and each is
effective in certain situations. Exhibit 7-3 shows three small-group networks, the Chain, the Wheel,
and the All-Channel. The chain is best if accuracy is important, the wheel facilitates the emergence
of a leader, and the all-channel network is best if the concern is with high member satisfaction.
Grapevine, on the other hand, is an informal network that has no hierarchy or identifiable form.
Grapevine is not controlled by management, most employees perceive it as more believable than
formal communication, and it is largely used to serve the interest of the people within it, not the
organization. The grapevine serves employees’ needs, and should be understood by management as
an important part of any organization’s communication network.
6. How do oral communication, written communication, and nonverbal communication differ?
A primary means of conveying messages is oral communication. Speeches, formal one on-one and
group discussions, and the rumour mill or grapevine are popular forms of oral communication.
The advantages of oral communication are speed, feedback, and exchange. We can convey a verbal
message and receive a response in minimal time.
Nonverbal communication includes body movements, the intonations or emphasis we give to

words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver.
7. What potential problems underlie cross-cultural communication? How can they be overcome?
Researchers have identified four specific problems related to language difficulties in cross-cultural
communication: barriers caused by semantics, barriers caused by word connotations, barriers
caused by tone differences and differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving
conflicts.
Another set of problems can be caused by the degree to which context influences the meaning
individuals take from communication. This involves the differences between high-context cultures,
like China and Saudi Arabia, and low-context cultures, such as Europe and North America. In
high-context cultures people rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues when
communicating.
In low-context cultures people rely on words to convey meaning. Oral agreements imply strong
commitments in high-context cultures, as do age, seniority and rank in the organizations. In low-
context cultures enforceable contrast will tend to be in writing.
To overcome these problems one should follow the following suggestions: know your own cultural
identity, foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness and democracy, learn the cultural contest of the
other person, state facts, not your interpretation of them, consider the other person’s viewpoint and
proactively maintain identity of the group in question.
POINT/COUNTERPOINT
Employees’ Social Media Presence Should Matter to Employers
Summary:
The prevalence of employees using social media websites today is growing exponentially. The
issue of social media usefulness is two sided with viewpoints from the idea of social media as a
personal interest activity of an employee, and the other side as a business and marketing tool for
the organization. The question is how to balance the two issues, or, indeed, can they be reconciled
as legitimate business communication.
Point:
Business is “social” since it can be argued that social contacts are a common way to increase
business. Employees can be viewed as key marketing representatives of an organization through
their involvement with social media and thus can have a positive effect on the bottom line. In
addition, organizations these days are turning to social media to screen suitable job candidates or
make critical decisions on retention of current employees. Businesses may already be monitoring
employees’ social media positing to safeguard proprietary information or company reputation.

Counterpoint:
There is little to be gained and much to be lost if organizations are allowed to monitor employees’
activities on social media. Many would consider this a gross intrusion on privacy. There is also the
danger of information garnered from social media websites being misinterpreted. Social media
should be considered a private recreational venue and it would be unethical for managers to
monitor either current or potential employees’ activities. Using social media as a marketing tool
can also be viewed as unethical and it would be an unreasonable expectation to have employees
endorse the company outside of their working hours.
Analysis:
Social networks can be risky for both the organization as well as potential and current employees.
The primary purpose of social networks was and is to connect friends. When employers snoop into
an employee’s social media profile, they won’t judge the information as a friend but as a potential
business tool. Whether that tool is to evaluate the employee as a person or to assess the person’s
potential as a marketing tool the question remains whether this is ethical practice. Social media will
not go away and the debate about how it should or should not be used in relation of workplaces is
not yet clear.
Class Exercise:
Divide the class into teams (ideally two teams; for large classes four or six).
Assign each team to either the Point or the CounterPoint view to discuss. Have each team develop
points of support for their view. Representatives from each group can be asked to debate their
views before the class. Ask the class to vote on the view that was most successfully supported.
BREAKOUT GROUP EXERCISES
What differences have you observed in the ways that men and women communicate?
Encourage students to talk about differences that they have experienced. This can often be
enlightening, but each gender is often not aware of some of the habits that lead to confusion.
How do you know when a person is listening to you? When someone is ignoring you?
In North America we expect eye contact and nods of affirmation to indicate listening. We also
expect questions or feedback. Consequently, when eye contact is not made, the immediate thought
is that one is being ignored. There are a variety of other nonverbal signals that may signal ignoring
someone, e.g., erasing one’s underlinings in an article when an instructor is lecturing.
After students have described some of their own experiences, you might point out that some of our
differences are cultural. In a high power distance society, making eye contact might not be
appropriate.

Describe a situation in which you ignored someone. What impact did it have on that person’s
subsequent communication behaviours?
The answers here are from students own personal situations. Use this discussion to illustrate to
students that their behaviour often gets reflected back to them in unintended ways.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
An Absence of Nonverbal Communication
This enlightening exercise has students engage in a debate using only verbal communication. All
nonverbal communication such as gestures, facial movements, and body movements are prohibited.
The purpose of the exercise is to show students how much we depend on nonverbal
communication. Students find it is exceptionally hard to NOT communicate nonverbally.
ETHICAL DILEMMA
BYOD (Bring Your Own Device)
Summary
Increasingly organizations are embracing BYOD or “bring your own device” rather that the
traditional organization supplied mobile device. This trend acknowledges the increasing blend of
personal and professional communications. Rather than carry two devices, employees generally
prefer to carry one. There are implications to this policy especially in light of the ever changing
mobile communications landscape, especially ethical ones such as:
• Did you know your employer can wipe your personal devices clean? Remotely? With no
warning?
• Is your device part of your employment contract, either explicitly or by understanding? If so,
who pays for the device?
• Can you use your device for all work-related communications?
• Once you use your personal device for work, where are the boundaries between work and home
life?
Given these possibilities, a dilemma for employees is whether to acknowledge they own a smart
device, and whether to offer its use for their employer’s convenience.
Questions
Do you use your smartphone or other personal devices for work? If so, do you think this adds to
your stress level or helps you by providing convenience?
Students may reflect on their need for social connection versus the need to use a device for work.
Cocalis likes the two-phone lifestyle and says his boss has his personal phone number only for
emergencies. But assistant talent manager Chloe Ifshin reports it doesn’t work so well in practice.
“I have friends who are clients and clients who are friends,” she says, so work contacts end up on
her personal phone and friends call her work phone. How does this consideration affect your
thinking about BYOD?
Student need for social connection and the inconvenience of carrying two devices may be
discussed. Students may not appreciate the separation between work and non-work. Texting their
boss may be a student expectation.
Organizations are taking steps to protect themselves from what employees might be doing on their
BYOD devices through allowing only approved computer programs and stricter policies, but no
federal regulations protect employees from these. What ethical initiatives might organizations
adopt to make this situation fair for everyone?
In order for organizations to protect themselves they may encroach on otherwise personal
activities. In A BYOD environment am employee texting for otherwise shady dealings could be
done on company time and with a company funded asset so the company cold be liable.
Protections could require limited usage policies which can minimize the benefits of BYOD.
CASE INCIDENT
Organizational Leveraging of Social Media
Summary
Social media has transformed the way we interact yet very few organizations fully understand how
to use social media platforms effectively. Some experts say that social media tools improve
productivity, allow companies to discover emerging trends and issues worldwide and establishing
ones brand by using social media as a marketing tool. Despite potential advantages, there are also
significant drawbacks to social media. It is very difficult to control social media communications,
important intellectual capital might leak out and there is a danger of negative messages sent out
about the organization.
Questions
Do you think organizations need to have a social media presence today? Are the drawbacks
sufficient to make you think it’s better for them to avoid certain media?
The students’ answers to this question will depend on their personal viewpoint. In general, most
students will see the social networks as indispensable to personal communication. They will likely
believe that the social network used by corporations is an intrusion on what students believe is their
world. But those with a desire to ensure that company messages are transmitted to a primary
audience will likely see the use as an effective and efficient tool to reach specific audiences.
What features would you look for in a social media outlet? What types of information would you
avoid making part of your social media strategy?
The students will likely say the selected social network tool should allow targeting participants
with specific interests in the company’s topics. The understanding that should be ensured among all
employees is that no gossip or unsupported information is posted. As for the networks that allow
postings from anyone, the company should have employees assigned to monitor and respond
immediately to posts, negative or positive, to ensure that questions and concerns are not allowed to
fester.
What do you think is the future direction of social media? How might emerging technologies
change them?
This question will elicit various opinions from students. If they are familiar with emerging
technologies, they may have some specific ideas about what might reduce or replace some current
social networks as communication linkages.
Sources: S. Dutta, “What’s Your Personal Social Media Strategy,” Harvard Business Review
(November 2010), pp. 127–130; and G. Connors, “10 Social Media Commandments for
Employers,” Workforce Management Online (February 2010), www.workforce.com
CASE INCIDENT
PowerPoint Purgatory
Summary
Successful talks are about a story and an interaction. Yet more and more presenters rely on
technology even though there are many presentation techniques, not necessarily technologies, that
are more appropriate in many situations. Presenters take the easy way out because they know how,
or think they do know how to use this software efficiently. Bombarding audiences with stark
phrases is one possible pitfall. Overdesign of presentation is another where the design overwhelms
the message. Coming back to the story, experts suggest fewer visual aids and more live interaction
with the audience. High tech does not guarantee better storytelling and better presentation.
Questions
What are some of the ways people misuse PowerPoint? What are the potential consequences?
Student responses will vary. Most common misuses relate to preparation and lack to familiarity
with PowerPoint as a tool: too much text on each slide, using different fonts/visual on each slide,
text too small for everyone to see in a large room. Other cons: moving too fast from slide to slide,
relying on the slides without adding any verbal explanation, reading each slide in verbatim, looking
at slides not the audience.
Have you used PowerPoint in your school projects or at work? In what presentations did you find
PowerPoint most effective in communicating your message? In what presentations did PowerPoint
hinder your successful communication?

Ask students to share their own personal experiences in using PowerPoint.
List the pros and cons you see for managers avoiding PowerPoint as a mode of communication.
Have students discuss both sides in groups. Or, alternatively divide the class into two groups where
one group will discuss the pros and the other group the cons.
Pros may include: verbal presentations seem more personal.
Cons often relate to unfamiliarity with the software and therefore not being able to use it to its
potential as a communication tool.
FROM CONCEPTS TO SKILLS
Effective Listening
Practising Skills
The suggested activity encourages students to engage in active listening. By being forced to
paraphrase before responding in a debate, students are encouraged to listen, rather than simply
prepare their next statement. Ask them how difficult they found listening and then ask them if once
they became more comfortable with listening whether listening actually helped them get their
points across better.
Reinforcing Skills
The purpose of this exercise is to encourage students to apply material from the chapter in various
ways. The suggested activities encourage students to engage in active listening while carrying out
regular daily routines. In the first situation, students practise active listening in the classroom to
determine if this helps them understand material better (it should!). In the second activity, students
are encouraged to try to understand the other person, rather than just trying to make their own
points.
KEY TERMS
Channel - The medium through which a message travels.
Channel richness - The amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication
episode.
Communication apprehension - Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written
communication, or both.
Filtering - A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favourably by the
receiver.
Formal channels - Communication channels established by an organization to transmit messages

related to the professional activities of members.

Formal communication networks - Task-related communications that follow the authority chain.
Grapevine - The organization’s most common informal network.
High-context cultures - Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues in
communication.
Informal channels - Communication channels that are created spontaneously and that emerge as
responses to individual choices.
Informal communication networks - Communications that flow along social and relational lines.
Information overload - The state of having more information than one can process.
Low-context cultures - Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication.
Nonverbal communication - Messages conveyed through body movements, facial expressions,

and the physical distance between the sender and receiver.
Proxemics - The study of physical space in interpersonal relationships.
SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
EXPLORING TOPICS ON THE WEB
NOTE: You may need to copy/paste the following hyperlinks into your Web browser.
Listening requires more than a physical presence—it requires a mental presence too! Learn more
about how to develop your skills as an empathetic listener by searching for developing your
empathetic listening skills on www.youtube.com.
Write a short journal entry describing how you plan to further develop one technique shown in the
video.
Are there dos and don’ts for email? Learn more by doing a search on “netiquette” which are the
courtesy guidelines of email. Print one of the better pages and bring to class along with an email
you have sent or received recently. Take off the names of the parties in the email. In class, we will
edit these emails for breeches of netiquette guidelines.
Organizational communication has been drastically changed by the introduction of modern

technologies just in the last 10 years. However, it does not just happen. There must be support
personnel and products to assist users with communication via technology. Google emerging
communication technologies. Find an article that interests you and write a short journal entry about
what you learn from this web site. Be prepared to share your impressions with the class.

ADDITIONAL IN-CLASS EXERCISE
Open Book Management
Assign students to find articles on open book management on internet and select one article they
feel addresses the issue clearly and concisely. Students should bring the articles to class (either
hardcopy or an electronic copy on their tablet or laptop).
Break the students into small groups and ask them to do the following:
Select one of the articles that students have brought and read as a team.
Once they have read the article, determine the method used by management to communicate the
open book philosophy or process used. (If there is not one in the article, ask the student’s to
develop one.)
What results were achieved as described in the article? What elements of the communication
process helped or hindered these results.
What negatives occurred (if any) or what negatives might happen in the future and how might they
be prevented?
What conclusions can the students make concerning communication and open book management
after looking at these companies?
LECTURETTE
Giving Feedback
For many, providing performance feedback to employees is unpleasant and likely to be ignored.
First, managers are often uncomfortable discussing performance weaknesses directly with
employees. Managers fear a confrontation when presenting negative feedback.
Second, many employees tend to become defensive when their weaknesses are pointed out. Instead
of accepting the feedback as constructive and a basis for improving performance, some employees
challenge the evaluation by criticizing the manager or redirecting blame.
Teaching Tip: Ask students how they would prefer to get feedback about their performance. They
can also provide examples of ineffective feedback they have received.
Finally, employees tend to have an inflated assessment of their own performance. Statistically, half
of all employees must be below-average performers. The average employee’s estimate of his/her
own performance level generally falls around the 75th percentile.
The solution—train managers how to conduct constructive feedback sessions.

Tips on giving feedback:
• Focus on specific behaviours
Tell individuals specifically what they did right or wrong, rather than just giving a general
assessment. This lets individuals know why you’re being critical or complimentary.
• Keep it impersonal
Feedback should be descriptive rather than judgmental or evaluative.

Don’t criticize someone personally (i.e., “you’re stupid,” or you’re incompetent.”) Better to say:
“That action may have made the client feel uncomfortable.”
• Keep it goal-oriented
Feedback is not intended to dump or unload on another person. When giving feedback, give it in
terms of the person’s goals, rather than just wanting to get something off your chest.
• Make it well-timed
It is best to give feedback reasonably close to when the behaviour occurred (positive or negative).
• If negative, make sure the behaviour is controllable by the recipient
Negative feedback should be directed over things the recipient can control. Criticizing someone for
being late because there was a major traffic accident on the way to work is not helpful. The person
has no control over this.
When giving negative feedback, it’s best to also give solutions for the problem being discussed.
• Tailor the feedback to fit the person
Consider the person’s past behaviour and future potential. A high performer who has made a
random mistake may be demoralized by constant, petty feedback. For poor performers, frequent
feedback makes sense to help them get on track.

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lower end of the operating lever handle which engages the block
carrier lever catch, thus preventing any rotary motion of the
breechblock at the instant of firing. The firing pin receives the blow of
the percussion hammer and fires the primer. The flame passes
through the vent in the obturator spindle, igniting the propelling
charge. The gas pressure in the bore forces the mushroom head of
the obturator spindle hard against the gas check pad causing the
latter to expand and press against the walls of the chamber, forming
a gas-tight joint. After the explosion the elasticity of the pad causes it
to resume its former shape, allowing the obturator to be withdrawn
freely from its seat when the breech is unlocked.
To Open the Breech. After the piece has been fired, and before
unlocking the breech, press back the firing mechanism block safety
latch, screw out the firing mechanism block and remove the used
primer. The breech can not be unlocked with the firing mechanism
block in place. An attempt to do so will result in jamming of the firing
mechanism safety plunger. It is therefore important that the firing
mechanism block should be removed before attempting to unlock the
breech.
Press down on the handle of the operating lever in order to
disengage it from the block carrier lever catch. Move the lever
toward the rear and then to the right. In the first part of this
movement, the operating lever turns freely around the hinge pin and
its lug operates the rack which turns the breechblock. The threaded
parts of the breechblock are thus disengaged from the threads in the
breech recess. As the rack reaches the limit of its travel, the block
carrier is swung on its hinge drawing the breechblock out of the
breech recess. As the block carrier leaves the breech face of the
howitzer the rack lock is forced by its spring into the recess in the
rack preventing any further rotary motion of the breechblock in either
direction. As the breech reaches its full open position the right end of
the operating lever catch engages the operating lever catch, locking
the breech in open position.
In loading, care should be taken to ram the projectile home and to
enter the propelling charge in such a way that the igniter of the base
charge will be in contact with the mushroom head of the obturator
spindle when the breech is closed.
To Close the Breech. Press down on the operating lever handle
to disengage the operating lever latch from the operating lever catch
and move the operating lever to the left and forward. As the block
carrier comes in contact with the breech face of the howitzer, the
rack lock is pushed back into its seat, freeing the rack. Further
movement of the operating lever forces the rack to the left, rotating
the breechblock until its threaded portions mesh with the threads in
the breech recess. At the end of the movement of the operating
lever, the operating lever handle engages the block carrier lever
catch and fastens the breech in locked position.
Insert a new primer in the primer seat plug and replace the firing
mechanism block. The firing mechanism block can not be entered
until the breech is closed and locked. Any attempt to do so may
cause damage to the firing mechanism safety plunger or some part
of the firing mechanism.
THE CARRIAGE.
For the purpose of description, the carriage is considered as
composed of the following groups: Sleigh (including recoil
mechanism), cradle, trail, traveling lock, elevating mechanism,
traversing mechanism, wheels, road brake, and shield.
The sleigh contains the recoil and counter-recoil mechanism and
serves as a support for the howitzer, being secured to it by the
breech key and the holding-down band. The recoil counter-recoil
cylinders, and two air cylinders are bored in the sleigh and form the
recoil mechanism. The ends of the recoil and counter-recoil cylinders
are attached to the cradle and when the howitzer is fired the sleigh
and howitzer recoil, sliding on the cradle sides.
The holding down band is anchored on either side to the front
band clips, which are secured to the sleigh. Grooves are cut
underneath the two top edges of the sleigh, and are lined with
bronze liners, known as sleigh slides. These liners slide on the
cradle clips and guide the howitzer during recoil. Five longitudinal
cylinders are bored in the sleigh, the two upper cylinders running
about one-third the length of the sleigh, forming air tanks and are
closed at the front end by the air tank heads. The left air tank head is
provided with an opening in which the gage-cock body is assembled.
A pressure gage may be assembled through an adapter to this gage-
cock for ascertaining the pressure in the counter recoil system. The
gage-cock is also provided with a pointer which registers the quantity
of liquid in the system on a scale provided on the air tank head. The
two lower cylinders extending the full length of the sleigh, form
a housing for the recoil mechanism, the right cylinder being the
counter-recoil cylinder and the left the recoil cylinder. The small
equalizing cylinder in the center of the sleigh, extending only a short
distance, is closed at the front end with the filling valve, through
which air or liquid is introduced into the system.
155 MM HOWITZER, MODEL OF 1918 (SCHNEIDER)

SECTION, IN BATTERY
The counter recoil cylinder is connected by a passage to the
right air tank and also to the small equalizing cylinder, the latter
being connected to the left air cylinder, thus maintaining equal
pressure in both air cylinders and in the counter-recoil cylinder. The
counter-recoil cylinder is closed at the rear end with the counter-
recoil cylinder head and at the front end with the stuffing box,
through which the counter-recoil rod and its piston moves. The
recoil cylinder is closed at the rear end with the recoil cylinder head
and at the front end with the recoil cylinder stuffing box, through
which the recoil piston rod operates. This rod is hollow and serves as
a buffer chamber for the buffer rod, which is securely screwed to the
recoil cylinder head at one end, the other end carrying the counter-
recoil valve. The recoil and counter-recoil rods are fitted with the
piston rod nuts on the front end which engage the piston rod lock
plate.
The cradle is a steel U-shaped plate reinforced by several
transoms and supported by the trunnion bracket, elevating segment
brackets, and in traveling position by the cradle band which engages
the clips on which the howitzer recoils when in action. The sleigh
traveling locks are mounted at the extreme ends of the cradle and
used to lock the sleigh to cradle when the howitzer is in traveling
position.
The cradle is mounted on trunnions on the carriage, and by means
of elevating segments geared with the elevating mechanism may be
inclined at various firing angles. When carriage is traveling the rear
end of the cradle rests on the cradle traveling lock, thereby relieving
the elevating mechanism of the weight of the howitzer, sleigh and
cradle.
The left trunnion of the cradle is bored out to receive the sight and
bracket. The shoulder guard is located on left side of the cradle just
back of the trunnion bracket and protects the gunner from the
recoiling parts. The firing mechanism is located on the right side of
the cradle and provided with a safety device which prevents the
piece from being fired when the piston rod nuts are not engaged by
piston lock.
The recoil indicator is located just back of the trunnion bracket on
the right side of the cradle and consists of a steel spring which is
adjusted by means of a nut so that the pointer bears against a scale
engraved on the edge of the sleigh indicating the length of recoil.
The front end of the cradle is covered by the cradle head and
provided with an opening through which the pressure-gauge adapter
may be assembled to the gauge-cock body. The lower half of the
front end of the cradle is closed by the front transom, forming a guide
for the piston-rod lock which is operated by means of a lever. When
this lever is lowered the lock plate moves to the right, releasing the
piston-rod nuts. When the lever is raised the lock moves to the left,
locking the nuts in firing position. The locking device is protected by
the cradle front cover which holds the lever in firing position when
closed. The filling valve is accessible through the cradle bottom
cover located on the bottom of the cradle to the rear of the front
transom. The pump bracket is located on the left side of the cradle
near the front.

LEFT SIDE ELEVATION, IN BATTERY
ELEVATING MECHANISM
Recoil and Counter-Recoil Mechanisms. When the howitzer is

fired the recoil mechanism exercises its retarding influence by
means of a liquid which is obliged to pass through an orifice whose
size diminishes as the movement proceeds, thus checking the
recoiling mass. The recoiling movement of the gun actuates at the
same time the counter-recoil mechanism, which acts on the counter-
recoil liquid and forces it into two reservoirs, thus further
compressing a gas therein contained. When the recoil movement is
ended the expansion of gas forces the counter-recoil mechanism
back “into battery,” and the recoil cylinder again exercises its
retarding influence to prevent a too rapid return and shock. The
normal recoil is 51.375 inches (1.305 meters).
When the piece is fired the howitzer and sleigh move to the rear,
the recoil and counter-recoil rods, which are held by the piston-rod
lock remaining stationary. The liquid in the counter-recoil cylinder is
thus forced into the air cylinders, building up a pressure sufficient to
return the howitzer to battery. The liquid in the recoil cylinder is
forced through the orifices in the recoil piston rod and then through
the throttling ring. The tapered buffer rod, which is attached to the
recoil cylinder head, moves through the throttling ring, gradually
closing the orifice, thus keeping the pressure constant as the velocity
of recoil is reduced. As the buffer rod moves to the rear the counter-
recoil valve is opened, allowing the liquid to pass freely into the
buffer chamber. As the gun returns to battery the buffer valve closes,
forcing the liquid to pass through the small clearance around the
valve, thus absorbing the energy of counter recoil.
By means of the elevating mechanism the howitzer, sleigh and
cradle are inclined at the various firing angles, varying from zero to
42 degrees, by rotation in the trunnions of the cradle.
Two elevating segments attached to the cradle are actuated by the
elevating pinion shaft operating in bearings integral with the
elevating worm wheel case secured to trail. To lower end of worm
shaft is fitted a worm which engages a worm wheel and pinion shaft
in the gear case. On upper end of worm shaft is attached the
elevating hand wheel fitted with a handle and plunger enabling the
operator to lock the howitzer at any desired elevation. The motion of
the handwheel is transmitted through the worm gear to the pinion
shaft and thence to the elevating segments.
TRAVERSING ROLLERS
The handwheel is provided with a handle of a spring locking type,

downward pressure on which unlocks it from the handwheel latch
plate, permitting the mechanism to be operated.
Traversing Mechanism. The traverse of the carriage is obtained
by means of the traversing mechanism causing the carriage to slide
on the axle, the trail pivoting on the spade. The movement is 3
degrees each side of center or a total of 105 mils.
At the center of the axle is rigidly attached a bronze traversing nut
through which passes the traversing screw which may be operated
from either side of the carriage by means of handwheels connected
to the screw through bevel gears and shaft. The traversing screw
operates in the travelling housing longitudinally and held in position
by thrust bearings and thrust bearing adjusters at both ends of the
screw. When either of the handwheels is operated the traversing
screw is rotated and moves to the right or left as the case may be,
carrying the entire carriage which moves across the axle on
traversing rollers.
In order to reduce friction during the traversing operation the
carriage rests on the axle through Belleville springs and two concave
faced traversing rollers mounted on roller shafts in the axle housing.
When gun is fired the Belleville springs are compressed and the
carriage rests on the axle through the bronze traversing roller boxes.
On top of axle projecting to the left of carriage is riveted an
azimuth scale graduated in mils so that the position of the carriage
on the axle may easily be seen at any time. When in traveling
position the carriage should be locked to the axles by the axle
traveling lock, thus relieving the traversing mechanism from
unnecessary stress.

TRAVERSING MECHANISM
The axle traveling lock is a device employed to relieve the
traversing mechanism from unnecessary stress when the carriage is
in traveling position. When the carriage is prepared for traveling the
traveling lock engages a series of square grooves cut in the center of
the axle. The lock is operated by an eccentric on the end of the
traveling lock shaft which is controlled by the lock lever fixed on
outer end. The lock lever may be placed in two positions marked “to
travel” and “to fire,” by means of its handle which is provided with a
spring plunger engaging the traveling lock catch. In order to properly
lock the carriage in traveling position it is necessary to traverse the
carriage to the center position on the axle, thus permitting the locking
device to engage the grooves cut in the center of the axle.
The air pump is furnished for the purpose of charging and
maintaining the necessary pressure in the counter recoil reservoirs.
When in operation it is attached to a bracket on the carriage by
means of a screw clamp and connected to the reservoir by the filling
pipe. The pump will operate against a pressure of 400 to 600 pounds
per square inch.
The liquid pump is a single-acting-plunger used for charging the
counter-recoil system and for the purpose of replenishing losses of
liquid from the cylinders. Power is applied through a hand lever
connected by parallel links and a cross-beam at the lower end of the
piston. The hand lever is detachable and also used in connection
with the air pump. When in operation the pump is attached to a
bracket on the carriage by means of a screw clamp. The filling pipe
is employed to connect the liquid pump with the recuperator cylinder.
The reservoir for compressed gas is a commercial seamless
cylinder with a capacity of 2,842 cubic inches and is charged with
nitrogen gas at a working pressure of 2,000 pounds per square inch
(140 kilograms per square centimeter). The reservoir is provided with
a needle valve and a connection for the pressure gage or filling pipe.
This cylinder is used for charging the counter-recoil system and may
be carried on the artillery supply truck furnished with 155-mm
organizations.
AIR AND LIQUID PUMPS
TRAVELING POSITION
The filling pipe is used to connect the counter-recoil reservoirs

with the air or liquid pump or with the compressed gas reservoir.
Pressure Gage. The gage for the compressed gas reservoir is
calibrated from 0 to 150 kilograms per square centimeter. It is used
to ascertain the pressure of gas in the reservoir and must be
attached before screwing on the filling pipe. The gage for the
pressure-gage adapter is calibrated from 0 to 60 kilograms per
square centimeter, is screwed into the side of the adapter and used
to test the pressure in the counter-recoil system.
The quadrant sight, model of 1918 (Schneider), is mounted on
the left trunnion of the carriage, both in traveling and in action, and
should not be removed by the battery mechanics. The principal
features of the quadrant sight are: The cross-leveling mechanism,
the elevating mechanism, and the angle of site mechanism.
The cross-leveling mechanism principally consists of the leveling
worm, leveling stop, antibacklash spring, leveling clamp, and cross
levels. By means of the cross-leveling mechanism the quadrant sight
is adjusted to proper alignment with the bore of the howitzer.
The bracket fits into the trunnion on the left side of the carriage
and is provided with four tennons which engage slots in the face of
the trunnions keeping the sight in proper alignment with the bore of
the howitzer. The bracket is screwed in place by the bracket bolt; the
front end of the body of the quadrant sight fits into the cylindrical part
of the bracket and is held in place longitudinally by four lugs.
QUADRANT SIGHT, MODEL OF 1918.

(SCHNEIDER)
The body of the sight is rotated by the leveling worm engaging the
worm segment cut on the under side of the body. The outer end of
the worm is provided with a knurled hand wheel by means of which
the leveling mechanism is operated. The leveling stop, secured to
bracket, engages slot in the body, thus limiting the angular motion of
the body in either direction. The rear end of the cylindrical part of the
bracket is split and provided with a leveling clamp by means of which
the body may be locked in position after it has been leveled.
The cross level is located on the rear edge of the sight shank and
serves the gunner in determining the level position of the instrument.
The level vial is a glass tube, closed at both ends, and partially filled
with a liquid consisting of 4 per cent alcohol and 60 per cent ether, a
small bubble remaining in the tube. Graduations are etched on the
circumference of the tube to indicate the central position of the
bubble. The vial is held in a level-vial tube, the ends being wrapped
in paper and set in plaster of paris. The knurled cross-level cover fits
over the holder and, together with the level-vial tube, are held in
place by the cross-level caps, which close the ends of the holder.
When closed, the cover serves as a protection for the vial.
The elevating mechanism consists principally of a sight shank,
elevating worm wheel, antibacklash pinion, elevating worm, elevating
worm eccentric, elevating scale drum, and scale drum housing.
NOTES ON CARE OF THE 155 HOWITZER.

The executive should be perfectly familiar with the working of the
recoil and know when to put a gun out of action due to faulty recoil.
The length of the recoil should be such that the end of the gun slides
do not recoil over the end of the cradle rails. In counter-recoil, the
sleigh should be perceptibly slowed down at a point about 10
centimeters from the front of the cradle, and from there on should
ease gently into battery without a sound or shock. Strict watch
should be kept to see that no excessive leakage takes place through
the stuffing boxes, the valve in the gauge adapter, or the oil hole in
the cylinder end nut. Slight leakage can hardly be helped, as one of
the stuffing boxes is under more than four hundred pounds of
pressure per square inch when the gun is at rest, and three or four
times that amount when the gun is in full recoil. However, if a pool of
liquid is found after the gun has been standing all night, it is time to
report the matter and have the packings replaced. The gun must be
dismounted, the stuffing-box repacked, and the dermatine inspected.
The dermatine packing is a compound resembling rubber, but it has
the quality of resisting any chemical action that the liquid may set up
in the recuperator. A worn dermatine packing may be replaced by
the simple expedient of turning it wrong side out and then using it
again as before. This has actually been tried and found to give good
results. Another temporary repair was effected by cutting a ring from
a solid truck tire and using it in the place of the dermatine, until a
packing of the latter could be obtained.
The French obtain a very tight fit in their stuffing boxes by the
peculiar design that allows the liquid pressure to actuate a strong
spring which in turn expands the packing against the rod or cylinder
wall. Leakage through the recuperator stuffing box will be noticed by
the liquid coming out of the oil hole in the right-hand cylinder end nut.
In dismounting French materiel, care must be used to replace the
same nuts on the bolts from which they were taken. Threads are not
standardized as to diameter; hence, trouble is likely to occur when
remounting.
To dismount the tube from the recoil mechanism, or sleigh as
it is denoted, a suitably strong overhead beam is selected and the
carriage run beneath it. Mount two one-ton duplex blocks on the
beam over either end of the tube and thread the bore with a half-inch
wire cable sling, in such a manner as to leave a bight at both muzzle
and breech ends. Into these loops the hooks of the block catch.
Gunny sacks form a suitable packing at the muzzle and breech to
prevent the cable damaging these parts of the tube. Provide several
blocks of two by four or four by four stuff, to block up the sleigh as it
is moved to the rear—as we shall soon see that it does. Remove the
locking hoop by knocking out the retaining bolts, and also remove
the cradle bolts from their housing on the cradle. This will allow the
sleigh to move to the rear of the cradle. Take a strain on the blocks
and carefully move the sleigh back over the trail until the recoil-lug
key (locking the recoil lug to the sleigh) clears the end of the cradle.
Remove the set screw from the bottom of the sleigh which locks the
tapered key in place, and proceed to drive the key out with a sledge
hammer and a block of wood. During this operation the rear of the
sleigh must be blocked up on the trail in order to take the strain off
the cradle rails. After the key is cleared, the tube may be raised by
means of the two blocks, care being taken to make the lift vertical,
otherwise the slots and grooves just in front of the breech will jam
and be damaged. Remove the carriage and lower the tube onto
blocks. The process of mounting is just the reverse of the above.
The elevating and traversing mechanisms give little trouble, if all
gear cases are kept packed in grease. It is extremely important that,
in laying for elevation with this piece, the final turns of the handwheel
should bring the gun into correct position by raising the breech and
not by lowering it. In this way all backlash is taken out of the gearing
and the howitzer rests solidly for firing. The gunner may easily be
taught to remember this by always having him bring the range
bubble to the front of the glass and then slowly elevate the breech,
bringing the bubble to him.
The traversing mechanism moves the whole carriage, including
gun, along the axle, about the spade as the center of rotation. The
traversing screw moves the carriage by being rotated through nut set
solidly in the axle. The axle and nut are stationary and the screw
moves laterally by means of the traversing handwheel. Hence, the
carriage being attached to the screw, must move when the screw
moves. Inasmuch as the axle is straight, it must accommodate itself
to the arc of the circle described about the spade as the center. It
does so by moving tangent to the arc, and consequently one end
moves to the front and the other end moves to the rear, carrying the
wheels with them. From this it will be seen that before attempting to
traverse the piece, the brake must be “off.” The movement of the
wheels may be easily seen, if a pencil line be drawn across the tire
just above the brake shoe and then the piece traversed. The line will
be seen either to raise or lower according to whether the piece be
traversed to the right or left.
In filling the “brake” or recoil cylinder, good results have been
obtained by merely leveling the gun and filling the brake cylinder until
full. Trying to pour out one hundred cubic centimeters of the liquid
after the brake is full, as the French drill regulations lay down, is
almost impossible; and no bad effects will be noticed provided the
gun does not become excessively warm during the firing. If it should
become warmed up sufficiently to affect the recoil, level the gun,
unscrew filling plug to release the pressure, rescrew, and continue
the fire. In using the manometer gauge, to measure the pressure and
the height of the liquid in the recuperator, it will be found that the
valve in gauge adapter will sometimes stick open to the extent of
letting out all the air in the recuperator tanks. The only sure remedy
for this is entirely to dismount the gun, remove the adapter, and
replace its valve packing, which no doubt will be found to be worn
and frayed, or else some foreign substance will be found to be lying
between it and its seat. The gauges should be tested about once in
three months by means of a standard steam gauge testing
apparatus, making the appropriate transformations if the tester be
graduated to pounds per square inch as most steam testers are. It
will be found that the maximum steam pressures used are rather
lower than these gauges read, hence only the lower readings may
ordinarily be tested.
To set the pointer to the correct pressure reading, pull the pointer
loose and apply a known pressure to the gauge. Set the pointer at
the corresponding reading on the manometer and press it on tightly.
In general, this is sufficient for practical work.
After each firing the breechblock should be entirely dismounted
and each part washed in caustic soda solution and then stippled with
oil before reassembling.
The wheels are made of smaller members than those that we are
accustomed to see in our own materiel. It must be remembered,
however, that the French designed their wheels for much better
roads than ours; and, in comparison with our materiel throughout,
this fact must be borne in mind. The wheels must be carefully
watched, especially through the dry weather, for they tend to check
and crack. Remedies are tire shrinking and soaking in water over
night, followed by a thorough and careful application of linseed oil.
Fast travel, as when the piece is coupled to a truck, must be avoided
if the life of the carriage is to be assured.
According to the French drill of the gun squads, in going into
action, the piece is first unlimbered and the trail is then laid on the
ground, and the cannoneers change posts to the extent of the
gunner going to his position by his sight; while the remaining
cannoneers lift the trail again and set the spade. This is slow and
cumbersome work. Much better results may be obtained by setting
the spade at the time that the piece is unlimbered, without moving
the cannoneers from their posts.
CHAPTER XII
EXPLOSIVES, AMMUNITION AND FUSES.
EXPLOSIVES.
As a matter of practical interest, explosives may be divided into
three classes, namely:
(1) Progressive or propelling explosives called low explosives.
(2) Detonating or disruptive explosives, termed high
explosives.
(3) Detonators or exploders, known as fulminates.
The first includes all classes of gun powders used in firearms of all
kinds; the second, explosives used in shell, torpedoes, and for
demolitions; the third, those explosives used to originate explosive
reactions in the two first classes. Corresponding names are given to
the phenomena characteristic of each class of explosives, (1)
explosions proper, of low order, progressive, or combustions, (2)
detonations, of high order, (3) fulminations, this last possessing
exceptional brusqueness.
The explosion of low order is marked by more or less progression;
the time element is involved as a controlling factor, the time required
to complete the explosive reaction being large compared with that of
the other forms of explosion.
The second class of explosion is of a different nature. The
explosive reaction is not limited or confined to the surfaces exposed
but appears to progress in all directions throughout the mass radially
from the point of initial explosion. It has been determined
experimentally that the velocity of propagation of the explosive wave
throughout a mass of guncotton is from 17,000 to 21,000 feet per
second.
Fulmination is a class of explosion still more brusque than the last.
The abruptness of their explosion and the consequent sharpness of
the blow and the concentration of heat on the point of ignition
constituting their efficiency as originators of explosions of the first
two classes.
Methods of Exploding. Explosives may be exploded by three
methods; in reality but two, by heat and by application of energy as
by a blow. The heat may be applied directly by friction, by electricity
and detonating cap, these two methods of applying the heat giving
rise to the three practical methods above mentioned. As it is not
practical to apply heat directly to the charge, small charges of special
explosives are made up into primers and these are exploded in one
of the ways above mentioned and so communicate the explosion to
the main charge. Fulminate of mercury is one of the high explosives
fulfilling the requirements and it is readily exploded by any one of the
methods mentioned. It is used in all detonating caps. Primers for
cannon also contain an additional charge of black powder to
increase the flame. For this purpose also igniting charges of black
powder are attached to the smokeless powder charges for the larger
calibers.
Uses. The chief use of low or progressive explosives is as a
propelling charge in guns and for blasting where it is desired to exert
a pushing effect rather than a blow. High explosives are used when it
is desired to exert a high pressure and shatter the container, as in a
shell, mine, etc. This class is not satisfactory as a propelling charge
for the reason that its rapidity of action is so great that the pressure
exerted would burst the gun before the projectile could start. Low
explosives are not satisfactory shell fillers for the reason that their
action is so low that the shell would break at its weakest point before
all the explosives had exploded and what remained would be
wasted. With a high explosive, all or most of the charge explodes
before the shell can break up. The greater the rapidity of action of an
explosive the finer the fragmentation of the projectile. With too rapid
action the pieces are too small; with too slow action they are too
large. Experience teaches the proper rapidity of action to attain the
fragmentation most efficient against animate and material targets.

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The Communication Process

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Describe the communication process and formal and informal communication.

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2. Show how channel richness underlies the choice of communication channel.

3. Identify common barriers to effective communication.

4. Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication.

5. Compare and contrast formal small-group networks and the grapevine.

6. Contrast oral, written, and non verbal communication.

7. Show how to overcome the potential problems in cross-cultural communication.

My study questions for this chapter are:

• Explain the process by which communication occurs.

• How important is selecting the right channel in communication?

• What are the major barriers to effective communication?

• How do networks affect communication?

• What is a grapevine and how is it used in communication?

• Does nonverbal communication really make a difference?

• Does silence have any place in communication?

• How can one improve cross-cultural communication?

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SUGGESTED TEACHING PLAN

The Communication Process

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc.

The communication process

(See Exhibit 7-1 The Communication Process Model)

Sender initiates an idea that needs to be communicated.

The message is the actual product of the process.

Channel is the medium through which the message travels.

Channels can be formal or informal within an organization.

Decoding represents how the receiver understands the message.

Feedback is the check on how successful the communication is.

How do we make a decision on which channel to select for best impact?

A model of channel richness explains channel selection.

(See Exhibit 7-2 Information Richness of Communication Channels)

• Rich channels have the ability to:

• Handle multiple cues simultaneously and facilitate rapid feedback

• Be very personal; face-to-face conversations scores highest in channel richness because it

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Barriers to Effective Communication

We usually ignore silence because it is defined by the absence of information.

Sometimes the real message in a communication is buried in the silence.

Silence and withholding communication are common and problematic.

The final barrier to effective communication is outright misrepresentation of information, of lying.

What is the definition of a lie?

Is it deliberately withholding information about a mistake?

There is a prevalence of lying in organizations.

People who lie take steps to guard against being detected.

Many lies are embedded in truths.

Problems with downward communication:

It is one-way communication and rarely is feedback or opinions solicited.

• Formal networks: Task-related followimg the authority chain (vertical communication).

• The chain: rigidly follows the formal chain of command.

• The wheel: relies on the leader to act as the central conduit.

Not controlled by management.