Wave form generators and filters

Basic principle of standard AF signal generators:

Standard AF (audio frequency) signal generators operate on several fundamental principles
to generate precise audio signals. One of the key components within these generators is the
oscillator, which generates the fundamental frequency of the audio signal. There are
generally two types of oscillators used in AF signal generators: fixed frequency oscillators
and variable frequency oscillators.

1. Fixed Frequency Oscillators:

o Principle: Fixed frequency oscillators generate a stable output signal at a
predetermined frequency. This frequency is typically set by fixed components
such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors in a circuit configuration known as
an oscillator circuit.
o Usage: They are used when a specific, constant frequency signal is needed,
such as for testing audio equipment or calibration purposes where a known
frequency is required.
2. Variable Frequency Oscillators (VFO):
o Principle: Variable frequency oscillators allow for the generation of signals
across a range of frequencies. The frequency can be adjusted either manually
or electronically (via controls on the signal generator).
o Usage: They are versatile tools used in applications where the frequency of the
signal needs to be varied, such as in testing filters, tuning audio circuits, or
exploring frequency response characteristics of devices.

Additional Considerations:

 Frequency Range: AF signal generators typically cover the audio frequency spectrum
from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, corresponding to the range of human hearing.
 Accuracy and Stability: Both types of oscillators must maintain high accuracy and
stability over time to ensure reliable and consistent signal generation.
 Waveform Generation: While oscillators primarily generate sine waves, AF signal
generators can often produce other waveforms like square waves, triangle waves,
 and occasionally more complex waveforms like sawtooth waves or arbitrary
waveforms.

AF Sine and Square Wave Generator:

 The block diagram of an AF Sine and Square Wave Generator audio oscillator is
illustrated in Fig. 8.4.

 The signal generator is called an oscillator. A Wien bridge oscillator is used in this
generator. The Wien bridge oscillator is the best for the audio frequency range. The
frequency of oscillations can be changed by varying the capacitance in the oscillator.
The frequency can also be changed in steps by switching in resistors of different
values.
 The output of the Wien bridge oscillator goes to the function switch. The function
switch directs the oscillator output either to the sine wave amplifier or to the square
wave shaper. At the output, we get either a square or sine wave. The output is varied
by means of an attenuator.
 The instrument generates a frequency ranging from 10 Hz to 1 MHz, continuously
variable in 5 decades with overlapping ranges.

Filters :
A filter is a circuit capable of passing (or amplifying) certain frequencies while attenuating
other frequencies. Thus, a filter can extract important frequencies from signals that also
contain undesirable or irrelevant frequencies.
Fundamental Theorem of Filter Circuit:
Assuming the filter is correctly terminated in its characteristic impedance Z o, the following is
applicable.
“Over the range of frequencies for which the characteristic impedance Z o of a filter is
purely resistive (real), the attenuation (α) will be zero.”
“Over the range of frequencies for which the characteristic impedance Z o is purely
reactive (imaginary), the attenuation (α) will be greater than zero.”

Mathematical Proof of the Theorem:

The fundamental theorem on filters can be proved by considering a simple filter circuit in
the form of a symmetrical T network. Let the T network consist of series and shunt
elements, as shown in Fig. 15.1(a).

The characteristic impedance Zo of the network in Fig. 15.1 is given by

Similarly, the current ratio or the propagation constant

Being a filter network, both Z1 and Z2 are reactive elements. Let Z1 = jX1 and Z2 = jX2.
There will be two cases for impedance values of Z o, depending on the value and sign of
X1 and X2.
Hence

Similarly,
Case 1:
When Zo is real
Let

Then from Eq. (15.1) we get

Also from Eq. (15.2) we have

Since

but

Where

 α = attenuation constant
 β = phase shift constant
Considering attenuation only

Therefore, From Eq.(15.3)

But as

From Eq. (15.4) we see that attenuation is zero, if Z o is real.

Case 2:
When Zo is imaginary [purely reactive]
For Zo to be imaginary X21/4+X1X2 should be positive.
Therefore, Let

from Eq. (15.1) we get

Similarly the value of eγ from Eq. (15.2) will be

as

Taking the modulus

Since

Hence α is greater than one and real. Therefore if Zo is imaginary, α cannot be zero, and
the filter circuit will have an attenuation band.
Passive and Active Filters

Filters can be placed in one of two categories: passive or active.

Passive filters include only passive components—resistors, capacitors, and inductors. In
contrast, active filters use active components, such as op-amps, in addition to resistors and
capacitors, but not inductors.
Passive filters are most responsive to a frequency range from roughly 100 Hz to 300 MHz.
The limitation on the lower end results from the fact that the inductance or capacitance
would have to be quite large at low frequencies. The upper-frequency limit is due to the
effect of parasitic capacitances and inductances. Careful design practices can extend the use
of passive circuits well into the gigahertz range.
Active filters are capable of dealing with very low frequencies (approaching 0 Hz), and they
can provide voltage gain (passive filters cannot). Active filters can be used to design high-
order filters without the use of inductors; this is important because inductors are
problematic in the context of integrated-circuit manufacturing techniques. However, active
filters are less suitable for very high-frequency applications because of amplifier bandwidth
limitations. Radio-frequency circuits must often utilize passive filters

Difference between active and passive filters:

Feature Passive Filter Active Filter

Components Used Resistors, capacitors, Op-amps, resistors,

inductors (passive) capacitors, inductors
(active)

Passive filters are simpler Active filters are more

Complexity in design and complex due to the
construction inclusion of active
 components

Active filters can amplify

Passive filters do not
signals as well as filter
amplify signals and only
Gain them, providing flexibility
attenuate certain
in signal processing and
frequencies.
shaping.
Subject to attenuation Maintains signal strength
Signal Strength
and loading effects and buffering
Cost and Size More expensive and
larger Cheaper and smaller

Applications Simple audio filtering, Audio equalizers,

basic RF circuits communication systems,
instrumentation

Types of filters in electronics may be classified as follows.

1. Low Pass Filter
2. High Pass Filter
3. Band Pass Filter
4. Band Stop Filter
5. All Pass Filter
Consider a basic configuration of an electrical filter shown in Fig. 15.1 (b). The source is
sinusoidal, of variable frequency. The filter circuit may be so designed that some
frequencies are passed from the input to the output of the filter with very little attenuation
(pass band) while others are greatly attenuated (attenuation band).

The responses of types of filters in electronics are shown in Fig. 15.2. These are ideal
responses that cannot be achieved in actual practice.

The ideal response of a low pass filter is shown in Fig. 15.2 (a). The voltage gain is given by
output/input.
Hence

This gain is constant over a frequency range starting from zero to a cut off frequency f c. The
output of any signal having a frequency greater than f c will be attenuated, i.e. there will be
no output voltage for frequencies greater than the cutoff frequency f c. Hence output will be
available faithfully from 0 to fc with constant gain, and is zero from fc onward.

The characteristics of a High Pass filter are shown in Fig. 15.2 (b). The HP filter has a zero
gain starting from zero to a frequency f c, the cut off frequency. Above this cutoff frequency,
the gain is constant and equal to A. Hence signal of any frequency beyond fc will be
faithfully reproduced with a constant gain, and frequencies from 0 to f c. will be attenuated.
The band pass filter characteristics are shown in Fig. 15.2 (c). It faithfully reproduces signals
falling between fc1 and fc2, while signals between 0 and fc1, and frequencies greater than
fc2 are attenuated. There is an output corresponding to signals having frequencies between
fc1 and fc2, but no output for signals having frequencies below f c1 and above fc2. Hence this
filter passes a band of frequencies.

Figure 15.2(d) shows the characteristics of a band stop filter. This filter attenuates a
particular band of frequencies from f c1 to fc2, while passing all frequencies between 0 and
fc1 and fc2 onwards. This filter is also called a notch filter.

Figure 15.2(e) shows the characteristics of an all pass filter. In this filter all frequencies are
passed without attenuation. The important feature of this filter is that it provides
predictable phase shift for frequencies of different input signals. These filters are mostly
used in communications.

The types of filters in electronics discussed above have ideal characteristics and a sharp
cutoff. In actual practice the characteristics shown in Fig. 15.2 are not practicable in a
practical filter circuit. Attenuation outside the pass band, that is in the attenuation band, is
finite. The attenuation can be made sufficiently large by adding several filters in tandem.
Also, it is not possible to have a pure inductor (inductor without resistance). Hence the
attenuation in the pass band will not be zero. Only those characteristics of filters which can
be practically realized are discussed below.

Difference between Low Pass and High Pass Filters:

Feature Low Pass Filter High Pass Filter
Function Allows low frequencies to Allows high frequencies
pass, attenuates high to pass, attenuates low
frequencies. frequencies.
Frequency response The output signal’s The output signal’s
amplitude decreases for amplitude decreases for
frequencies above fc. frequencies below fc.

Passive Low Pass Filter:

An electric low pass filter is shown in Fig. 15.3 (a). It is an RC network. At low frequencies,
the capacitive reactance is very high and the capacitor circuit can be considered as open
circuit. Under this condition, the output equals the input ( Vo = Vin) or voltage gain is equal
to unity. At very high frequencies, the capacitive reactance is very low and the output
voltage Vo is small as compared with the input voltage V in. Hence the gain fall and drops off
gradually as the frequency is increased, as shown in Fig. 15.3 (b).

The transfer function is

The sinusoidal transfer function of a low pass filter is

The gain drops to 0.707 at the cut off frequency ωc

or cut off frequency

Passive High Pass Filter:
An electrical high pass filter is shown in Fig. 15.4(a). When the frequency is low,
the capacitive reactance is high, hence minimum output is available and the gain is small.
When the frequency is high, the capacitive reactance is small, the output equals the input
and the gain approaches unity. Hence this circuit passes high frequencies while rejecting
low frequencies. The response of a high pass filter is as shown in Fig. 15.4(b).

The transfer function of a high pass filter is given by

Sinusoidal transfer function of a high pass filter is

Active Low Pass Filter Circuits:

The Low Pass Filter Circuits of Fig. 15.7 is commonly used for low pass active filters. The
filtering is done by the use of an RC network. The opamp is used as a unity gain amplifier.
The resistor RF is equal to R1.
(At dc, the capacitive reactance is infinite and the dc resistance path to ground for both input
terminals must be equal.) The difference voltage between inverting and non-inverting inputs
is essentially O V. Hence, the voltage across the capacitor C equals the output voltage. Since
this circuit is a voltage follower, Vin divides between R and C. The capacitor voltage V o is
given by

where ω is the frequency of Vin in radians per second (ω = 2 πf and j is the imaginary term.
To obtain the closed loop voltage gain ACL, we have,

Consider the Eq. (15.12). At very low frequencies, as ω approaches 0, | ACL | = 1, and at very
high frequencies, as ω approaches infinity, | ACL | = 0. Hence this filter is a Low Pass Filter
Circuits.

Figure 15.8 shows a frequency response of ω versus | ACL |. For frequencies greater than the
cutoff frequency ωc, | ACL | decreases at a rate of 20 db/decade. This is the same as saying
that the voltage gain is divided by 10 when the frequency of ω is increased by 10.
The cutoff frequency is defined as that frequency of Vin where | ACL | is reduced to 0.707
times its low frequency value. The cutoff frequency is calculated from

Therefore,

Where

 fc = is the cutoff frequency in Hz

 R = resistance in Ω
 C = capacitance in Farad.
The Eq. (15.13) can be rearranged to solve R, ignore to give