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Local Area Networks – The Basics

Chapter 7

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter you should be able to:

• State the definition of a local area network.

• List the primary function, activities, and application areas of a local area network.
• Cite the advantages and disadvantages of local area networks.
• Identify the physical and logical local area networks.
• Specify the different medium access control techniques.
• Recognize the different IEEE 802 frame formats.
• Describe the common wired local area network systems.

Chapter Outline
1. Introduction

2. Primary Function of Local Area Networks

3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Local Area Networks

4. The First Local Area Network – The Bus/Tree

5. A More Modern LAN

a. Contention-based protocols

6. Switches
a. Isolating traffic patterns and providing multiple access
b. Full-duplex switches
c. Virtual LANs
d. Link aggregation
e. Spanning tree algorithm
f. Quality of service

7. Wired Ethernet

8. Wired Ethernet Frame Format

9. LANs In Action: A Small Office Solution

10. Summary

Lecture Notes
Introduction

A local area network (LAN) is a communication network that interconnects a variety of data
communicating devices within a small geographic area and broadcasts data at high data transfer
rates with very low error rates. Since the local area network first appeared in the 1970s, its use
has become widespread in commercial and academic environments. It would be very difficult to
imagine a collection of personal computers within a computing environment that does not
employ some form of local area network. This chapter begins by discussing the basic layouts or
topologies of the most commonly found local area networks, followed by the medium access
control protocols that allow a workstation to transmit data on the network. We will then examine
most of the common Ethernet products.

Functions of a Local Area Network

The majority of users expect a local area network to perform the following functions and provide
the following applications: file serving, database and application serving, print serving,
electronic mail, remote links, video transfers, process control and monitoring, and distributed
processing.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Local Area Networks

Local area networks have several advantages, including hardware and software sharing,
workstation survival during network failure, component and system evolution, heterogeneous
mix of hardware and software, and access to other LANs, WANs, and mainframe computers.
Disadvantages include complexity, maintenance costs, and the network is only as strong as the
weakest link.

The First Local Area Network – The Bus/Tree

The bus local area network was the first physical design when LANs became commercially
available in the late 1970s, and it essentially consists of a single cable, or bus, to which all
devices attach. Since then the bus has diminished significantly to the point of near extinction. It
is interesting to note that cable television signals are still delivered by a network bus. Thus,
understanding the bus/tee network is still important.

A More Modern LAN

The most popular configuration for a local area network is the star-wired bus. This form of LAN
should not be confused with an older technology called the star topology. Today’s modern star-
wired bus network acts like a bus but looks like a star. The logical design of operates as a bus
where one workstation can transmit to all other workstations. The physical design, however,
more resembles a star, with the hub or switch acting as the central point.

Contention-based Protocols

A medium access control protocol is part of the software that allows a workstation to place data
onto a local area network. Depending on the network’s topology, several types of protocols may
be applicable. The bottom line with all medium access control protocols is this: Since a local
area network is a broadcast network, it is imperative that only one workstation at a time be
allowed to transmit its data onto the network. In the case of a broadband local area network,
which can support multiple channels at the same time, it is imperative that only one workstation
at a time be allowed to transmit its data onto a channel on the network. There remains only one
basic category of medium access control protocol for local area networks: contention-based.

Switches

A switch is a combination of a hub and a bridge and can interconnect multiple workstations like
a hub but can also filter out frames providing a segmentation of the network. Switches can
provide a significant decrease in interconnection traffic and increase the throughput of the
interconnected networks while requiring no additional cabling or rearranging of the network
devices. Modern switches can provide full-duplex connections, virtual LANs, aggregated links,
support spanning tree algorithms, and provide quality of service levels.

Wired Ethernet

The various versions of wired Ethernet include the older 10 Mbps systems, 100 Mbps, Gigabit,
and 10 Gbps.

Wired Ethernet Frame Format

The IEEE 802 set of standards has split the data link layer into two sublayers: the medium access
control sublayer and the logical link control sublayer. The medium access control (MAC)
sublayer works more closely with the physical layer and contains a header, computer (physical)
addresses, error detection codes, and control information. The logical link control (LLC)
sublayer is primarily responsible for logical addressing and providing error control and flow
control information.
LANs In Action: A Small Office Solution

The first In Action example examines how a small business decides to incorporate a LAN into
their business solution. The business included 35 - 40 workstations with word processing,
spreadsheets, and database applications. In order to add internal e-mail, a central database
system, and print sharing, the company will consider the addition of a local area network.

Quick Quiz

1. What are the major functions of a LAN?

File and print serving, access to other LANs, WANs and mainframes, distributed processing, and
process control.

2. What are the various medium access control techniques?

Contention-based. Round robin systems have essentially disappeared.

3. What is the difference between a hub, a switch, and a router?

Hub broadcasts any input onto all outgoing lines; switch replaces a hub and provides filtering;
router interconnects a LAN with a WAN.

4. What are the basic functions of a network server?

Holds network operating system as well as application programs and data set; may also function
as a hub, switch, bridge or router.

Discussion Topics
1. Couldn’t IEEE have made a single frame format for all the forms of local area networks?

2. Are LANs a stable technology or are they changing just as quickly as other forms of
communication technologies?

3. Is Ethernet that good that it’s the predominant form of LAN? Will everything eventually be
Ethernet / CSMA/CD?

4. Will hubs be obsolete someday?

5. What are the advantages of creating virtual LANs?

Teaching Tips
1. Be sure to emphasize the difference between logical view and physical view. For example, a
star-wired bus logically acts like a bus but physically looks like a star. A star-wire ring logically
acts like a ring but physically looks like a star. A bus logically and physically is a bus.

2. The frame is the name of the package at the data link layer. It is the frame that is placed onto
the medium of the physical layer. The IEEE 802 frame formats describe the layout of the frame
and what the data looks like as it moves over a LAN. The frame addresses are the ones used to
address a NIC in a machine. This is not the address that is used to send a packet over the Internet
(that is the IP address).

3. Discuss the non-determinism of the CSMA/CD LAN and how collisions in hub-based LANs
create this characteristic. Discuss how switches and no collisions have changed things.

4. What kind of mix does your school or company have of hubs, routers, and switches? Use this
information as an example in class.

5. Take your students to one or more locations on campus and show them an actual, working hub
/ switch / router.

6. Make sure you emphasize how a switch filters out unnecessary packets.

Solutions to Review Questions

1. What is the definition of a local area network?

A communication network that interconnects a variety of data communicating devices within a

small geographic area and broadcasts data at high data transfer rates with very low error rates.

2. List the primary activities and application areas of a local area network.

File serving, print serving, connection to other networks and mainframes.

3. List the advantages and disadvantages of local area networks.

Adv: Share files and devices, intercommunication.

Disadv: Maintenance, complexity, costs.

4. What are the basic layouts of local area networks? List two advantages that each layout
has over the others.

Bus: Uses low noise coaxial cable, inexpensive taps.

Star-wired bus: Simple to interconnect, easy to add components, most popular.
Star-wired ring: Simple to interconnect and easy to add components (but no more so than star-
wired bus).

5. What is meant by a passive device?

A signal that enters is neither amplified nor regenerated. The signal is simply passed on.

6. What is meant by a bidirectional signal?

A signal that propagates in either direction on a medium.

7. What are the primary differences between baseband technology and broadband
technology?

Baseband is a signal digital signal while broadband is analog and may carry many signals.

8. What purpose does a hub serve?

The hub is a collection point for workstations.

9. What is the difference between a physical design and a logical design?

Physical is the wiring and components, logical is how the software passes the data.

10. What is a medium access control protocol?

The software that allows a workstation to insert its data onto the LAN.

11. What are the basic operating principles behind CSMA/CD?

CSMA/CD: Listen to medium, if no one transmitting, transmit. Continue to listen for collisions.
If someone is transmitting, wait.

12. What is meant by a “nondeterministic” protocol?

You cannot determine precisely when a workstation will get a chance to transmit (because of
potential collisions).

13. What does the term 100BaseT stand for?

One hundred mega-bits per second transmission over baseband (digital) signals, using twisted
pair wiring.

14. What is the difference between Fast Ethernet and regular Ethernet?

Fast Ethernet transmits at 100 Mbps while regular Ethernet transmits at 10 Mbps.
15. What are the latest 10-Gbps Ethernet standards?

10GBase-fiber, 10GBase-T, 10GBase-CS

16. What is the primary advantage of power over Ethernet? The primary disadvantage?

Primary advantage is not having to run a separate power line to power device; primary
disadvantage is making sure the switch has enough power to run PoE devices.

17. How does a transparent switch work?

Observes traffic on a LAN and creates a set of forwarding tables; filters traffic

18. What is the purpose of a virtual LAN?

To create a logical subgroup of multiple workstations and servers.

19. How does a switch encapsulate a message for transmission?

It really doesn’t encapsulate anything. Switch looks at NIC/MAC addresses and forwards
accordingly.

20. When referring to a hub or a switch, what is a port?

The port is the connection that is used to connect a workstation or another hub or switch to this
hub or switch.

21. What are the basic functions of a switch?

A switch examines a packet’s destination address and routes the packet to the appropriate
workstation.

22. How does a switch differ from a hub?

Switch examines addresses, hub does not. A switch has multiple ports and takes the place of a
hub.

23. What is cut-through architecture?

The device is passing the data packet on before it has even finished entering the device.

24. How is a full-duplex switch different from a switch?

Full duplex switch has one set of lines for receiving and one set of lines for transmitting, thus it
can do both operations at the same time.
25. What is meant by link aggregation?

The process of combining two or more links into one logical fat link.

Suggested Solutions to Exercises

1. What properties set a local area network apart from other forms of networks?

Small geographic distances using broadband transmissions.

2. Describe an example of a broadband bus system.

Cable modems, video surveillance systems, cable television.

3. Is a hub a passive device? Explain.

Not completely. A hub does regenerate a digital signal. And there may be some simple network
management functions performed in a hub.

4. Which of the Ethernet standards (10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1000 Mbps, 10 Gbps) allow for
twisted pair media? What are the corresponding IEEE standard names?

Currently all but 10 Gbps Ethernet can run over twisted pair.

5. If a network were described as 1000BaseT, list everything you know about that network.

CSMA/CD LAN, 1000 Mbps transmission, baseband or digital signaling, twisted pair wiring.

6. In the IEEE 802.3 frame forma, what is the PAD field used for? What is the minimum
packet size?

PAD field makes sure the frame is not mis-interpreted as a runt. Minimum packet size is 64
bytes.

7. Suppose workstation A wants to send the message HELLO to workstation B. Both

workstations are on an IEEE 802.3 local area network. Workstation A has the binary
address “1" and workstation B has the binary address “10." Show the resulting MAC
sublayer frame (in binary) that is transmitted. Don’t calculate a CRC; just make one up.

HEADER 10 1 5(data length) HELLO PAD(33 bytes) CHECKSUM

8. What is the difference between the physical representation of a star-wired ring LAN and
the logical representation?
A star-wired ring LAN physically looks like a star but acts logically like a ring. A star-wired bus
physically looks like a star but acts logically like a bus.

9. How is a hub similar to a switch? How are they different?

Not too much similar. They both physically connect into the network the same. Both forward
frames. But a switch looks at the MAC address and either forwards or drops the frame.

10. Are hubs and switches interchangeable? Explain.

Yes. But results can be quite different.

11. a. The local area network shown in Figure 7-21 has two hubs (X and Y) interconnecting
the workstations and servers. What workstations and servers will receive a copy of a
packet if the following workstations/servers transmit a message:

• Workstation 1 sends a message to workstation 3:

• Workstation 2 sends a message to Server 1:
• Server 1 sends a message to workstation 3:

All devices will receive all messages.

b. Replace hub Y with a switch. Now what workstations and servers will receive a copy of a
packet if the following workstations/servers transmit a message:

• Workstation 1 sends a message to workstation 3:

• Workstation 2 sends a message to Server 1:
• Server 1 sends a message to workstation 3:

Workstations 1, 2 and 3.
Workstations 1, 2 and the server.
Only workstation 3.

12. A transparent switch is inserted between two local area networks ABC and XYZ.
Network ABC has workstations 1, 2 and 3, and network XYZ has workstations 4, 5, and 6.
Show the contents of the two forwarding tables in the switch as the following packets are
transmitted. Both forwarding tables start off empty.

• Workstation 2 sends a packet to workstation 3.

• Workstation 2 sends a packet to workstation 5.
• Workstation 1 sends a packet to workstation 2.
• Workstation 2 sends a packet to workstation 3.
• Workstation 2 sends a packet to workstation 6.
• Workstation 6 sends a packet to workstation 3.
• Workstation 5 sends a packet to workstation 4.
• Workstation 2 sends a packet to workstation 1.
• Workstation 1 sends a packet to workstation 3.
• Workstation 1 sends a packet to workstation 5.
• Workstation 5 sends a packet to workstation 4.
• Workstation 4 sends a packet to workstation 5.

At the end:
Routing table on ABC’s port: 1, 2
Routing table on XYZ’s port: 4,5,6

13. Give an example of a situation in which a virtual LAN might be a useful tool in a
business environment. What about in an educational environment?

If you want a certain group of users to work together on a project, you might want to place them
on a virtual LAN. Likewise for school.

14. What does it mean when a switch or device is cut-through? What is the main
disadvantage of a cut-through switch? Is there a way to solve this disadvantage of a cut-
through switch without losing the advantages?

Cut-through means the beginning of the data packet is leaving the switch before the end of the
packet has entered the switch. Disadvantage is errors are propagated. Not if you want to keep it
truly cut-through.

15. Give a common business example that mimics the differences between a shared network
segment and a dedicated network segment.

Wide range of possible answers here.

16. Your company’s switch between its two networks has just died. You have a router
lying on your desk that is not currently being used. Will the router work in place of the
broken bridge? Explain.

No. Routers operate on IP addresses, while switches operate on NIC addresses.

17. A CSMA/CD network is connected to the Internet via a router. A user on the
CSMA/CD network sends an e-mail to a user on the Internet. Show how the e-mail
message is encapsulated as it leaves the CSMA/CD network, enters the router, and then
leaves the router.
Leaving the LAN:
Data
App + Data
TCP + App + Data
IP + TCP + App + Data
MAC + IP + TCP + App + Data + MAC
Entering router:
MAC + IP + TCP + App + Data + MAC
IP + TCP + App + Data

Leaving router
IP + TCP + App + Data
WAN + IP + TCP + App + Data + WAN

18. Given the following network (Figure 7-22), show how the Spanning Tree Protocol will
eliminate the cyclic path.

The protocol will probably “remove” the bottom link on the far-right switch and the bottom link
on the switch immediately to the left of the far-right switch.

Thinking Outside the Box

1. You can interconnect all cash registers into one or two centrally located switches or hubs. Cat
5e/6 twisted pair should be sufficient. If hubs/switches can’t be centrally located and cable
distance exceeds 100 meters, be careful. Might need better medium. Can also connect using
multiplexing solution from earlier chapter.

Problems 2-6: Many possible solutions here.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 In dogs there are the same general symptoms with vomiting. The
vomited material is usually remasticated and swallowed. The
swelling in the pharynx can be felt from without, or seen through the
open mouth. The tonsils are usually enlarged. Pressure on the
pharynx or gullet produces instant regurgitation.
Treatment consists in the removal of the tumor when possible.
Malignant growths and multiple tumors are not favorable for
treatment. Actinomycosis can be treated throughout by iodides, or
these may supplement the surgical measures. In the short-faced
animals an ecraseur, or a wire-snare passed through a tube may be
employed. (See pharyngeal polypi).
 ESOPHAGITIS. INFLAMMATION OF THE
GULLET.

Causes: Alimentary and therapeutic; parasitic and accidental traumatisms;

mechanical irritants; acrids; caustics; parasites—gongylonema, coccidia,
spiroptera. Extension inflammations. Lesions: hyperæmia; epithelial degeneration
and desquamation; erosion; petechiæ; suppuration; fibroid contraction;
sacculation; polypi. Symptoms: dysphagia, difficult deglutition; eructation; cough;
upward wave motion in jugular furrow; colicy pains; probang arrested; fever.
Treatment: liquid or semi-liquid food; for caustics, antidotes; cold water; ice;
antiseptics; derivatives; open abscess; potassium iodide.

Causes. This usually arises from injury to the mucous membrane

and in the milder forms remains confined to this structure. In the
more severe, it extends to the muscular coat and even to the
periœsophagean tissues. The causes may be divided into alimentary
and therapeutic irritants; parasitic or accidental traumatisms; and
extension of inflammation from the pharynx or other adjacent part.
Among irritants taken as food, may be named hot mashes, bolted
by a hungry and gluttonous horse, and temporarily arrested in the
gullet by reason of the resulting irritation of the mucous membrane.
In other cases, coarse fibrous fodder is bolted without previous
mastication, and scratches and abrades the œsophagean mucosa
leading to transient or progressive inflammation. In other instances
diseases of the teeth, jaws, temporo-maxillary joint, or salivary
glands prevent the necessary trituration of the food, and it is
swallowed in a rough, fibrous, or even a dry condition. Again the
impaction of a solid body (turnip, apple, potatoe, egg) or of a
quantity of finely divided grain or fodder so as to obstruct the lumen
of the gullet, is an occasional cause. The density of the epithelium
reduces these dangers to the minimum, yet a too rough morsel, or an
undue detention of the less irritating material will determine
hyperæmia and even inflammation and infective invasion. Acrid and
irritant vegetables in the food are less injurious when thoroughly
insalivated, as their contact with the œsophagean walls is then very
slight and transient.
Irritant and caustic chemical agents given for therapeutic
purposes, attack the mouth, pharynx and stomach, more severely
than the gullet through which they are passed with great rapidity. In
some cases, however, the agent will adhere by reason of its powdery,
gummy or balsamic character and will then act as a direct irritant.
Solutions of caustic alkalies (weak lye) given to correct acid gastric
indigestion in the horse, and ammonia to remedy tympany in cattle,
when insufficiently diluted, will dangerously attack the œsophagean
mucosa.
Parasitic irritation is not so common here as in other parts of the
intestinal canal where the contents are longer delayed and are passed
with less friction, yet certain parasites are found in this region and
may even produce considerable irritation. The gongylonema of the
thoracic œsophagean mucosa of ruminants and swine are apparently
harmless. The psorospermia of the œsophagean muscles of the same
animals are alleged to cause œdema of the glottis, asphyxia and
epilepsy. The spiroptera microstoma of the horse has in one instance
known to us caused extensive denudation of the muscular coat
within a foot of the cardiac end of the gullet. Finally we have found
bots hooked on to the œsophagean mucosa close to the cardia,
causing much irritation and spasm. The spiroptera sanguinolenta is
often present in chambers hollowed in the œsophagean mucosa of
the dog.
Traumatic causes appear in the form of contusions and bruises
from without, but much more frequently from foreign bodies, and
probangs operating from within. The use of a whip or of a rope
without a cup-shaped end for the relief of a choked animal. Short of
the occurrence of laceration this often produces contusion and
abrasion which results in local inflammation. Even the too forcible
dislodgment of a solid body by a probang of approved pattern, may
bruise and scratch the gullet when the seat of violent spasm. Pins,
needles, wire, thorns and other sharp bodies are liable to do serious
damage during their passage in an ordinary bolus and when they
transfix the mucosa violent infective inflammation may ensue.
 Extension inflammations from the throat, and from phlegmous,
abscesses, tumors, etc., in the jugular furrow need only be mentioned
in this connection, as the primary disease will be clearly in evidence.
Lesions. These are usually circumscribed when due to a traumatic
injury and extended when caused by caustics or irritants. The
affected section is swollen, and surrounded by some serous effusion.
When the muscular coat is involved it is often paler than normal, and
microscopically shows extensive granular and fatty degeneration.
The mucosa usually sloughs off its epithelial layer, sometimes over
an extensive area (thoracic portion, Renault; whole gullet, Bertheol),
and the exposed raw surface is of a deep red or violet. When the
epithelium is not shed, it is infiltrated, swollen and friable breaking
down under the slightest manipulation. Petechiæ and slight blood
extravasations are abundant, and diffuse suppuration is not
uncommon. In traumatic injuries necrosed areas are found in the
muscular and mucous coats. Strictures, dilatations, and polypoid
growths are liable to follow as sequelæ.
Symptoms. These usually manifest themselves from two to four
days after the operation of the cause. There is much difficulty in
deglutition, the effort to swallow either solids or liquids causing
acute suffering, with extension of the head on the neck and strained
contraction of the facial muscles. If the liquid succeeds in passing the
pharynx, it is arrested at the seat of inflammation and regurgitated
through the nose and mouth, or in solipeds through the nose only.
This takes the appearance of emesis even if nothing actually comes
from the stomach. The animal shakes the head violently, breathes
hurriedly, and has fits of paroxysmal coughing. A wave extending
from below upward along the jugular furrow and followed by nasal
discharge is a marked symptom, as the violence of the inflammation
increases. Uneasy movements of the limbs, pawing and lying down
and rising, indicate the existence of colic, and this is aggravated by
the administration of anodynes or antispasmodics by the mouth. In
cattle, rumination is arrested, froth accumulates around the lips, the
rumen becomes tympanitic, and colicy movements appear.
Oftentimes a swelling extends upward in the jugular furrow, and
even in its absence, pressure with the fingers along the furrow will
often detect an area of tenderness with or without local swelling.
Fever with more or less elevation of temperature, is a general
symptom. There may be wheezing breathing or loud stertor. The
passage of a probang is arrested by the swelling or spasm at the
diseased part and when withdrawn may be covered with pus or fœtid
debris. In the horse a small probang may be passed through the
nose.
Treatment. In a slight congestion at the seat of a recent
obstruction and which tends to renewed obstruction, little more is
necessary than to restrict the feed for a few days to soft mashes so
that irritation of the sensitive surface, spasm and the arrest of the
morsel may be obviated. Plenty of pure water or of well boiled
linseed or other gruel should be allowed.
In cases in which the obstruction is still present in the gullet, its
removal by probang or looped wire is the first consideration, to be
followed by the measures mentioned above.
In case of the swallowing of a caustic agent, no time should be lost
in giving an antidote. For the mineral or caustic organic acids, lime
water, magnesia, or other bland basic agent is demanded. For caustic
alkalies or basic agents, bland acids, such as vinegar, citric acid, or
even a mineral acid very largely diluted will be in order. In both these
cases and in that of caustic salts, albuminous and mucilaginous
agents, eggs, linseed tea, slippery elm, gums, and well boiled gruels
are indicated. To these may be added small doses of laudanum when
the irritation is great. Iced drinking water, iced milk, or iced gruels
are often soothing to the suffering animal, and cold compresses,
snow or ice applied along the jugular furrow is often valuable. To
counteract the septic developments on the affected mucous
membrane, chlorate of potash, boric acid, salol, naphthalin,
naphthol, pyoktannin, or even weak solutions of phenic acid or
creolin may be used. In the slighter forms of inflammation or when
the acute form threatens to persist, an active counter-irritant of
mustard or cantharides may be applied along the jugular furrow.
In case of abscess, as manifested by fluctuation following a hard,
indurated, painful swelling, a free incision should be followed by
frequent injections of antiseptic lotions or by the packing of the
cavity with such bland antiseptics as salol, boric acid, or iodoform on
cotton.
As inflammation subsides, potassium iodide may be given, both as
an antiseptic and a resolvent, to counteract the tendency to fibroid
contraction and stricture of the gullet.
 SPASM OF THE ŒSOPHAGUS.
ŒSOPHAGISMUS.

Causes: nervous disorders or lesions, pharyngeal, œsophagean, or gastric

disease, œsophagean parasites, choking, tumors, ulcers, cold drinks. Symptoms:
extended drooping head, working jaws, frothing, pawing, attempts at swallowing,
alkaline regurgitation, cries, rigid gullet, tenderness. May be paroxysmal with
intervening dullness. Treatment: by sound; by removal of obstruction; by
antispasmodics. Embrocations. Tonics.

Causes. This has been noticed as a concomitant of certain diseases

of the nervous centres, such as rabies, tetanus, or epilepsy, and those
of the pharynx or stomach. Cadeac has seen it in connection with
stricture, and the present writer has observed it as a result of larvæ of
œstri hooked on to the mucosa above the cardia. It is an important
factor in most cases of choking, and may depend on tumors, ulcers,
or even cold beverages. Animals with a specially nervous
organization are particularly subject to it and it may thus be an
hereditary family trait. It has been especially noticed in solipeds and
calves.
Symptoms. A feeding animal suddenly ceases to eat, extends the
head on the neck, drops the nose toward the ground, moves the jaws
constantly, froths at the mouth or lets the saliva drivel to the ground,
moves the fore feet uneasily pushing the litter under the belly, makes
efforts at deglutition during which, waves may be seen to descend
along the jugular furrow, followed by regurgitation and discharge of
the liquid as by emesis. The act is often followed by a slight cry.
Manipulations of the left jugular furrow detects the gullet as a firm,
rigid cord, unless when liquids are passing as above, and
auscultation reveals a rattling or gurgling noise as if in jerks.
Pressure on the gullet is often very painful, increasing the spasm and
rigidity, and causing the animal to cry out. Wheezing breathing may
attend the discharge of saliva through the nose, and violent
paroxysms of coughing may be caused by the entrance of this liquid
into the larynx.
In the majority of cases no food is swallowed and nothing but
saliva is disgorged, which together with the absence of an acid odor
distinguishes this from true vomiting. In an exceptional case of the
author’s, occurring in a colt, the animal continued to masticate and
swallow green food which gradually filled the whole length of the
gullet, practically paralyzing it. In ordinary cases a small sound can
usually be passed into the stomach. In cases of obstruction, however,
by a solid morsel, or by an accumulation of soft solids, the probang
will enable one to detect the condition. The acute symptoms may
occur in paroxysms of a few minutes in length, between which, the
animal remains dull and disspirited until the new attack supervenes.
Recovery is at times as sudden as the onset, though there remains,
for a length of time, liability to a relapse. Cadeac has seen a
succession of such attacks which extended over a year and a half.
Treatment. In many cases the passage of a probang or sound, will,
by the mere distension of the gullet, overcome the local spasm,
though it may be necessary to repeat the operation several times. In
case the sound causes much pain the end of the instrument may be
well smeared with solid extract of belladonna, and after passing this
as far as the obstruction a short time may be allowed, before its
passage is again attempted. In case obstruction by soft solids has
taken place, the passage of the wire loop will serve to break up the
mass and even to draw it up toward the mouth.
The administration of antispasmodics is the next indication.
Chloroform or ether by inhalation or in solution in water, chloral
hydrate as an enema, morphia or atropia hypodermically may be
used according to convenience. Bromide of potassium and other
antispasmodics given by the mouth, too often fail to pass the
obstruction and thus prove useless, except in the intervals of the
spasms.
Fomentations of the lower border of the neck with warm water,
and frictions over the region of the gullet with camphorated spirit,
essential oils, ammonia, or in calves with oil of turpentine, often
contribute to relieve the spasm.
 Finally after the severity of the attack has passed, a course of bitter
tonics and above all of nux vomica will fortify the system against a
relapse.
 PARALYSIS OF THE ŒSOPHAGUS.

Causes: nervous lesions and disorders; arytenectomy; over distension; stricture;

parasites. Symptoms: dysphagia; regurgitation; cough; dyspnœa; hard packed
gullet. Inhalation pneumonia. Lesions. Treatment: remove cause; liquid food;
dilatation; nerve sedatives and stimulants; electricity; counter-irritants.

Causes. This has been noticed in a number of cases in solipeds,

and attributed to central nervous lesions, cerebral concussion
(Straub), encephalitis (Hering, Bornhauser), paralysis of the fore
extremities (Meier), pharyngeal paralysis (Puschmann). Möller has
seen it several times consequent on arytenectomy, while Dieckerhoff
and Graf have seen it occur without any clearly defined cause. In a
case referred to above, the present writer found it connected with the
attachment of larvæ of œstri in the lower end of the gullet. Stricture
and impaction may be a further cause.
Symptoms and lesions. There is more or less interference with
deglutition, culminating in complete inability to swallow, and the
rejection of morsels of masticated food by the nose. Cough may also
occur from the descent of food toward the lungs, with more or less
dyspnœa and oppression of the breathing. Manipulation along the
left jugular furrow, detects the œsophagus as a prominent hard,
rope-like mass which fills up the groove unduly. When death occurs
rapidly the gullet is found gorged with masticated food throughout
its entire length. In certain instances gangrenous pneumonia is
found, the result of the penetration of food into the bronchia. In
other cases there are lesions of the medulla oblongata, or of the
vagus or glossopharyngeal nerves or their œsophagean branches.
Death usually results from obstruction, inanition, or, in case the
paralysis is partial, from pneumonia or exhaustion.
 Treatment. First remove or correct the existing cause of the
disease. Impaction may be broken up by the use of the wire loop, or
pincer probang; parasites may be expelled by passing a cupped
probang; the impactions following arytenectomy can be obviated by
feeding gruels, milk and other liquid foods only, and from a bucket
set on the ground; stricture may be dilated by the use of graduated
sounds; and nervous diseases may be dealt with according to their
specific nature in each several case. When any definite cause of this
kind has been overcome the persistent use of strychnia, subcutem, or
by the mouth, may be effectual in overcoming the paresis of the
gullet. Hypodermic injections are best made along the left jugular
groove, and frictions, stimulating embrocations, and galvanic
currents may be employed with excellent effect.
 ŒSOPHAGEAN TUMORS.
Forms of neoplasm in gullet of horse, ox, sheep, pig, dog. Symptoms: dysphagia;
eructation; vomiting; bloating; cough; dyspnœa; stertor; fœtor; palpitation.
Treatment.
These have been often noticed in the lower animals. In the horse
have been noticed melanoma (Olivier, Röll, Kopp, Besnard,
Pouleau), fibroma (Dandrieu, Dieckerhoff), Carcinoma (Chouard,
Lorenz, Cadeac, Laurent), epithelioma (Blanc, Lorenz), Leiomyoma
(Lucet, Lothes), cystoma (Caillau, Legrand), mucous cysts (Lucet).
In cattle papilloma is especially common, having been noted by
Johne, Mons, Fessler, Schütz, Lusckar, Gratia, Beck, Cadeac and Kitt.
Tubercles, and fibroid masses with cystic purulent centres are
not uncommon. Actinomycosis is also frequent, sometimes hard
and warty and at others soft and vascular.
In the Sheep, Dandrieu found between the muscular and mucous
coats a hard tumor as large as a hen’s egg, the removal of which put a
stop to a persistent choking. In both cattle and sheep, swellings
from coccidiosis are common; in cattle and swine from
gongylonema, and in sheep from filaria (Harms) or spiroptera
(Zurn).
In pigs, fibroma is met with in the walls of the gullet (Raveski)
and in dogs fibroma, papilloma, and the tumors of spiroptera.
Symptoms. The coccidia and spiroptera usually cause few
symptoms or none, but neoplasms usually develop symptoms of
obstruction, dysphagia, eructation, vomiting, and all the indications
of choking according to their seat. These do not come on suddenly
and recover as in simple choking, but even though there may be
periodic obstructions, spasms and paroxysms, there is a slow,
progressive advance as the neoplasms increase. Stertorous or
mucous breathing, cough, dyspnœa and fœtid exhalations are
common, the symptoms may be aggravated when the head is bent,
and the tumor may even be felt on palpation of the throat or left
jugular furrow. In ruminants tympany occurs after feeding.
 Treatment is surgical and consists in the removal of the tumors by
incision and ecraseur or otherwise. Thoracic œsophagean tumors are
usually inoperable.
 IMPACTION OF THE CROP. INGLUVIAL
INDIGESTION.
Gallinaceæ and Palmipeds. Causes; Overfeeding after privation; fermentation;
lack of water; green food in geese and chickens; food containing paralyzing
element. Symptoms; dull; motionless; erect plumes; drooping wings and head;
gapes; ejects liquid from bill; firm cervical swelling. Treatment; manipulation;
incision; surgical precautions. Convalescent feeding.
The cervical dilatation of the œsophagus known as the crop is well
developed in all granivorous birds, (Gallinaceæ, etc.;) and like the
macerating cavities of the ox (first two stomachs) is subject to
overdistension and paralysis. In the palmipeds (ducks, geese) there is
no distinct crop but in its place the cervical portion of the gullet has a
fusiform dilatation, and under given conditions this may be also the
seat of impaction.
Causes. The impaction may result from overfeeding when the bird
has been starved, or when it suddenly gains access to food of a
specially appetizing kind and to which it has been unaccustomed.
The crop like every other hollow viscus is rendered paretic by
overdistension. Then the food undergoes fermentation still further
distending the cavity, affecting the brain by reflex action, and
paralyzing the vagus and its peripheral branches in the lungs, heart,
stomach, liver, intestines, etc. When the food is dry as in the case of
beans, peas, bran, farinas, it may be a simple firm impaction which
the muscular walls of the crop are unable to break up or move
onward. When green food is taken there is often superadded the
additional evil of active fermentation from the great number and
activity of the bacterial ferments contained in it and the soft aqueous
fermentescible nature of the food (See tympany in ruminants).
Dupont states that young geese led out to fresh spring grass may lose
two-thirds of their number in a few hours from such overloading and
that some species of Carex and cynodon dactylon are particularly
injurious. Chickens also gorge the crop with clover, etc. In all such
cases, plants that contain a paralyzing principle like lolium
temulentum, ripening lolium perenne, chick vetch, etc., are to be
specially dreaded. (See Trichosoma Contortum).
 Symptoms. There are first dullness and sluggish movements,
followed by indisposition to move, the bird standing in one place
with ruffled feathers and drooping wings, and at intervals, projecting
the head forward with open beak and in some cases a little liquid is
rejected. If the bird is now caught and examined the crop is found to
be firmly distended, and more or less compressible or indentable
according to the nature of the food impacted. In most cases and
especially if the food has been green or aqueous, there is a certain
resiliency from the presence of gas outside the solid impacted mass.
Treatment. This must be in the line of seconding the physiological
efforts of regurgitation which is a normal and common act in birds.
The duck which has gulped a mouse half-way down the cervical part
of the œsophagus will readily disgorge it when he finds it impossible
to pass it further. The carnivorous birds often reject by vomiting the
indigestible debris such as feathers and bones, after all the more
soluble parts have been disposed of in the stomach. The pigeon even
feeds its young by disgorging into their open bills, the semi-digested
food and milk from its crop. Following these indications we must
break up the contents of the crop by manipulation and force them in
small masses upward into the bill and downward to the
proventriculus. The rejection by the bill may be further stimulated by
introducing the finger into the fauces to rouse the reflex active
emesis. Usually the crop can be quickly and satisfactorily emptied in
this way.
When this proves impossible there remains the operation of direct
incision through the walls of the crop and the evacuation of its
contents. This can be done by a pocket knife or even a pair of
scissors. The crop is punctured in its lower part and the incision is
continued upward as far as may be necessary to allow the escape of
the contents. Usually half an inch will suffice. Then the crop is
squeezed so as to press the contents through this opening and it is
emptied by a process of enucleation. If the contents are fibrous it
may be necessary to employ forceps to dislodge the material. The
empty crop may be washed out with tepid water, any food attached
to the raw edges of the wound must be removed and the skin stitched
accurately together. The wound rarely fails to heal by first intention.
To avoid stretching it, the food for a day or two should be restricted
to milk, gruels, or a little soft mash.
 Lerein notices jaundice as a sequel of impacted crop, and
recommends treatment by sulphate of soda in the water.
 TYMPANITIC INDIGESTION IN THE
RUMEN. BLOATING.
Definition. Susceptible Genera. Causes; gastric paresis, overloading, cold, fear,
exhaustion, poisons, fermentescible food,—new grain, leguminosæ, frosted
vegetables, ruminitis, foreign bodies in rumen, microbian ferments. Symptoms,
abdominal, general. Gases formed under different aliments—carbon dioxide,
marsh gas, hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen, oxygen. Lesions, rupture of rumen or
diaphragm, compression or rupture of liver or spleen, petechiæ, congestion of
lungs and right heart, of cutaneous and cerebral vessels. Prevention, avoid
indigestible and fermentescible aliments, correct adynamic conditions, tonics,
avoid injurious ferments, make alimentary transitions slowly. Treatment, exercise,
bath or douche of cold water, rubbing and kneading, rope round abdomen spirally,
gag in mouth, dragging on tongue, movement of a rope in fauces, probang,
stimulants, antiseptics, alkalies, ammonia, oil of turpentine, oil of peppermint,
alcohol, ether, pepper, ginger, soda, potash, lime, muriatic acid, carbolic acid,
creosote, creoline, sulphites, kerosene, chloride of lime, chlorine, tar, common salt,
hypochlorite of soda, magnesia, eserine, pilocarpin, barium chloride, colchicum,
lard, trochar, Epsom salts, rumenotomy. Treatment of diseased gullet, mediastinal
glands, stomach or intestines.
Definition. The condition is a combination of paresis of the rumen
and gaseous fermentation of its contents. The initial step may be the
paresis or in the more acute forms the fermentation.
Genera susceptible. While all ruminating animals are subject to
this disorder, it is much more frequent in cattle and sheep than in
goats.
Causes. It commences in paresis of the rumen in the weak,
debilitated, convalescent or starved animals which are suddenly put
on rich, and appetizing food. Hence it is common in animals that
break into a cornbin, a store of potatoes, a field of growing corn or
small grain, or that are turned out on green food in early spring.
Cadeac maintains that paresis of the rumen is the essential cause in
all cases, while the nature of the aliments ingested fills a secondary
and comparatively insignificant rôle. According to this view the
torpid stomach can neither relieve itself through regurgitation for
rumination, nor expel through the œsophagus the constantly
evolving gas which therefore distends the viscus to excess. In support
of this view may be adduced the occurrence of tympany through
fatigue, fear, cold, enlarged (tubercular) mediastinal glands pressing
on the gullet and vagus, obstruction of the œsophagus by a solid
body (choking), impaction of a morsel of solid food in the demicanal
of the calf as noticed by Schauber, and the cessation of the normal
vermicular movements of the rumen in connection with
inflammation of its coats, or extensive inflammation elsewhere or
finally of fever. Even in paralysis of the stomach by poisons like lead,
tympany may be a result. Cadeac attributes tympany following the
ingestion of green food wet with a shower, or drenched with dew, of
frosted potatoes or turnips, or of iced water, to the paralyzing action
of the cold on the rumen. This view is manifestly too extreme, as the
bloating occurs often after a warm summer shower, or after the
consumption of potatoes and other roots and tubers which have been
spoiled by frost but which are no longer at a low temperature when
consumed.
Tympany may also start from the ingestion of certain kinds of
food which are in a very fermentescible condition. Green food,
especially if the animal has been unaccustomed to it, is liable to act
in this way. Clover and especially the white and red varieties, lucern
(alfalfa), sainfoin, cowpea and other specially leafy plants, which
harbor an unusual number of microbian ferments, and which
contain in their substance a large amount of nitrogenous material
favorable to the nourishment of such ferments are particularly
dangerous in this respect. All of these are most dangerous when wet
with dew or when drying after a slight shower, partly no doubt at
times by reason of the chilling of the stomach, but mainly because
the ferments have been stimulated into activity by the presence of
abundance of moisture. Drenching and long continued rains are less
dangerous in this respect than the slight showers and heavy dews,
manifestly because the former wash off a large portion of the
microbes, which under a slight wetting multiply more abundantly.
Frosted articles act in a similar way, partly when still cold by the
chilling and paralyzing of the stomach, but cold or warm, by reason
of the special tendency of all frozen vegetables to undergo rapid
fermentation when thawed out. This is true of green food of all kinds
when covered by hoarfrost, of turnips, beets, potatoes, carrots,
apples, cabbage, etc., which have once been frozen, and of frosted
turnips and potato tops, though, in the case of the latter agent, a
narcotic principle is added.
In the case of Indian corn, the smaller cereal grains, and certain
leguminous plants (vetches, tares, peas, beans) which have the seed
fully formed but not yet quite hardened nor ripened, there is the
double action of a paralyzing constituent and an aliment that is
specially susceptible of fermentation.
Inflammation of the rumen, already quoted as a cause, may be
determined by hot as well as cold food, by irritant drugs and poisons,
and by narcotico-irritant and other acrid plants in fodder or pasture.
In the same way the inflammation caused by the introduction of
foreign bodies into the rumen, such as nails, tacks, needles, pins,
wires, knife blades, and masses of hair or wool may at times cause
tympany.
The two main causative factors, of paresis of the rumen on the one
side and of specially fermentescible food and a multiplicity of
microbian ferments on the other, must be recognized as more or less
operative in different cases, and in many instances their combined
action must be admitted. The tympany is the symptom and
culmination of a great variety of morbid causes and conditions, and
its prevention and treatment must correspondingly vary.
Symptoms. The whole left side of the abdomen being occupied by
the rumen, its distension leads to an uniform swelling of that side,
differing from that caused by simple excess of solid ingesta in being
more prominent high up between the last rib and the outer angle of
the ilium, and in giving out in this region a clear tympanitic or
drumlike resonance on percussion. It has also a tense resiliency, like
that of a distended bladder, easily pressed inward by the finger but
starting out to its rotundity the moment the pressure of the finger is
withdrawn. The distension caused by overloading with solids bulges
out lower down, is not resonant but dull or flat when percussed, and
yields like a mass of dough when pressed retaining the indentation of
the finger for some time. The swelling of tympany, when extreme,
rises above the level of the outer angle of the ilium and even of the
lumbar spines on the left side, and if no relief is obtained the right
side may undergo a similar distension.
Auscultation detects an active crepitation over the whole region of
the rumen, finer in some cases and coarser in others, according to
the activity of evolution and the size of the bubbles of gas. The
crepitation is especially coarse and loud in fermentation of green
food, and of spoiled potatoes or other tubers or roots.
In all acute or severe cases, there is anorexia, suspension of
rumination, and the normal movements of the compressed bowels
seem to be largely impaired, though the anus is protruded and a little
semi-liquid fæces or urine may be expelled at intervals. The
breathing is accelerated, short, and labored. The nostrils are dilated,
the nose extended, the face anxious, the eyes bloodshot and the back
arched. Froth may accumulate around the lips, or the mouth may be
held open with the tongue pendent. Sometimes a quantity of gas may
suddenly escape with a loud noise, but without securing permanent
relief. The heart beats are violent and accelerated, the pulse
increasingly small and finally imperceptible, and the visible mucous
membranes are congested and cyanotic. Pregnant females are very
liable to abort.
When the right flank as well as the left rises to the level of the
lumbar spines death is imminent, and this may take place as early as
fifteen or thirty minutes after the apparent onset of the attack. Death
may result from nervous shock, from suffocation, or from the
absorption of deleterious gases, or from all of these combined.
In the less acute cases the animal may live several hours before the
affection terminates in death or recovery. As a rule he stands as long
as he can and finally drops suddenly, the fall often leading to rupture
of the diaphragm or stomach, to protrusion of the rectum, or the
discharge of ingesta by the mouth and nose.
In still slighter cases relief comes through vomiting or more
commonly through frequent and abundant belching of gas, the
swelling of the flanks subsides, rumbling of the bowels may again be
heard, and usually there is a period of diarrhœa.
Gases present. When the rumen is punctured before or after death
so as to give exit to the gas in a fine stream it proves usually more or
less inflammable, the lighted jet burning with a bluish flame. The
usual inflammable ingredients are carbon monoxide, hydrogen
carbide (marsh gas) and hydrogen sulphide, yet the relative
proportion of the gases varies greatly with the nature of the food and
the amount of gas evolved, carbon dioxide being usually largely in
excess. The following table serves to illustrate the variability: