MAT 052_Differential Equations_WM

MAT 052
Differential Equations
This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA Education
MAT 052: DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
SYLLABUS
PEN CODE: MAT 052 Credit: 3 units Lecture

PEN Subject Title: DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Prerequisite: CALCULUS 2
I. Course Description:
This course is intended for all engineering students to have a firm foundation on differential
equations in preparation for their degree-specific advanced mathematics courses. It covers first
order differential equations, nth order linear differential equations and systems of first order linear
differential equations. It also introduces the concept of Laplace Transforms in solving differential
equations. The students are expected to be able to recognize different kinds of differential
equations, determine the existence and uniqueness of solution, select the appropriate methods of
solution and interpret the obtained solution. Students are also expected to relate differential
equations to various practical engineering and scientific problems as well as employ computer
technology in solving and verifying solutions.
II. Course Objective:

1) Apply the integration for the evaluation of areas, volumes of revolution, force and work.
2) Use integration techniques on single and multi-variable functions.
3) Explain the physical interpretation of the double and triple integral.
III. Course Outline and Time Allotment:

Lesson Topic Week
Orientation
1 Introduction to Differential Equations 1
2.1 Differential Equations and its General Solution
2.2 Differential Equations and its Particular Solution
2
3 Differential Equations with Separable Variables and its Solution
4.1 Homogeneous Differential Equations
3
4.2 Solving Homogeneous Differential Equations
5 Exact Differential Equation and its Solution 4
1 PERIODICAL EXAMINATION
st
5
6 Non-Exact Differential Equations and its Solution 6
7 First Ordered Linear Differential Equations and its Solution 7
8 Bernoulli Differential Equations and its Solution 8
2ND PERIODICAL EXAMINATION 9
10 Differential Equations with Coefficients Linear in Two Variables
10
and its Solution
11 Basic Applications of Separable D.E. (Exponential
11
Growth/Decay and Newton's Law of Cooling)
12 Mixing (Non reacting Fluids), Electric Circuits 12
3RD PERIODICAL EXAMINATION 13
FINAL EXAMINATION 14
IV. Grading System

The Final Grade is computed as follows:
Final Grade = 0.2P1 + 0.2P2 + 0.2P3 + 0.4FE > 60%
• 1st Periodical Grade = (CS + 1st PE)/2 = 60%CS + 40%Exam
Class Standing, CS = 50% Quiz + 50% Class Participation
Class Participation = Seatwork, Assignment, Recitation, Problem set
• 2nd Periodical Grade = (CS + 2nd PE)/2 = 60%CS + 40%Exam
This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

1
MAT 052: DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
SYLLABUS
PEN CODE: MAT 052 Credit: 3 units Lecture

PEN Subject Title: DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Prerequisite: CALCULUS 2
Class Standing, CS = 50% quiz + 50% class participation

• 3rd Periodical Grade = (CS + 3rd PE)/2 = 60%CS + 40%Exam
Class Standing, CS = 50% quiz + 50% class participation
V. Textbooks/ References
1) https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/18/18.013a/textbook/HTML/chapter26/section01.html
2) https://www.mathsisfun.com/calculus/differential-equations-solution-guide.html
3) https://byjus.com/maths/differential-equation/
4) https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/18/18.013a/textbook/HTML/chapter26/section01.html
5) https://www.mathsisfun.com/calculus/differential-equations-solution-guide.html
6) https://www.khanacademy.org/math/differential-equations
7) https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/differential-equations/general-and-particular-solutions-of-a-
differential-equation/
8) https://www.intmath.com/differential-equations/
9) https://www.math24.net/homogeneous-equations/
10) https://www.math.tamu.edu/~zelenko/Enrichment_w2_2.pdf
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/differential-equations/first-order-equations/integrating-factors
11) https://brilliant.org/wiki/bernoullis-equation/
12) https://www.mathsisfun.com/calculus/differential-equations-bernoulli.html
13) https://www.intmath.com/differential-equations/5-rl-circuits.php
14) https://www.dummies.com/education/science/science-electronics/analyze-a-parallel-rl-circuit-using-a-
15) http://www.cfm.brown.edu/people/dobrush/am33/Mathematica/ch2/RC.html
16) http://www.math.ubc.ca/~israel/m215/mixing/
17) https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/de/modeling.aspx
VI. Course Requirements

• There will be four periodic examinations: Preliminary Exam (P1 Exam), Midterm
Exam (P2 Exam), Semifinal Exam (P3 Exam), and Final Exam. Passing > 60%.
• Students who failed to take quizzes/exams shall present valid reasons to take make-up
quizzes/exams. This will only be given before the final encoding of grades.
• A student who incurs a failing grade in the Final Examination gets a Final Grade
of INC. The student is required to file a completion form before qualifying for a
removal examination. The final examination grade will be set to 60 once the
student gets a perfect score in the removal examination. If in one academic
year the student fails to change his/her grade from an INC to a passing
grade, he/she will be given a grade of No Credit (NC).
VII. Contact Information

Name:
Contact number:
Email:
FB Group:
_______________________________ ________________
Dean’s Signature Over Printed Name Date

2
MAT 052: Differential Equations
Student Activity Sheet #1
Name:______________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________________ Date: ______________
Lesson 1: Introduction to Differential Equations Materials:

Ballpoint and notebook
Lesson Objectives:
Upon completion of this lesson, you can:
References:
1. Define a differential equation. https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/18/18.
2. Enlist some applications of differential equations. 013a/textbook/HTML/chapter26/se
3. Characterize a given differential equation. ction01.html
https://www.mathsisfun.com/calcul
us/differential-equations-solution-
guide.html
https://byjus.com/maths/differential
-equation/
Productivity Tip:
Set your study goals.
First things first; start with the basics and set your study goals. Ask yourself why you
are here, at university. Having fun is certainly one answer, but not the primary one.
Knowing your objectives completes half the job. -by Zain Nabi
A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (2 mins)
In the real world, change is constant. Describing how change occurs often ends up as a differential
equation. Differential equations are used in modeling and imitating events and understanding how they
occur. It has the ability to predict the world around us. It is widely used in various fields such as Physics,
Chemistry, Biology, Economics, and so on.
2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart (3 mins)
What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1. What is the use of a
differential equation?
2. Do you know how to

determine the characteristics
of a given differential
equation?

1

B. MAIN LESSON
1) Activity 2: Content Notes (20 mins)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION (DE) is an equation which contains one or more functions and at least one
of its derivatives which is written in either explicit or implicit form. It can also be given with a pair of
differentials.
The derivative of a function of 𝑦𝑦 with respect to 𝑥𝑥 is given by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. In general, DE is defined as the
equation that contains derivatives of one or more dependent variables, say 𝑦𝑦, with respect to the one or
more independent variables say 𝑥𝑥.
Recall this from differential calculus: The derivatives of the function define the
rate of change of a function at a point.
• Explicit Form - An explicit DE of order one, for example, is an equation that can be solved for 𝑦𝑦′, of
the form 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦).
• Implicit Form – An implicit DE is of the form where the continuous function of its independent variable,
dependent variable, and its derivative is equated to zero.
𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚, 𝒚𝒚′) = 𝟎𝟎, where 𝐹𝐹 is a continuous function, is called the first order implicit
differential equation.
Applications of Differential Equations. A differential equation

can be a very natural way of describing something. Real world
examples include population growth, electrodynamics, planetary Real world
movement, economical systems and much more! But it is not very
useful as it is. We need to solve it when we discover the abstract interpret
function 𝑦𝑦 (or set of functions of 𝑦𝑦) that satisfies the equation, and solve
Mathematical
then it can be used successfully. The main purpose of differential Mathematical
model solution
equation is the study of solutions that satisfy the equations, and the
properties of the solutions. One of the easiest ways to solve the
differential equation is by using explicit formulas.
Let us see some differential equation applications in real world.

• Describe various exponential growths or decays over a period of time, like in the field of medical
science, it is used for modelling cancer growth or the spread of disease in the body
• Utilize for finding the relationship between various parts of the bridge in engineering
• Heat flow or heat conduction analysis in engineering
• Represent the movement of electricity
• Used to understand the motion of waves in physics
• Illustrate the motion of waves or a pendulum
• Help economists in finding optimum investment strategies
• Depict the change in investment return over time

2

(A) Characteristics of a Differential Equation
1. ORDER – the order of a DE is the order of the highest ordered derivative in the equation
General Form of the nth – ordered DE: The equation below defines any function relating the
DEPENDENT VARIABLE 𝑦𝑦, the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE 𝑥𝑥, and the derivatives of 𝑦𝑦 with respect
to 𝑥𝑥 up to the 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛ℎ order.
Notation:
𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏−𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑭𝑭 � 𝒏𝒏 , 𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 , 𝒏𝒏−𝟐𝟐 , … , 𝟐𝟐 , , 𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚� = 𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
a. First-Order Differential Equation: All the linear equations in the form of 𝑦𝑦’ = = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) are in
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
the first order where x and y are the two variables.
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
 A first ordered linear differential equation is of the form + 𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚(𝒙𝒙) = 𝑸𝑸(𝒙𝒙) with
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥) are functions of 𝑥𝑥.
b. Second-Order Differential Equation: For a function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), its second-order derivative is the
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒅𝒅(𝒚𝒚′) 𝒅𝒅�𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅� 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚
second-order differential equation and it is represented as = = = 𝒇𝒇”(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒚𝒚”.
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
Examples for order of DE:

𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1) = 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 , the order of DE is 1 referring from
𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
2) � 𝟐𝟐 � + 2 � � + 𝑦𝑦 = 0, the order of DE is 2 referring from
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
𝒅𝒅𝟒𝟒 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝟒𝟒 𝒚𝒚

3) 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟒𝟒 + 24 𝟐𝟐 + 9𝑦𝑦 = 0 , the order of DE is 4 referring from
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙𝟒𝟒
2. DEGREE – the degree of a DE is the highest power of the highest ordered derivative which can be
easily identified when the DE is represented in the form of a polynomial equation in prime notation of
derivatives 𝑦𝑦’, 𝑦𝑦”, 𝑦𝑦”’, and so on.
𝟑𝟑
𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟒𝟒
Suppose � � + 𝟐𝟐 � � + 𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎𝟎 is a differential equation, so the degree of this equation here
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
is 3 which is the exponent or power of the highest ordered derivative present, a of order 2 found in
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
𝟑𝟑
𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚
the first term, � � .
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
Examples for degree of DE:

• + 𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎, degree is 1 which is the hidden exponent of
• (𝒚𝒚”’)𝟐𝟐 + 𝟒𝟒(𝒚𝒚”)𝟑𝟑 + 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔’ – 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎, degree is 2 referring to the exponent of the first term (𝑦𝑦”’)2 with
𝑦𝑦”’ as the highest ordered derivative in the equation

3

Visualize
3. TYPE – basic types of DE are ordinary DE or partial D

a. Ordinary Differential Equation: An ordinary differential equation involves function and its
derivatives. It contains only one independent variable and one or more of its derivatives with
respect to the variable. It is frequently called as ODE.
The general form of nth order ODE is given by:

𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚, 𝒚𝒚’, 𝒚𝒚", 𝒚𝒚′′′, 𝒚𝒚(𝟒𝟒) , 𝒚𝒚(𝟓𝟓) … . , 𝒚𝒚(𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏) , 𝒚𝒚(𝒏𝒏) ) = 𝟎𝟎,
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝟑𝟑 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝟒𝟒 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝟓𝟓 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝒏𝒏 𝒚𝒚
which may be written as 𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚, , 𝟐𝟐 , 𝟑𝟑 , 𝟒𝟒 , 𝟓𝟓 … . , 𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 , 𝒏𝒏 ) = 𝟎𝟎.
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙
b. Partial Differential Equation: Partial differential equation (PDE) is an equation involving

𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝝍𝝍
functions and their partial derivatives; for example, the wave equation 𝛁𝛁 𝟐𝟐 𝝍𝝍 = and heat
𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝝏𝝏𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
conduction equation = 𝒌𝒌𝛁𝛁 𝟐𝟐 𝑻𝑻.
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
Examples: Characterize the following DEs:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1) 2𝑥𝑥 − 8 = | ordinary, 1st order, degree 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2) (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 | ordinary, 1st order, degree 1
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑠𝑠
3) − 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎 = 0 | ordinary, 2nd order, degree 1
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
4) 𝑦𝑦" + (𝑦𝑦′)2 = 𝑦𝑦 | ordinary, 2nd order, degree 1
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢
5) = ℎ2 � + � | partial, 2nd order, degree 1
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2
3
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
6) � 2 � + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑘𝑘 | ordinary, 2nd order, degree 3
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
𝑑𝑑 3 𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
7) � 3 � + 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 0 | ordinary, 3rd order, degree 2
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

4

(B) Linear Differential Equations - Real World Example
To understand DEs, let us consider the following simple example.
Have you ever thought why a hot According to Newton, cooling of a hot body is
cup of coffee cools down when proportional to the temperature difference between its
kept under normal conditions? own temperature T and the temperature T0 of its
surrounding. This statement in terms of mathematics
can be written as:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∝ (𝑇𝑇 – 𝑇𝑇0 )
This is the form of a linear differential equation.
Introducing a proportionality constant k, the above
relation can be written as an equation of the form
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
= 𝒌𝒌 (𝑻𝑻 – 𝑻𝑻𝟎𝟎 ).
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Here, T is the temperature of the body and t is the time,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇0 is the temperature of the surrounding, while is the
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
rate of cooling of the body.
2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (10 mins + 3 mins checking)
Characterize the following differential equations.
1. 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 + 6
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2. 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
3. 𝑚𝑚 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4. = 2𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Proceed to What I Know Chart for this part.
4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (10 mins)

SHORT QUIZ
A. List 5 real-time applications of DE.
B. Determine the order and degree of the following DEs.
1. (𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 )𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑦𝑦 3
2. (2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
3. 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 ′ + 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 2 = 2𝑥𝑥 4

5

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)
List down the things you learned from this lesson.
You are done with the session! Let’s track your progress.
PERIOD 1 PERIOD 2 PERIOD 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Q1. How are you going to differentiate a degree from the order of the derivative in an equation?
Q2. Do you know the significance of determining the characteristics of a given DE?
Q3. Would you want to learn more about the basic applications of a DE?
FAQs
1. Is the degree of a differential equation independent from the order of the DE?
NO. You must first determine the order of the highest order derivative present in the DE then identify the
exponent or power of the highest ordered derivative. The value of the power will then be the degree of the
DE.
2. Should a DE be written better in a prime notation or Leibnitz notation?

Technically, a DE written in either prime notation or Leibnitz notation is more likely the same in consideration
to determining its order and degree. But later, in solving a DE, it is usually best to write it in Leibnitz notation.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3: Skill-building Activities
Characterize the following differential equations.
1) 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 8𝑦𝑦 4 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 6 [Ans.: Order 1, degree 1, ODE]
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3
2) 𝑚𝑚 2 + 𝑐𝑐 � � + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 =0 [Ans.: Order 2, degree 1, ODE]
3
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
3) 𝑚𝑚 � 2 � + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 0 [Ans.: Order 2, degree 3, ODE]
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4) = 2𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 [Ans.: Order 1, degree 1, ODE]
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Activity 5: Check for Understanding

(Answers will be given by your professors after your short quiz.)

6
Name: Class Number:

Section: Schedule: Date:
Lesson 2.1: Differential Equations and its General Solution Materials: Ballpoint and notebook
Lesson Objectives:
References:
https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/18/18.013a/te
xtbook/HTML/chapter26/section01.html
1. Perform basic integration techniques of each of the functions https://www.mathsisfun.com/calculus/diffe
in terms of 𝑥𝑥 and of 𝑦𝑦 rential-equations-solution-guide.html
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/differ
2. Determine the general solution of a given differential equation.
ential-equations
https://byjus.com/maths/differential-
equation/
Productivity Tip:
Make a study timetable.
Set a routine for everything. Your timetable could include the time you should go to bed,
the time you should have your meals, and – most importantly – the time you should
spend on studies. There is no hard and fast rule and you should of course allow some
flexibility depending on how things go. Do try to stick to your study timetable as best as
you can.
We have previously learned that a differential equation is an equation of function or set of
functions with at least one of its derivatives and that the main purpose of DE is the study of solutions
that satisfy the equations, and the properties of the solutions.
A solution to a DE is also an equation which is defined as a function or a set of functions free

of derivatives or differentials expressing the functional relationship between the dependent and
independent variables, it may be general or particular. General and particular solutions will use
integration in some steps to solve it.
In this lesson, we will be focusing on how to solve a general solution to a given differential
equation and learn the general solution for first-order and second-order differential equation.

1. Is the solution to a differential equation a
value, an equation or a process?
2. Do you know what mathematical

operations should you perform to be able
to solve a given differential equation?

1
Name: Class Number:

B. MAIN LESSON
GENERAL SOLUTIONS
The solution which contains arbitrary constants, C, is called the general solution (primitive) of the
differential equation which is given by the equation,
𝑮𝑮(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚, 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 , 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 , … , 𝑪𝑪𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 , 𝑪𝑪𝒏𝒏 ) = 𝟎𝟎
where: 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , … , 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛−1 , 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 are the arbitrary constants.
 FIRST-ORDERED DE EXAMPLES
Example 1: This example involves differentials. Given: 𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬(𝒕𝒕 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐) 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅. Solve its general
solution.
Solution:
Integrate both sides one at a time.
� 𝜃𝜃 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � sin(𝑡𝑡 + 0.2) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜽𝜽𝟑𝟑
= − 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜(𝒕𝒕 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐) + 𝑪𝑪 𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺
𝟑𝟑
Example 2: Consider the given DE 𝒚𝒚′ = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝟑𝟑.

Question: Is it in explicit or implicit form? Indeed, it is of explicit form.
Solution:
If we want to perform an integration process, we must first transform the DE to have differentials 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. Remember that 𝒚𝒚’ can be written as .
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Prime notation: 𝒚𝒚′ = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝟑𝟑
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Leibniz Notation: = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝟑𝟑
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
From the Leibniz Notation, multiply both side of the equation by dx, so we can have:
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = �𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝟑𝟑�𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Then, integrate both sides. ∫ 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = ∫�𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝟑𝟑� 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
This will lead us to a general solution involving an arbitrary constant 𝑪𝑪, and this is as follows.
𝒙𝒙𝟑𝟑
𝒚𝒚 = − 𝟑𝟑𝒙𝒙 + 𝑪𝑪
𝟑𝟑
Note about the constant: We have integrated both sides, but there's a constant of integration on the right
side only in the GS. We do actually get a constant on both sides, but we can
combine them into one arbitrary constant which we write on the right hand side.

2
Name: Class Number:

Example 3. Find the general solution of �𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝒙𝒙�𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑.

Solution:
Isolate the differential 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 from the 𝑥𝑥 terms and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. Then integrate.
3 1
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3 � 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥
Considering method of partial fractions,
1 1 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵
2 = = +
𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 + 1) 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 + 1
1 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵
� = + � 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 + 1)
𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 + 1) 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 + 1
1 = 𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
Let 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑨𝑨 = 𝟏𝟏 and let 𝑥𝑥 = −1, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑩𝑩 = −𝟏𝟏. So we have
1 1 −1
= +
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 + 1
Hence, from the integral equation above (or previous page),
1
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3 � 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥
1 −1
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3 � � + � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 + 1
And the general solution is
𝒚𝒚 = 𝟑𝟑(𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥|𝒙𝒙| − 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍|𝒙𝒙 + 𝟏𝟏|) + 𝑪𝑪
But we can simplify it further by applying properties of 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 functions and it becomes
𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = 3 �ln � �� + 𝐶𝐶
𝑥𝑥 + 1
𝒙𝒙 𝟑𝟑
Another form of the general solution is 𝒚𝒚 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 � � + 𝑪𝑪.
𝒙𝒙+𝟏𝟏
Moreover, applying the inverse function of 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 which is the exponential

𝒙𝒙 𝟑𝟑
function on both sides of the equation 𝒚𝒚 = 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 � � + 𝑪𝑪, we see that it
𝒙𝒙+𝟏𝟏
becomes
𝑥𝑥 3
�ln�𝑥𝑥+1� +𝐶𝐶�
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒
𝑥𝑥 3
�ln�𝑥𝑥+1� � 𝐶𝐶
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒
𝑥𝑥 3
�ln�𝑥𝑥+1� �
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶1
𝒙𝒙 𝟑𝟑
𝒆𝒆𝒚𝒚 = � � 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 is another form of general solution of the given DE.
𝒙𝒙+𝟏𝟏

3
Name: Class Number:

To answer the bubble question, let’s

have additional examples. We will see How can we identify the number of
later how to solve such Second Order arbitrary constants if we will derive
Linear DEs. the general solution of a given DE?
 SECOND-ORDERED DE EXAMPLES
𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚
Example 4. Solve for = 𝟔𝟔.
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
Solution:
First, characterize the given DE: it is an ODE of second order and degree one.
From there, rewrite the equation from Leibniz Notation to Prime Notation.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑 �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑(𝑦𝑦′)
= = =6
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑(𝑦𝑦′)
=6
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Then multiply both sides by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, we have 𝑑𝑑(𝑦𝑦 ′ ) = 6𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
Next, apply the integral notation and perform integration.
� 𝑑𝑑(𝑦𝑦 ′ ) = � 6 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Why is it that the arbitrary
constant 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 has a subscript
𝒚𝒚′ = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 + 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 labeled as 1? Is it not enough
that it should be written only
The answer to the question is that
as 𝑪𝑪?
𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 is the first arbitrary constant as a
result of the first integration we have
done.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Now, let’s proceed with 𝒚𝒚′ = , = 6𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶1.
Again, transform it to differentials, we have 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (6𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶1 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
For the second time, apply integration notation and perform integration, it becomes
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �(6𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶1 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 2
𝑦𝑦 = 6
+ 𝐶𝐶1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶2
2
or simply 𝒚𝒚 = 𝟑𝟑𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 + 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 which is the general solution to the 2nd order ODE.
Note: We have performed integration twice. From there, we have to bear in mind that it is
expected to perform integration two times because the given DE is of order two. To be able
to solve or find the general solution of a 2nd ordered DE, we must perform integration twice
to remove the differentials, therefore, there will be two arbitrary constants as well.

4
Name: Class Number:

2) Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (6mins + 2 mins checking)

A. Solve the DE: 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 + 5.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
B. Find the general solution of = 8𝑒𝑒 −4𝑥𝑥 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Proceed to What I know Chart for this part.
A. Find the general solution of 𝑦𝑦" = 12𝑥𝑥 2 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4
B. Solve for = 2 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 −1
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Q1: What hint or strategy is well understood by you?

Q2: What type of question do you perceive to be most workable or manageable? Least workable?
FAQs
1. What main mathematical operation will you perform when you are to solve a differential equation?
Ans.: Integration
2. How can we identify the number of arbitrary constants if we will derive the general solution of a
given DE?
Ans.: The number of arbitrary constants in the general solution can be identified readily as the value of the
order of the corresponding DE.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Activity 3: Skill-building Activities 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
A. Solve the DE: 𝒚𝒚′ = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟓𝟓 B. Find the general solution of = 𝟖𝟖𝒆𝒆−𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Procedure: Procedure:
𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 + 5
= 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 + 5 = 8𝑒𝑒 −4𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 + 5)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 8𝑒𝑒 −4𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �(𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 + 5) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻: 8 = (−2)(−4) to be able to use � 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝒙𝒙𝟑𝟑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝟖𝟖𝑒𝑒 −4𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝒚𝒚 = + 𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 + 𝑪𝑪
𝟑𝟑
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (−𝟐𝟐) � 𝑒𝑒 −4𝑥𝑥 (−𝟒𝟒)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝒚𝒚 = −𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆−𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 + 𝑪𝑪
(Answers will be given by your professors after your short quiz.)

5
Name: Class Number:

Lesson 2.2: Differential Equations and its Particular Solution Materials:

Lesson Objectives:
References:
Upon completion of this lesson, the student can:
https://www.toppr.com/guides/math
1. Derive the particular solution to a given differential equation if s/differential-equations/general-
given an initial value problem or boundary problem. and-particular-solutions-of-a-
2. Eliminate arbitrary constants given a solution of a DE
3. Prove the correspondence of a solution to its corresponding
https://www.intmath.com/differentia
differential equation. l-equations/
Productivity Tip:
Learn to say no.
This is not asking you to give up all your social activities, but you have to take some bold
steps. If someone is asking you to accompany them to hang out when you know you should
be studying, tell them you’re busy – and let them know when would be a better time. In short:
learn to say no when you know you really should.
In this lesson, we will be focusing on how to solve a particular solution to a given differential equation.
A particular solution (PS) is obtained from a given or derived general solution to a differential equation
after assigning given values for the independent and dependent variables in a general solution to know
the absolute value of the arbitrary constant or constants.

1. What is an IVP?
2. Do you know what the end

result of a proven
correspondence of a DE and
its solution?

1
Name: Class Number:

B. MAIN LESSON
A first order initial value problem is a system of equations of the form (𝑡𝑡, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑦𝑦′) = 0, 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡0 ) = 𝑦𝑦0 .
Here 𝑡𝑡0 is a fixed time and 𝑦𝑦0 is a number. A solution of an initial value problem is a solution 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) of the
differential equation that also satisfies the initial condition (𝑡𝑡0 ) = 𝑦𝑦0 .
PARTICULAR SOLUTION TO A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

A particular solution (PS) of a differential equation is a solution obtained from the general solution (GS) by
assigning specific values to the arbitrary constants. The conditions for calculating the values of the arbitrary
constants can be provided to us in the form of an Initial-Value Problem, or Boundary Conditions, depending
on the problem.
Solved Examples for You
At this point, we have learned a few things on how to solve DEs from the previous lesson.
We should also learn how to deal with a problem of proving the correspondence of a given
DE and its solution.
Here’s how we should do it!
Example 1. Prove that 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 is a solution to the DE 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 2𝑦𝑦.
Solution:
Let 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 be equation (1) and the DE 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 2𝑦𝑦 be equation (2).
Since the given DE has the 𝑦𝑦 ′ term, we will differentiate once equation (1) and we will have
𝑦𝑦 = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 -----------------------equation (1)

𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 (2) = 2𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 ------equation (3)
Then substitute equations (1) and (3) in (2), we have

𝑦𝑦 ′ = 2𝑦𝑦 -------------------------equation (2)
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐�𝑪𝑪𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � which is an identity.
So, we have proven the correspondence and that 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑪𝑪𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 is indeed a solution to the DE 𝒚𝒚′ = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.

2
Name: Class Number:

Example 2. Determine whether the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 + sin 𝑡𝑡 is a general solution of the
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
differential equation given as 2 + 2 – 3𝑓𝑓 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 – 4 sin 𝑡𝑡. Also find the particular solution of the given
differential equation satisfying the initial value conditions 𝑓𝑓(0) = 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓′(0) = −5.
Solution: The function 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) must satisfy the differential equation in order to be a solution. So, let us first
write down the derivatives of 𝑓𝑓 with 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 + sin 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 + (−3)𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 + cos 𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝒇𝒇′ (𝒕𝒕) = 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒕 − 𝟑𝟑𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 𝒆𝒆−𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝒕𝒕
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑓𝑓
𝑓𝑓"(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 + (−3)2 𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝒇𝒇"(𝒕𝒕) = 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒕 + 𝟗𝟗𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 𝒆𝒆−𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 − 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
Now let us use these values for 𝑓𝑓 in the left-hand side of the differential equation and compute the result.
+ 2 – 3𝑓𝑓 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 – 4 sin 𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 + 9𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 2(𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 − 3𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 + cos 𝑡𝑡) − 3(𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 + sin 𝑡𝑡) = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 – 4 sin 𝑡𝑡
Expanding,
𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 + 9𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 − 6𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 + 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 − 3𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 − 3𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 − 3 sin 𝑡𝑡 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 – 4 sin 𝑡𝑡
Then simplifying after combining similar terms,

−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 − 3 sin 𝑡𝑡 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 – 4 sin 𝑡𝑡
2 cos 𝑡𝑡 − 4 sin 𝑡𝑡 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 – 4 sin 𝑡𝑡
Left hand side (LHS) = Right hand side (RHS)  an IDENTITY!
Indeed, 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 + sin 𝑡𝑡 is a solution to +2 – 3𝑓𝑓 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 – 4 sin 𝑡𝑡.
 Determination of the Particular Solution
Example 3: From Example 2, find the particular solution of the given DE with the given initial boundary
conditions (IBC) at 𝑡𝑡 = 0, 𝑓𝑓(0) = 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓′(0) = −5.
Solution:
From Example 2, the given function is 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑡𝑡 + sin 𝑡𝑡.
Applying the IBC, at time 𝑡𝑡 = 0, we have to substitute it in 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡), with 𝑓𝑓(0) = 2,

𝑓𝑓(0) = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 0 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3(0) + sin(0)
𝑓𝑓(0) = 𝑐𝑐1 (1) + 𝑐𝑐2 (1) + 0
𝟐𝟐 = 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 + 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐
𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐 − 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏------------------ eqtn. (1)

3
Name: Class Number:

Similarly, at time 𝑡𝑡 = 0, we have to substitute it in 𝑓𝑓′(𝑡𝑡), with 𝑓𝑓′(0) = −5

𝑓𝑓′(0) = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑒𝑒 0 − 3𝑐𝑐2 𝑒𝑒 −3(0) + cos 0
𝑓𝑓′(0) = 𝑐𝑐1 (1) − 3𝑐𝑐2 (1) + 1
−𝟓𝟓 = 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 − 𝟑𝟑𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏 ---------- equation (2)
Substituting equation (1) in equation (2), we have

−5 = 𝑐𝑐1 − 3(2 − 𝑐𝑐1 ) + 1
−5 = 𝑐𝑐1 − 6 + 3𝑐𝑐1 + 1
−5 = 4𝑐𝑐1 − 5 − −→ 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎
𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎 substituted in equation. (1), −−→ 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐
Assigning or substituting derived values 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐 in 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡), we have

the required particular solution 𝒇𝒇(𝒕𝒕) = 𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆−𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝒕𝒕 for the DE +2 – 3𝑓𝑓 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 – 4 sin 𝑡𝑡.
Example 4. Find the particular solution for the differential equation 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 7𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0 given that 𝑦𝑦(0) = 3.
Solution:
Let us have a differential term on each side of the equation and so the DE becomes
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −7𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
Also, insert integral signs to be able to integrate afterwards.
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � −7𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
𝒚𝒚 = −𝟕𝟕 + 𝑪𝑪 − − − − − −𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝟐𝟐
With the given initial boundary condition 𝑦𝑦(0) = 3,

this means that at 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑦𝑦 = 3. Substitute the
boundary condition in the derived general solution,
we have
(0)2
3 = −7 + 𝐶𝐶 − −→ 𝑪𝑪 = 𝟑𝟑
2
Then again, substitute 𝑪𝑪 = 𝟑𝟑 in GS, the particular

𝟕𝟕
solution is 𝒚𝒚 = − 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑.
𝟐𝟐
The particular solution can be visually interpreted as

a parabola that is concave downward with vertex at
(0, 3).

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Name: Class Number:

Finding the Differential Equation

(By Elimination of Arbitrary Constants)
Example 5. Eliminate the arbitrary constants 𝑨𝑨 and 𝑩𝑩 from the equation 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑨𝑨𝒆𝒆−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝑩𝑩𝒆𝒆𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 .
Solution:
Set the given 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑨𝑨𝒆𝒆−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝑩𝑩𝒆𝒆𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 as equation (1).
Since there are two arbitrary constants to be eliminated, compute its first two derivatives, and label
these as equations (2) and (3), respectively. These are
𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥 (−2) + 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 (3) 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝒚𝒚′ = −𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒆𝒆𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 --------- equation (2)
𝑦𝑦" = −2𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥 (−2) + 3𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 (3) 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝒚𝒚" = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝒆𝒆−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝒆𝒆𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 --------- equation (3)
We will then use equations (2) and (3) in the following manner:
 To be able to eliminate A, we have to multiply equation (2) by a number 2 so that it becomes
𝟐𝟐[ 𝑦𝑦 ′ = −2𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 ] becomes  2𝑦𝑦 ′ = −4𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥 + 6𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 ---- equation (4)
Then add equation (4) to equation (3).

2𝑦𝑦 ′ = −4𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥 + 6𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 ---- equation (4)
+ 𝑦𝑦 " = 4𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥 + 9𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 ---- equation (3)
𝟐𝟐𝒚𝒚′ + 𝒚𝒚" = 𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝒆𝒆𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 ---- equation (5)
In a similar way, to be able to eliminate A again, we first multiply 2 to equation (1) then add the result to
equation (2), we will have
𝟐𝟐[ 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 ] becomes  2𝑦𝑦 = 2𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 ---- equation (6)
And
2𝑦𝑦 = 2𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 ---- equation (6)
+ 𝑦𝑦 ′ = −2𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 ---- equation (2)
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝒚𝒚′ = 𝟎𝟎 + 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒆𝒆𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 ---- equation (7)
Now, examine equation (5) and (7). We can see that we need (-15) as a coefficient of 𝑩𝑩𝒆𝒆𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 in equation
(7) so that we can eliminate B when added to equation (5). So, we multiply negative 3 to equation (7)
and have
−𝟑𝟑[ 2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 5𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 ] becomes  −6𝑦𝑦 − 3𝑦𝑦 ′ = −15𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 ---- equation (8)
And
−6𝑦𝑦 − 3𝑦𝑦 ′ = −15𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 ---- equation (8)
+ 2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦𝑦" = 15𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥
′ ---- equation (5)
−𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 − 𝒚𝒚′ + 𝒚𝒚" = 𝟎𝟎
YES! We have made it. We have eliminated the arbitrary constants and we can rewrite the final
equation with decreasing order of derivatives,
𝒚𝒚" − 𝒚𝒚′ − 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = 𝟎𝟎.

5
Name: Class Number:


A. Find the particular solution of 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 5 given that 𝑦𝑦(0) = 2.
B. For the equation of family of circle (𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦𝑦 + 1)2 = 𝑟𝑟 2 or general equation of a circle with center
at (2, -1), determine its corresponding DE.

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
A. Verify that the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 is a solution to the differential equation + − 6𝑦𝑦 = 0.
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Q2: What type of question do you perceive to be most workable or manageable within 5 minutes? Least
workable within 10 minutes?
FAQs
1. What is the difference of a general solution to a particular solution?
Ans.: The difference lies in the constant. There is no arbitrary constant left in a particular solution because
the arbitrary constant in the general solution is then derived as an absolute constant found after substituting
the initial boundary conditions in the general solution.
2. What is an identity equation or identity?
Ans.: An identity equation or simply called identity is a mathematical statement that what is written on the
left-hand side (LHS) is exactly the same on the right-hand side (RHS) after simplification.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
A. Find the particular solution of 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 5 given that 𝑦𝑦(0) = 2.
Solution:
Rewrite 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 5 as a DE with a pair of differentials 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 5𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Integrate: ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫ 5 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − −→ 𝑦𝑦 = 5𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶
Apply IBC at 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑦𝑦 = 2: 2 = 5(0) + 𝐶𝐶 − −→ 𝐶𝐶 = 2
Hence, the particular solution of the given DE 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 5 is 𝒚𝒚 = 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 + 𝟐𝟐.
B. For the equation of family of circle (𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦𝑦 + 1)2 = 𝑟𝑟 2 or general equation of a circle with center
at (2, -1), determine its corresponding DE.
Solution: Differentiate (𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦𝑦 + 1)2 = 𝐶𝐶 2 with respect to x. Do it per term.
Hint: Derivative of the sum is the sum of the derivatives.
𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥−2)2 𝑑𝑑(𝑦𝑦+1)2 𝑑𝑑�𝑟𝑟 2 �
Note: 𝑟𝑟 is an arbitrary constant. + = → 2(𝑥𝑥 − 2) + 2(𝑦𝑦 + 1)𝑦𝑦 ′ = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Dividing the equation by 2, (𝑥𝑥 − 2) + (𝑦𝑦 + 1)𝑦𝑦 ′ = 0
−(𝑥𝑥−2)
Restriction: 𝒚𝒚 ≠ −𝟏𝟏 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑦𝑦 ′ = .
𝑦𝑦+1

6
Name: Class Number:

Lesson 3: Differential Equations with Separable Variables and Materials: Ballpoint and notebook
its Solution
Lesson Objectives: References:
Upon completion of this lesson, you can: https://www.math.tamu.edu
1. Resolve whether the differential equation is separable or not. https://www.mathsisfun.com
2. Derive the solutions to such type of differential equations.
Productivity Tip:
Stay focused on your priorities.
Self-help is the key here. No one else is going to stop you from doing what you want, but
you’re the one who will face the consequences if you fail to meet your targets. Remember
you are at university for a reason, and if that reason is lost nothing else will fit well in the
equation. A tip to stay focused is keep journals/notes. Write all the important lessons in it and
scan it whenever you need to.
A differential equation written with its derivatives cannot be easily and/or readily integrated. One
way to do integration of the terms of a given differential equation is to separate the variables and the
derivatives will then be rewritten as differentials.

1. What do you do to separate the 𝒙𝒙 terms
from the 𝒚𝒚 terms in an equation?
2. Do you know what is the standard form of a
solution to a 1st ordered linear DE which has
separable variables?
3. What are the basic techniques of integration
you can use to be able to solve a DE with
separable variables?
B. MAIN LESSON
SEPARABLE VARIABLES OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
From the general form of first ordered differential equation 𝐹𝐹 � , 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦� = 0, this may be written in
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
terms of the differentials dx and dy, i.e, 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 or simply 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 0, where M
and N are both functions of x and y.
Moreover, the standard form of first ordered linear differential equation with separation of
variables is
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 + 𝒈𝒈(𝒚𝒚)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟎𝟎 − − − 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆. (𝟏𝟏)
and the standard form of its solution is ∫ 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 + 𝒈𝒈(𝒚𝒚)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟎𝟎 − − − 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆. (𝟐𝟐).

1
Name: Class Number:

IDENTIFYING SEPARABLE VARIABLE DE

Example 1. Show whether the differential equation 𝑦𝑦′ = 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥+4𝑦𝑦 has separable variables or not.
Solution:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦 ′ = = 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥+4𝑦𝑦
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 4𝑦𝑦
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒 4𝑦𝑦
2
𝑦𝑦 −2 𝑒𝑒 −4𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Hence, the D.E. has separable variables
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Example 2. Show whether the differential equation = 𝑦𝑦 + sin 𝑥𝑥 has separable variables or not.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Solution:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑦𝑦 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
This time, the y term is not possible to separate from 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, and so the given D.E. is not a under a separation
of variables.
SOLVING SEPARABLE VARIBLE DE

Example 3. Find the complete or general solution of the given differential equation (up to the form free of
ln function). Given: 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
Solution:
2 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦
2 3
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦
2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑥𝑥 | = 3 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑦𝑦| + 𝐶𝐶 [𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠]
Further applying properties of 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 function,
|𝑥𝑥 2 | − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑦𝑦 3 | = 𝐶𝐶
𝑥𝑥 2
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � 3 � = 𝐶𝐶
𝑦𝑦
Applying the exponential function of each side of the equation,
𝑥𝑥 2
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙� 3 �
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶
𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
� 𝟑𝟑 � = 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝐶𝐶1 = 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶 [𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠. 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ln 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓]
𝒚𝒚

2
Name: Class Number:

Example 4. Find the complete or general solution of the given differential equation (up to the form free
of 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 function).
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦
Solution:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥(1 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦(1 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 )
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
=
(1 + 𝑦𝑦 ) (1 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 )
2
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
� 2 =� 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (2. 𝑎𝑎)
(1 + 𝑦𝑦 ) (1 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Using the formula of the integral leading to 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 function ∫ = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑢𝑢| + 𝐶𝐶, then the left side of the
𝑢𝑢
equation (2.a) has the substitution 𝑢𝑢 = 1 + 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 while on the right side of equation (2.a) has
𝑢𝑢 = 1 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥.
Hence, equation (2.a) becomes

𝟐𝟐(𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦) 𝟐𝟐(2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)
� 2 =�
(1 + 𝑦𝑦 ) (1 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 )
After multiplying both sides by 2 and integrated as
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|1 + 𝑦𝑦 2 | = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|1 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 | + 𝐶𝐶.
Further simplification of the above equation leading to a solution free of 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 function as follows:
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|1 + 𝑦𝑦 2 | − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|1 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 | = 𝐶𝐶
1 + 𝑦𝑦 2
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � = 𝐶𝐶
1 + 2𝑥𝑥 2
Applying the exponential to each side of the above equation will be

1+𝑦𝑦 2
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙� �
𝑒𝑒 1+2𝑥𝑥 2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶
𝟏𝟏 + 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
� � = 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 = 𝒆𝒆𝑪𝑪
𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐

3
Name: Class Number:

Example 5. Solve the given differential equation (up to the form free of 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 function).
(1 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (1 + 𝑥𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Solution:
(1 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (1 + 𝑥𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
+ =0
(1 + 𝑥𝑥 2 ) (1 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )
As a D.E. in the form with separated variables, we can now integrate it as

� + � =0
(1 + 𝑥𝑥 2 ) (1 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )
𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕−𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙 + 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕−𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑪𝑪

A. Find the general solution of the given differential equation. Given: 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.
B. Identify the integration technique or formula to guide in obtaining the particular solution of the given
differential equation after transforming to standard form [see equation (1)]. Do not integrate.
2
𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 �𝑦𝑦−𝑥𝑥 �

A. Obtain the general solution of the given differential equation up to the form free from 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 function.
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − (𝑥𝑥 + 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
B. Find the particular solution with the given boundary condition.
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 ; 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 0 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 0
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1. Enlist all the formulas/techniques for integration used in this session.
2. List 3 more formulas/techniques for integration not used but expected to be used in solving a D.E.
with separable variable.
3. Today’s session was (easy, challenging, fast) because_________________.
FAQs
1. What if the given DE is not under a separable variable case, how do we solve it?
Ans.: We can still solve it using other methods based on its classification like homogeneous DE and Exact DE.

4
Name: Class Number:

Lesson 4.1: Homogeneous Differential Equations Materials:

Lesson Objectives:
References:
Zamora, John T. Module in Math
1. Determine if a differential equation is of homogeneous type. 311
2. Identify the degree of given homogeneous differential equation.
https://www.math24.net/homogene
ous-equations/
Productivity Tip:
Start small study habits.
Another important study hack is the knowledge that one tiny habit carried out over and
over a long period of time gives amazing results. Find one tiny habit that takes next to
no energy or time, and stick to it for months like lightly reading through your class notes
immediately after the class, writing down one important fact from your class and
solving one math question every day.
The function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is said to be homogeneous of degree 𝑛𝑛 if there exist a constant 𝑛𝑛 that for every
quatity 𝑟𝑟 (whether a constant or a variable) 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦).
Example: 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 3𝑥𝑥 3 – 2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 – 4𝑦𝑦 3 is homogeneous of degree 3 since

𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 3(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)3 – 2(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)2 – 4(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)3
𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 3𝑟𝑟 3 𝑥𝑥 3 – 2𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 2 𝑦𝑦 2 – 4𝑟𝑟 3 𝑦𝑦 3
𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 3 (3𝑥𝑥 3 – 2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 – 4𝑦𝑦 3 )
𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 3 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
Hence, 𝑓𝑓 is a function of degree 𝒏𝒏 = 𝟑𝟑.
Practice Review Problem (3 minutes):

𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Find the degree of the function 𝑓𝑓.Given: 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 + (𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 )𝒆𝒆 𝒚𝒚 .
2𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟 𝑦𝑦) = 4𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + [(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)2 + (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)2 ]𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
2𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟
∙
𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟 𝑦𝑦) = 4𝑟𝑟 2 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + [𝑟𝑟 2 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑦𝑦 2 ]𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 𝑟𝑟
2𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟 𝑦𝑦) = 4𝑟𝑟 2 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑟𝑟 2 (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦
2𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑟𝑟 2 �4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 �
𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) −→ 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟐𝟐

1
Name: Class Number:

1. What is the degree of a

homogeneous DE?
2. What mathematical operations
do you think will be used in
determining the degree of a
function or DE?
B. MAIN LESSON
HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
A first-ordered differential equation 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 is homogeneous of degree 𝒏𝒏 if
𝑀𝑀(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) and 𝑁𝑁(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
Note: 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 to be homogeneous, the functions 𝑀𝑀 and 𝑁𝑁 must be both homogeneous
of the same degree.
Example 1. Consider the equation (3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0.

Is the given DE a homogeneous DE or not? If yes, what is its degree?
Solution: Comparing the given DE (3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0 with form of first-ordered differential
equation 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, we now know that
𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 and 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 0𝑦𝑦 and so
𝑀𝑀(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 3𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 2𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟(3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦) −→ 𝑀𝑀(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑦) = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
𝑁𝑁(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 2𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟(2𝑥𝑥) −→ 𝑁𝑁(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
with 𝑀𝑀 and 𝑁𝑁, are of the same degree 𝑛𝑛 = 1, then the given DE is homogeneous and takes the
common degree 𝑛𝑛 = 1.
Example 2. Given the equation 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

Is the given DE a homogeneous DE or not? If yes, what is its degree?
Solution:
Rewrite the given DE in the form of 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 to be able to identify the value the
functions 𝑀𝑀:
𝒙𝒙𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 − �𝒙𝒙𝟑𝟑 + 𝒚𝒚𝟑𝟑 �𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟎𝟎.
𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = − (𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑦 3 ) and 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 and so

𝑀𝑀(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = − [(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)3 + (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)3 ] = − [𝑟𝑟 3 𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑟𝑟 3 𝑦𝑦 3 ] = − [𝑟𝑟 3 (𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑦 3 )] = 𝑟𝑟 3 [− (𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑦 3 )]
𝑀𝑀(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 3 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
𝑁𝑁(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)2 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟(𝑟𝑟 2 𝑦𝑦 2 ) = 𝑟𝑟 3 (𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 ) −→ 𝑁𝑁(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 3 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
with 𝑀𝑀 and 𝑁𝑁, are of the same degree 𝑛𝑛 = 3, then the given DE is homogeneous and takes the
common degree 𝑛𝑛 = 3.

2
Name: Class Number:

For the equation of 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 2 .
1. Find the function 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) and its degree
2. Find the function 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) and its degree
3. Is the given DE a homogeneous?

𝑥𝑥�
For the equation of 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 )𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 .
1. Find the function 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) and its degree

2. Find the function 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) and its degree
3. Is the given DE a homogeneous? If yes, what is the degree?
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Q1: What have you found difficult in simplifying expressions to identify the degree of a function?
Q2: Have you identified a strategy in expanding and/or simplifying terms?
FAQs
1. Is there a shorter way to identify a degree of a function or DE?
Ans.: So far, the length of time to show and/or identify the degree of a given function/DE depends on the
given function/DE itself.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Solution: 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 2 = 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
�𝑥𝑥 2 = 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 2 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (4𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝟐𝟐 + 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 + 𝟐𝟐𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 �𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 − 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟎𝟎
�𝟒𝟒𝒙𝒙
𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 2 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = −𝑥𝑥 2

𝑀𝑀(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 4(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)2 + 7𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 2(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)2 𝑁𝑁(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = −(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)2 = −𝑟𝑟 2 𝑥𝑥 2
= 4𝑟𝑟 2 𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑟𝑟 2 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑟𝑟 2 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑁𝑁(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 2 (−𝑥𝑥 2 ) = 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
𝑀𝑀(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 2 (4𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 2 ) = 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
𝑴𝑴(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 2
Since both 𝑀𝑀 and 𝑁𝑁 are of degree 2, then the given DE is a homogeneous DE.

3

Section: ____________ Schedule: _______________________________________ Date: _______________
Lesson 4.2: Solving Homogeneous Differential Equations Materials:

Lesson Objectives:
References:
https://www.math24.net/homogeneous
-equations/
1. Solve a given homogeneous differential equation
Productivity Tip:
Take breaks.
It’s important to get into the flow of studying. However, you must know that studying involves
a lot of brain power. This is why it’s important to take breaks when studying. Breaks don’t
have to last five days, though. Keep your breaks minimal. A break can be as simple as
standing up and stretching. Staying hunched and focused on your books can cause back
aches. You can also take water breaks, and snack breaks. It’s all about moderation.
It’s a good day today to continue our learning. What we have learned from the previous lesson is a
preparation for us to be able to solve a so called homogeneous differential equation or simply HDE.
Knowing the classification of a given DE will enable us to pursue its solution more clearly.
It is important to note that our knowledge in the first classification of DE which has the separable variables
will also enable us to finish finding the general solution of a homogeneous DE.
On the second, be reminded that there is a significant point of the value of the degree that we initially
identify before we proceed to finding a solution to a homogeneous DE. Do you what to find out the
purpose of the degree?
Let us start with what you know then.

1. What is the purpose of the

degree of HDE in finding its
solution?
2. Is a homogeneous DE of degree
1 also a DE with separable
variables?

1

B. MAIN LESSON
SOLUTION TO A HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
A differential equation of the form 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 is said to be homogeneous
differential equation if the degree of 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) and 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is same. With 𝑀𝑀 and 𝑁𝑁 as the homogeneous
functions of 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦, we can use a technique called variable substitution. The said variable substitution
makes use of a third variable say 𝑣𝑣, other than the original variables of the function M and N. Let us see
it this way.
Let 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 means that 𝒚𝒚 is in terms of 𝒙𝒙 and that its differential follows as
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 + 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 [a differential of a product 𝑣𝑣 and 𝑥𝑥]
Also, if it is necessary that 𝒙𝒙 be in terms of 𝒚𝒚, we have to have the substitution 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 and
the differential as 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 + 𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 .
Demonstration of the Technique:
Using the general form of first ordered DE 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 which is also known as HDE of
degree 𝒏𝒏 with the paired substitution for the original variable and its differential say
𝒚𝒚 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 and 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 + 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙
The HDE becomes

𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣) (𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 0.
Having a homogeneous DE of degree n will allow us to extract a degree n of the original variable 𝑥𝑥
retained after substitution from each of the functions 𝑀𝑀 and 𝑁𝑁. So the DE looks like this
𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 𝑀𝑀(1, 𝑣𝑣) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 𝑁𝑁(1, 𝑣𝑣) (𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 0
Dividing the equation by 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 , lead us to a simpler form of

𝑀𝑀(1, 𝑣𝑣) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(1, 𝑣𝑣) (𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 0
Expanding the second term,

𝑀𝑀(1, 𝑣𝑣)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑣𝑣 𝑁𝑁(1, 𝑣𝑣)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁(1, 𝑣𝑣)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Combining terms with common differential 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

[𝑀𝑀(1, 𝑣𝑣) + 𝑣𝑣 𝑁𝑁(1, 𝑣𝑣)]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁(1, 𝑣𝑣)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Now, separate the 𝑥𝑥 terms and its 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 from the 𝑣𝑣 terms and its 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and get ready to integrate.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑁𝑁(1, 𝑣𝑣)
� + � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑥𝑥 [𝑀𝑀(1, 𝑣𝑣) + 𝑣𝑣 𝑁𝑁(1, 𝑣𝑣)]
After completing the integration of the functions, you must return to the original pair of variables given,
𝑦𝑦
that is, substitute 𝑣𝑣 = to have 𝑦𝑦 variable back in the solution equation found!
𝑥𝑥

2

Remarks: You can choose the best pair of substitution from either
𝒚𝒚 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 and 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 + 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 or 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 and 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 + 𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
Let us study further few specific examples using the HDE from previous lesson, Lesson 5.1.
Example 1. Consider the equation (3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0, an HDE of degree 1.
Procedure:
Applying the hint posted implies that when we multiply the term 2𝑥𝑥
With 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
Choose the substitution
2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥(𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝒚𝒚 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 and
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 + 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙
Unlike using the other substitution,
(3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (3𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 2𝑦𝑦)(𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦) = 3𝑣𝑣 2 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 3𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
The above results give us a comparison that should allow us to think twice about the better choice of
substitution.
To continue, given HDE equation (3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0 becomes

The degree of the HDE
(3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2𝑥𝑥(𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = 0.
will be the degree of the
variable to be extracted
Taking into consideration that the HDE is of degree 𝑛𝑛 = 1
and divided from the DE
We can extract the common variable 𝒙𝒙 as shown
to simplify it.
𝒙𝒙(3 + 2𝑣𝑣)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2𝒙𝒙(𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = 0
Then divide the above equation by 𝒙𝒙 itself and we have

(3 + 2𝑣𝑣)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2(𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = 0
From there, we distribute 2 in the second term and have

(3 + 2𝑣𝑣)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0
Combine terms with common differential 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

[(3 + 2𝑣𝑣) + 2𝑣𝑣]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0
Simplify. (3 + 4𝑣𝑣)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Separate variables. + 3+4𝑣𝑣 = 0
𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 2(2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Integrate and simplify. ∫ + ∫ �2� =0
𝑥𝑥 3+4𝑣𝑣
𝟏𝟏
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥|𝒙𝒙| + 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥|𝟑𝟑 + 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒| = 𝑪𝑪
𝟐𝟐

3

Example 2. Given the equation 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑., an HDE of degree 3.
Procedure:
Since the given DE is already known as homogeneous, it is not necessary to rewrite it in the form
𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0. What we need to do is to decide what variable substitution will be used?
Analyse the following:
Case 1: Case 2:
With 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗, 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 + 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 But with 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗, 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 + 𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 becomes 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 becomes
𝑥𝑥(𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)2 (𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = [𝑥𝑥 3 + (𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)3 ]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = [(𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)3 + 𝑦𝑦 3 ](𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦)
The LHS will have 2 terms and also 2 terms On the other hand, the above equation will have 1
on the RHS of the above equation after term on the LHS and 4 terms on the RHS after
distribution of multiplication over addition. distribution of multiplication over addition.
Based on the two cases of substitution, which do you think is simpler and easier to continue?
You got it! Same for me, I believe its Case 1.

So let us proceed from Case 1.
𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥(𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)2 (𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = [𝑥𝑥 3 + (𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)3 ]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
It is very important not to be messy. Expanding the equation might still make things complicated. So
before doing so, it is important to use the degree value of the HDE which is 3 as a hint that we can extract
a common original variable 𝑥𝑥 with an exponent of 3 as well.
That is,
𝑥𝑥 3 𝑣𝑣 2 (𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 [1 + 𝑣𝑣 3 ]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Then divide the above equation by the same 𝒙𝒙𝟑𝟑 and the result is
𝑣𝑣 2 (𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = (1 + 𝑣𝑣 3 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Then it’s time to expand and have
𝑣𝑣 3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (1 + 𝑣𝑣 3 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[𝑣𝑣 3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − (1 + 𝑣𝑣 3 )]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0

4

At this point, the 𝑥𝑥 terms of the equation can be separated from the 𝑣𝑣 terms and we have it ready for
integration
1
− � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑥𝑥
𝑣𝑣 3
ln|𝑥𝑥 | + = 𝐶𝐶
3
𝑦𝑦
Substituting 𝑣𝑣 = in the last equation above,
𝑥𝑥
1 𝑦𝑦 3
ln|𝑥𝑥 | + � � = 𝐶𝐶
3 𝑥𝑥
𝒚𝒚𝟑𝟑
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥|𝒙𝒙| + = 𝑪𝑪
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

𝑥𝑥
For the homogeneous equation 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦)𝑒𝑒 �𝑦𝑦 , do the following:
1. Derive the integrable functions (variables separated after third variable substitution)
2. Find the general solution


SHORT QUIZ
For the homogeneous equation 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )2 (𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) + 𝑦𝑦 6 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, do the following:
1. Show or prove that the degree of the HDE is 6.
2. Derive the integrable functions (variables separated after third variable substitution)
3. Find the general solution
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Q2: Do you have another observation that can be used as a hint in solving HDE?
FAQs.
1. Can we use another letter other than v as a 3rd variable for substitution?
Ans.: YES, we can use another letter such as 𝒖𝒖 to have the variable substitution 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 and the differential
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 + 𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚.
2. Can we jump to finding the solution of a differential equation without proving or showing that it is
homogeneous?
Ans.: YES, if the given DE is already a homogeneous DE.

5
Name: Class Number:

Lesson 5: Exact Differential Equation and its Solution Materials: Ballpoint and notebook
Lesson Objectives:
Upon completion of this lesson, you can: References:
1. Perform test for exactness https://www.khanacademy.org/math/differential-
2. Obtain the solution to a given exact differential equation equations/first-order-differential-equations/exact-
equations/
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/DE/Exact.a
spx
Productivity Tip:
Put Your Learning into Action.
Simply rereading your notes is unlikely to help you to remember them in the long term. Instead,
try to apply what you've learned. For example, if you're trying to master a new software
application, you'll likely need to go through it a few times before it's fixed in your mind. If this is
the case, you can make a summary of the lesson, or use your cell phone to record a brief account
of what was said and go over it from time to time.
There are other classifications of a differential equation aside from having separable variables
and being homogeneous. In this lesson we will learn another class of DE that will make use of the
standard form of first ordered ordinary differential equation 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0. If we are trained
already from the first two classifications that makes use the said standard form, then we now are set to
perform partial derivatives of each of the functions 𝑀𝑀 and 𝑁𝑁. That is, if a given DE is not yet written in
the standard form of first ordered ordinary differential equation, we must transform it first as our step.

1. What is an exact differential
equation?
2. How do you show or prove that

a given DE is exact?
B. MAIN LESSON
EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (Linear First Ordered)

A first ordered differential equation in standard differential form 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 is said to be
𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 if 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is an exact differential of a function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦), that is,
𝒅𝒅�𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚)� = 𝑴𝑴(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 + 𝑵𝑵(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

1
Name: Class Number:

Test for Exactness

1. Consider identifying the function coefficients 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) and 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦), of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 respectively,
from a standard form of a differential equation.
2. For each function 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) and 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦), get their partial derivatives with respect to 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑥𝑥,
respectively.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦)
It is must that when we say partial derivative of 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) with respect to 𝑦𝑦, , we have to treat
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦)
𝑥𝑥 as a constant; while for partial derivative of 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) with respect to 𝑥𝑥, , we have to treat
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑦𝑦 as a constant.
3. If their partial derivatives are equal, that is,

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
=
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Then this is the necessary and sufficient condition for the given D.E. to be identified as 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝑫. 𝑬𝑬.
Performing Test for Exactness

Example 1. Perform the test for exactness to determine whether the first ordered D.E. is exact or not.
a. 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + (𝑥𝑥 2 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Test for exactness:
𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 1
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
= 2𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚)
= 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 =
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
Hence, the D.E. is exact.
b. (𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 cos 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑+(2𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0

Test for exactness:
𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 cos 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
= 2𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥[(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) 𝑦𝑦] − cos 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
= 2𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥[(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) 𝑦𝑦] − cos 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚)
= 𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 (𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙) − 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 =
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏

2

SOLVING AN EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

The general solution of a given exact differential equation is of the form 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝐶𝐶, with 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) =
∫ 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐹𝐹 = ∫ 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥), where ℎ(𝑥𝑥)is a pure function of 𝑥𝑥 while 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) is a
function of 𝑦𝑦 alone.
Example 2. Consider the exact differential equation 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + (𝑥𝑥 2 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 given above in
Example 1.a. Find its general solution.
Procedure:
Start with the formula 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = ∫ 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦).
Substitute the value of 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 in the formula above.
Perform partial integration
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = � 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦)
𝑥𝑥 2
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = 𝐶𝐶
2
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = 𝐶𝐶 − − − −𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (𝑎𝑎)
Moreover, for the other formula 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = ∫ 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥).
Substitute the value of 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 1 in the formula above, then perform partial integration
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = �(𝑥𝑥 2 − 1) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥)
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐶𝐶 − − − −𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (𝑏𝑏)
Using correspondence after equating (a) and (b) to determine the functions ℎ(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦), we have
ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 0 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = −𝑦𝑦.
Therefore, the general solution of the given exact D.E. is
𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 − 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑪𝑪
Example 3. Consider the exact differential equation 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝟗𝟗𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + �𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏�𝒚𝒚′ = 𝟎𝟎 and determine its
general solution.
Procedure:
Rewrite the given DE in the standard form 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 9𝑥𝑥 2 + (2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1)𝑦𝑦′ = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 9𝑥𝑥 2 + (2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1) =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 9𝑥𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Just to show that it is an exact DE,

3

Test for exactness:

𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 9𝑥𝑥 2 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
= 2𝑥𝑥 + 0 = 0 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚)
= 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 =
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
Start with the formula 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = ∫ 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦).
Substitute the value of 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 9𝑥𝑥 2 in the formula above.
Perform partial integration
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = �(2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 9𝑥𝑥 2 ) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦)
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑦𝑦 − 9 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = 𝐶𝐶
2 3
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = 𝐶𝐶 − − − −𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (𝑎𝑎)
Moreover, for the other formula 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = ∫ 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥).
Substitute the value of 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 in the formula above, then perform partial integration
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = �(2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥)
𝑦𝑦 2
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2 + 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦𝑦 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐶𝐶
2
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦𝑦 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐶𝐶 − − − −𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (𝑏𝑏)
Using correspondence after equating (a) and (b) to determine the functions ℎ(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦), we have
ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = −3𝑥𝑥 3 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑦.
Therefore, the general solution of the given exact D.E. is
𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 − 𝟑𝟑𝒙𝒙𝟑𝟑 + 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 + 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑪𝑪

Considering the following differential equations, perform the test for exactness for the following:
A. (2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 ; (for students with odd numbered seats)
B. (𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0; (for students with odd numbered seats)

Proceed to What I know Chat for this part.
SHORT QUIZ
Given the DE as 2xy 2 + 4 = 2(3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦)𝑦𝑦′.
A. prove or disprove if the given D.E. is exact.
B. If it is an exact DE, find its general solution.

4

C. LESSON WRAP-UP
Q1: Are you ready to deal further with more partial derivatives and partial integration?
Q2: Today’s session was (easy, challenging, fast, boring, etc…).
FAQs.
1. What will happen next if a given DE has failed in the test for exactness?
Ans.: We will identify it initially as non-exact DE (which is our next lesson) if it is not also a DE with
separable variables nor homogeneous DE.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Considering the following differential equations, perform the test for exactness for the following:
A. (2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 ; (for students with odd numbered seats)
Procedure:
Let 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 and 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦
Test for exactness:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
= 2𝑥𝑥 + 0 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚)
= 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 =
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
B. (𝑥𝑥 − 5𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 5(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0; (for students with odd numbered seats)
Procedure:
Let 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 − 5𝑦𝑦 and 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 5(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥)
Test for exactness:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
=0−5 = 5(0 − 1) = −5
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚)
= −𝟓𝟓 =
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏

(Answers for this part will be given by your professor after your short quiz.)

5
Name: Class Number:

Lesson 6: Non-Exact Differential Equations and its Solution Materials: Ballpoint and notebook
Lesson Objectives: References:
Upon completion of this lesson, you can: https://www.math.tamu.edu/~zelenko/Enrichme
1. Execute Test for exactness nt_w2_2.pdf
2. Find the integrating factor for a non-exact differential equation https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-
guides/differential-equations/first-order-
3. Verify or prove that a given function is a proper integrating equations/integrating-factors
factor for a given differential equation Zamora, John T. Module in MATH 311
4. Solve a non-exact differential equation Differential Equations
Productivity Tip:
Teach Someone Else.
One of the most powerful ways to embed learning is to teach it to someone else. Find a
willing "pupil," and explain to him or her what you've been learning. This quickly reveals
any aspects that you don't understand or can't remember, pinpointing where your
knowledge is weakest. It can boost your confidence to use and apply your knowledge.
You might ask, what if a first ordered differential equation failed in the Test for Exactness, what will
happen next?
Technically, if the result of the Test for Exactness is inequality, it does not mean that the differential
equation tested has no solution. What it implies is that it can be solved in another way. And that’s what
we will do in a little bit later.
1. What is an integrating factor?
2. Do you know what is the

purpose of an integrating
factor?

1
Name: Class Number:

B. MAIN LESSON
NON-EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
Given a differential equation in the form of
𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 − − − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (1),
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦)
if ≠ then the given D.E. is NON-EXACT.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
However, it’s possible for some few special cases that multiplying the given D.E. of the form in eqtn. (1)
by a function ∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) will transform it to an exact D.E. of the form
𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 − − − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (2)
With
𝜕𝜕[𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)] 𝜕𝜕[𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)]
= − − − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (3)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
which is partial differentiation of a product,
𝜕𝜕[∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)] 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) 𝜕𝜕[∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)] 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) + ∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) + ∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) − − − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (4)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Or in simply
𝜕𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑀𝑀 +∅ = 𝑁𝑁 +∅ − − − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (4𝑎𝑎)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
where ∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)is called the Integrating Factor (I.F.).
 FINDING THE INTEGRATING FACTOR ∅
Case 1: The I.F. is a function of x alone, i.e., ∅ = ∅(𝒙𝒙). In this case, the integrating factor I.F. is a
function of 𝑥𝑥 alone which reduces eqtn. (4a) to
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕∅
∅ = 𝑁𝑁 + ∅ since = 0.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Rearranging, 𝑁𝑁 =∅ −∅ = ∅� − �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕∅ 𝑑𝑑∅
But we can consider from partial derivatives to ordinary derivatives = since ∅ = ∅(𝑥𝑥), a function
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
of x alone.
𝑑𝑑∅ 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
So, = � − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
∅ 𝑁𝑁 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
The I.F. is true only if � − � = 𝒇𝒇(𝐱𝐱) − − − (𝟓𝟓); 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎. Otherwise ∅ ≠ ∅(𝑥𝑥).
𝑵𝑵 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝑑𝑑∅
If eqution (5) is satisfied, then = 𝑓𝑓(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and that after integration, it will be
∅
ln(∅) = ∫ 𝑓𝑓(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 or ∅ = ∅(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑓𝑓(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 which is the target integrating factor.

2
Name: Class Number:

Case 2: The I.F. is a function of y alone, i.e., ∅ = ∅(𝑦𝑦). In this case, I.F. is a function of 𝑦𝑦 alone which
reduces eqtn. (4a) to
𝜕𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕∅
𝑀𝑀 +∅ =∅ since =0.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕∅ 𝑑𝑑∅

Rearranging, 𝑀𝑀 =∅ −∅ = ∅� − �. But, = since ∅ = ∅(𝑦𝑦).
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑∅ 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

So, = � − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
∅ 𝑀𝑀 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
The I.F. is true only if � − � = 𝑘𝑘(𝑦𝑦) − − − (6); 𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎. Otherwise ∅ ≠ ∅(𝑦𝑦).
𝑀𝑀 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑∅
If eqtn. (6) is satisfied, then = 𝑘𝑘(y)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and that after integration, it will be
∅
ln(∅) = ∫ 𝑘𝑘(y)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 or ∅ = ∅(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑘𝑘(y)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 which is the target integrating factor.
Case 3: The I.F. is a function of both x and y which is a product of the form ∅ = ∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 .
If I.F. has the form ∅ = 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 , then

𝜕𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜕∅
= 𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚−1 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛−1
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
and so eqtn. (4a) becomes
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑀𝑀(𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛−1 ) + 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑁𝑁(𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚−1 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 ) + 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Dividing the above eqtn. by 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 , we have

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
+ = +
𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
And that it becomes

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
− = − − − − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (7)
𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
In the last equation, eqtn. (7), it is possible to identify the values of 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑛𝑛 by correspondence implied
by the said equation. That is, the terms of the LHS are similar to the RHS terms, then 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑛𝑛 can be
known.

3
Name: Class Number:

 SOLVING A NON-EXACT DE
After finding the proper I.F. of a given non-exact DE, we can solve now such type.
Example 1. Find the general solution to the following differential equation.

(2𝑦𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 + 6𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Procedure:
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑦𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 + 6𝑥𝑥 ; 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
� = 4𝑦𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 2� ≠ � = 2x + 2y − 1 � ∴ 𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟏𝟏: ∅ = ∅(𝐱𝐱)

𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = � − �
𝑵𝑵 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
1 4𝑦𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 2 − 2x − 2y + 1
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2 [(4𝑦𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 2) − (2x + 2y − 1)] =
𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 − 1)
2𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝟏𝟏
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = , 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = [ 𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥];
𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 − 1) 𝒙𝒙
1
Hence, ∅ = ∅(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑓𝑓(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 ∫𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑥𝑥| , 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∅ = ∅(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒙𝒙
𝑴𝑴(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚)∅(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = 𝑴𝑴∅ = 2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑥𝑥 2
𝑵𝑵(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚)∅(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = 𝑵𝑵∅ = 𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥 2
Second Test for Exactness to verify the I.F. found

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
� (𝑀𝑀∅) = 4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 � = � (𝑁𝑁∅) = 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥� ∴ 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝐶𝐶 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒:
𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = � 𝑴𝑴∅ 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 + 𝒈𝒈(𝒚𝒚)
𝑥𝑥 2 2 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = �(2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 ) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = 2 𝑦𝑦 + 3 𝑦𝑦 − 2 𝑦𝑦 + 6 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (𝑎𝑎)
2 3 2 3
𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = � 𝑵𝑵∅ 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 + 𝒉𝒉(𝒙𝒙)

𝑦𝑦 2
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = �(𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥 2 ) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥) − − − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (𝑏𝑏)
2
 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆. (𝒂𝒂) = (𝒃𝒃): 𝒉𝒉(𝒙𝒙) = 𝟐𝟐𝒙𝒙𝟑𝟑 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒈𝒈(𝒚𝒚) = 𝟎𝟎

Hence the general solution is 𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = 𝒙𝒙𝟑𝟑 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 − 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 + 𝟐𝟐𝒙𝒙𝟑𝟑 = 𝑪𝑪.

4
Name: Class Number:

Example 2. Find the general solution to the following differential equation.

𝑦𝑦(2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥(3𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑦 + 3)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Procedure:
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑦𝑦(2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 1) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑦 ; 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥(3𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑦 + 3) = 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
� = 2𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 + 1� ≠ � = 6𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑦 + 3 � ∴ 𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟏𝟏: ∅ = ∅(𝐱𝐱)

𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) = � − �
𝑵𝑵 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
1 2𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 + 1 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑦 − 3
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =? [2𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 + 1 − (6𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑦 + 3 )] =?
𝑥𝑥(3𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑦 + 3) 𝑥𝑥(3𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑦 + 3)
−4𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 − 2
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛′ 𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥(3𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑦 + 3)
𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟐𝟐: ∅ = ∅(𝒚𝒚)

𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝒌𝒌(𝒚𝒚) = � − �
𝑴𝑴 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
1 6𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑦 + 3 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 − 1 4𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 + 2
𝑘𝑘(𝑦𝑦) = [6𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑦 + 3 − (2𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 + 1)] = =
𝑦𝑦(2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 1) 𝑦𝑦(2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 1) 𝑦𝑦(2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 1)
2(2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 1) 2
𝒌𝒌(𝒚𝒚) = = 𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦
𝑦𝑦(2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 1) 𝑦𝑦
2
∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
Hence, ∅ = ∅(𝒚𝒚) = 𝒆𝒆∫ 𝒌𝒌(𝐲𝐲)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 2𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑦𝑦| = 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑦𝑦| ; 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∅ = ∅(𝒚𝒚) = 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑴𝑴∅ = (2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑦 )𝑦𝑦 2 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 3 − 𝑦𝑦 4 + 𝑦𝑦 3
𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)∅(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑵𝑵∅ = (3𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥)𝑦𝑦 2 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 3 + 3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
� (𝑀𝑀∅) = 6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 − 4𝑦𝑦 3 + 3𝑦𝑦 2 � = � (𝑁𝑁∅) = 6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 − 4𝑦𝑦 3 + 3𝑦𝑦 2 � ∴ 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝐶𝐶 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒:
𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = � 𝑴𝑴∅ 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 + 𝒈𝒈(𝒚𝒚)
𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟑
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = �(2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 3 − 𝑦𝑦 4 + 𝑦𝑦 3 ) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = 𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 − 𝒙𝒙𝒚𝒚𝟒𝟒 + 𝒙𝒙𝒚𝒚𝟑𝟑 + 𝒈𝒈(𝒚𝒚) − − − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (𝑎𝑎)
𝟐𝟐
𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = � 𝑵𝑵∅ 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 + 𝒉𝒉(𝒙𝒙)
𝒚𝒚𝟑𝟑 𝒚𝒚𝟒𝟒 𝒚𝒚𝟑𝟑
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = �(3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 3 + 3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 ) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝟑𝟑𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝒉𝒉(𝒙𝒙) − − − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (𝑏𝑏)
𝟑𝟑 𝟒𝟒 𝟑𝟑
 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆. (𝒂𝒂) = (𝒃𝒃): 𝒉𝒉(𝒙𝒙) = 𝟎𝟎 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒈𝒈(𝒚𝒚) = 𝟎𝟎

Hence the general solution is 𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚𝟑𝟑 − 𝒙𝒙𝒚𝒚𝟒𝟒 + 𝒙𝒙𝒚𝒚𝟑𝟑 = 𝑪𝑪.

5
Name: Class Number:

Example 3. For the given differential equation 2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 3 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, do the following:
a. Test for exactness
b. Find the integrating factor
c. Determine the general solution
Procedure:
𝑎𝑎. 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑦𝑦 ; 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 3
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
� = 2� ≠ � = 1 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 � ∴ 𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑏𝑏. 𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟐𝟐: ∅ = ∅(𝒚𝒚) 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕
1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑘𝑘(𝑦𝑦) = � − �
𝑀𝑀 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 −1 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3
𝑘𝑘(𝑦𝑦) = [1 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 − 2] = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦
2𝑦𝑦 2𝑦𝑦
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝟑𝟑: ∅ = ∅(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = 𝒙𝒙𝒎𝒎 𝒚𝒚𝒏𝒏 .

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
+ = +
𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 3 )𝑚𝑚
+2= + 1 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3
𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥
2𝑛𝑛 + 2 = (1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 )𝑚𝑚 + 1 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3
3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 + 1 = (1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 )𝑚𝑚 − 2𝑛𝑛
3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 + 1 = 𝑚𝑚 − 𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 − 2𝑛𝑛
Implies the correspondence of 𝑚𝑚 − 2𝑛𝑛 = 1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻, 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 − 𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 −→ 𝒎𝒎 = −𝟑𝟑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚 − 2𝑛𝑛 = −3 − 2𝑛𝑛 = 1−→ 𝒏𝒏 = −𝟐𝟐
∴the integrating factor is ∅(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = 𝒙𝒙−𝟑𝟑 𝒚𝒚−𝟐𝟐
c. Now, we will use of the newly found I.F. to be multiplied to each of the functions 𝑀𝑀 and 𝑁𝑁 and we
have
𝑀𝑀∅ = 2𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥 −3 𝑦𝑦 −2 ) = 2𝑥𝑥 −3 𝑦𝑦 −1
𝑁𝑁∅ = (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 3 )𝑥𝑥 −3 𝑦𝑦 −2 = 𝑥𝑥 −2 𝑦𝑦 −2 − 𝑦𝑦

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
(𝑀𝑀∅) = [2𝑥𝑥 −3 𝑦𝑦 −1 ] = 2𝑥𝑥 −3 (−1)𝑦𝑦 −2 = −2𝑥𝑥 −3 𝑦𝑦 −2
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 −2 −2
(𝑁𝑁∅) = [𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦] = −2𝑥𝑥 −3 𝑦𝑦 −2 − 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ (𝑀𝑀∅) = (𝑁𝑁∅) ∴ 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

6
Name: Class Number:

𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝐶𝐶 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒:
𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = � 𝑴𝑴∅ 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 + 𝒈𝒈(𝒚𝒚)
𝑥𝑥 −2
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = ��2𝒙𝒙−𝟑𝟑 𝒚𝒚−𝟏𝟏 � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = 2 � � (𝑦𝑦 −1 ) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦)
−2
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = −𝑥𝑥 −2 𝑦𝑦 −1 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) − − − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (𝑎𝑎)
𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = � 𝑵𝑵∅ 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 + 𝒉𝒉(𝒙𝒙)
𝑦𝑦 −1 𝑦𝑦 2
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = ��𝒙𝒙−𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚−𝟐𝟐 − 𝒚𝒚� 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 −2 ) � �− + ℎ(𝑥𝑥)
−1 2
𝑦𝑦 2
𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = −𝑥𝑥 −2 𝑦𝑦 −1 − + ℎ(𝑥𝑥) − − − 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒. (𝑏𝑏)
2
𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆. (𝒂𝒂) = (𝒃𝒃): 𝒉𝒉(𝒙𝒙) = 𝟎𝟎 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒈𝒈(𝒚𝒚) = −
𝟐𝟐
𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
Hence the general solution is 𝑭𝑭(𝒙𝒙, 𝒚𝒚) = −𝒙𝒙−𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚−𝟏𝟏 − = 𝑪𝑪.
𝟐𝟐

For the given differential equation 2𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, do the following:


For the given differential equation 2𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, with the integrating
factor ∅ = ∅(𝒚𝒚) = 𝒚𝒚−𝟐𝟐 do the following:
a. Verify ∅ = ∅(𝒚𝒚) = 𝒚𝒚−𝟐𝟐 as I.F. by performing second Test for exactness
b. Find the general solution
C. LESSON WRAP-UP
Q1: Were you able to meet the learning objectives?


7
Name: Class Number:

FAQs
1. Before solving a non-exact differential equation, is it a must that we should verify a given
integrating factor?
Ans.: Verifying the value if a given integrating factor is particular task. If there is already a given I.F. and the
requirement is just to solve, then we don’t need to verify the value of I.F. We will just apply it to be able to
solve the given DE.
2. What is the role of I.F. in solving a non-exact DE?

Ans.: The role of the I.F. is to make a given non-exact DE to an exact DE after it is multiplied to each of the
M and N functions of a DE written in the standard form of first ordered DE.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
For the given differential equation 2𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, do the following:
Procedure:
𝑎𝑎. 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 2 + 4𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 1
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
� = 2𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑦 + 4� ≠ � = 0 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 4� ∴ 𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑏𝑏. 𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀𝒀 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 𝟐𝟐: ∅ = ∅(𝒚𝒚) 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕
1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑘𝑘(𝑦𝑦) = � − �
𝑀𝑀 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 −2x − 4 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 4y − 4
𝑘𝑘(𝑦𝑦) = [(−2𝑥𝑥 − 4) − (2𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑦 + 4)] =
2𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2) 2𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2)
−4𝑥𝑥 − 8 − 4y −4(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2) −2
𝑘𝑘(𝑦𝑦) = = = 𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦
2𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2) 2𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2) 𝑦𝑦
𝟐𝟐
∫ −𝒚𝒚𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 −𝟐𝟐
Hence, ∅ = ∅(𝒚𝒚) = 𝒆𝒆∫ 𝒌𝒌(𝐲𝐲)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒆𝒆 = 𝒆𝒆−𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐|𝒚𝒚| = 𝒆𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍|𝒚𝒚| ; 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 ∅ = ∅(𝒚𝒚) = 𝒚𝒚−𝟐𝟐

For the given differential equation 2𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, with the integrating
factor ∅ = ∅(𝒚𝒚) = 𝒚𝒚−𝟐𝟐 do the following:
a. Verify ∅ = ∅(𝒚𝒚) = 𝒚𝒚−𝟐𝟐 as I.F. by performing second Test for exactness
b. Find the general solution
Procedure:
𝑎𝑎. 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 2) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 2 + 4𝑦𝑦
𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ ∅ = ∅(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑦𝑦 −2
𝑀𝑀∅ = (2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 2 + 4𝑦𝑦)𝑦𝑦 −2 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 −1 + 2 + 4𝑦𝑦 −1

𝑁𝑁∅ = (𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 1)𝑦𝑦 −2 = 1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 −2 − 4𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 −2 − 𝑦𝑦 −2

8
Name: Class Number:

Lesson 7: First Ordered Linear Differential Equations and its Materials:

Solution Ballpoint and notebook
Lesson Objectives:
References:
https://www.math.tamu.edu/~zelenko/Enri
Upon completion of this lesson, you can: chment_w2_2.pdf
1. Transform a given DE to a possible standard form of first ordered
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-
linear differential equation
guides/differential-equations/first-order-
2. Find the integrating factor for a first ordered linear differential
equations/integrating-factors
equation
3. Solve a first ordered linear differential equation by the use of given Zamora, John T. Module in MATH 311
or found integrating factor Differential Equations
Productivity Tip:
Test Yourself.
Every time you review something, include an element of testing. This will uncover any
gaps in your knowledge, highlight key areas that you need to focus on, and reinforce your
learning. For example, use a review app for testing yourself or create your own quizzes.
This enables you to increase the range of information you can review.
Let us now check on a type of first ordered differential equation (FOLDE) that can be solved by
determining first its proper integrating factor but in a simpler way than the case of non-exact DE.
But let us do Activity 1 first.
1. What is the formula for finding

the integrating factor?
2. How many cases are there in

solving a FOLDE?

1
Name: Class Number:

B. MAIN LESSON
FIRST ORDERED LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
For a given a differential equation of first order, it can be written in the standard form of
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 𝑦𝑦𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥) − − − (1),
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where P and Q are both functions of x, the independent variable.
However, for the case where y is the independent variable, P and Q will be both functions of y, and
equation (1) will be written as follows:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 𝑥𝑥𝑷𝑷(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑸𝑸(𝑦𝑦) − − − (1. a)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
DETERMINATION OF THE INTEGRATION FACTOR AND SOLUTION OF FOLDE

The general solution of equation (1) using integration factor is as follows:
1. Write equation (1) in the form of 𝑴𝑴(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑵𝑵(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 = 0.
[𝑦𝑦𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥)]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑵𝑵(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 1
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦)
Note: � = 𝑦𝑦𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥)� ≠ � = 0� a non − exact form
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
2. Determine the possible integrating factor.

Say try Case 1 where ∅ = ∅(𝑥𝑥).
1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1
𝑓𝑓(x) = � − � = [𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥) − 0] = 𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥) ; a function of 𝑥𝑥 alone
𝑁𝑁 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1
So, the I.F. is ∅ = ∅(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

3. Multiply the differential equation in the form from step [1] by the integrating factor found in step [2].
[𝑦𝑦∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥) − ∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥)]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑦𝑦∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 − ∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑦𝑦∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑�𝑦𝑦𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4. Integrate both sides of the equation from step [3] and simplify.
� 𝑑𝑑�𝑦𝑦𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � = � 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑦𝑦∅(𝑥𝑥) = � ∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶

Remark: The general solution of the D.E. in the form of equation (1.a) is of the form 𝑥𝑥∅ = ∫ ∅𝑄𝑄(y)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
where ∅ = ∅(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(y)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the integrating factor.

2
Name: Class Number:

SOLVING A FIRST ORDERED LINEAR DE
Example 1. For the given DE, do the following:

�𝒙𝒙𝟒𝟒 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐�𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 − 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 = 𝟎𝟎
a. Identify if the DE can be written in a standard form of FOLDE;
b. Find its integrating factor if it is standard FOLDE;
c. Determine its general solution.
Procedure:
a. 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (𝑥𝑥 4 + 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0, divide the given DE by 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥:
𝑥𝑥 4 2𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ − =0
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Simplify and rearrange carefully as follows:

2𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 3 + − =0
𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑦 � � =
𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
+ 𝑦𝑦 �− � = 𝑥𝑥 3
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Hence, it is a FOLDE in a standard form of case equation (1): + 𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚(𝒙𝒙) = 𝑸𝑸(𝒙𝒙).
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
b. Based on the format of its standard form, we can determine the 𝑃𝑃 function that is with respect to 𝑥𝑥,
𝟐𝟐
that is 𝑷𝑷(𝒙𝒙) = − and that we can also easily calculate the integrating factor (IF) using the formula
𝒙𝒙
∅(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
2
� 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � �− � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −2𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑥𝑥 | = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑥𝑥 |−2
𝑥𝑥
𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −2
∅(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ = ∅(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑥𝑥|
Integrating factor (IF) is ∅(𝒙𝒙) = 𝒙𝒙−𝟐𝟐
c. Again, by correspondence with the format or case of the standard form in equation (1), we have the
𝑄𝑄 function in terms of 𝑥𝑥 as 𝑄𝑄(x) = 𝑥𝑥 3 . Also, the form of the general solution follows as
𝑦𝑦∅(𝑥𝑥) = � ∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 −2 = � 𝑥𝑥 −2 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑥𝑥 −2 𝑦𝑦 = � 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
General solution is 𝒙𝒙−𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 = + 𝑪𝑪.
𝟐𝟐

3
Name: Class Number:

Example 2. Find the particular solution to the following differential equation with 𝑦𝑦 = 1 when 𝑥𝑥 = 1.
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = (3𝑦𝑦2 − 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Procedure:
From 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = (3𝑦𝑦2 − 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, divide the given DE by 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥 3𝑦𝑦2 − 2
− =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
Simplify and rearrange carefully as follows:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 3𝑦𝑦2 − 2
− 𝑥𝑥 � � =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2
+ 𝑥𝑥 �− � = 3𝑦𝑦 −
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Hence, it is a FOLDE in a standard form of case equation (1.a): + 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙(𝒚𝒚) = 𝑸𝑸(𝒚𝒚).
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Based on the format of its standard form, we can determine the 𝑃𝑃 function that is with respect to
𝟐𝟐
𝑦𝑦, that is 𝑷𝑷(𝒚𝒚) = − and that we can also easily calculate the integrating factor (IF) using the formula
𝒚𝒚
∅(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(y)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
2
� 𝑃𝑃(y)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � �− � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −2𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑦𝑦| = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑦𝑦|−2
𝑦𝑦
𝑃𝑃(y)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −2
∅(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ = ∅(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙|𝑦𝑦|
Integrating factor (IF) is ∅(𝒚𝒚) = 𝒚𝒚−𝟐𝟐
Again, by correspondence with the format or case of the standard form in equation (1.a), we
2
have the 𝑄𝑄 function in terms of 𝑦𝑦 as 𝑄𝑄(y) = 3𝑦𝑦 − . Also, the form of the general solution follows as
𝑦𝑦
𝑥𝑥∅(𝑦𝑦) = � ∅(𝑦𝑦)𝑄𝑄(𝑦𝑦) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶

2
𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 −2 = � 𝑦𝑦 −2 �3𝑦𝑦 − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑦𝑦
3 2
𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 −2 = � � − 3 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
𝑦𝑦 −2
𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 −2 = 3 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 |𝑦𝑦| − 2 � � + 𝐶𝐶
−2
General solution is 𝒙𝒙𝒚𝒚−𝟐𝟐 = 𝟑𝟑 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 |𝒚𝒚| + 𝟏𝟏 + 𝑪𝑪.
For the boundary condition that 𝑦𝑦 = 1 when 𝑥𝑥 = 1 to find the value of the arbitrary constant C, we will
have a substitution as follows:
1(1)−2 = 3 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 |1| + 1 + 𝑪𝑪.
1 = 3(0) + 1 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑪𝑪 = 𝟎𝟎
Hence, the particular solution of the given DE, which is a FOLDE, is 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 −2 = 𝟑𝟑 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 |𝒚𝒚| + 𝟏𝟏.

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1
For the given differential equation (3𝑥𝑥 − 1)𝑦𝑦 ′ = 6𝑦𝑦 − 10(3𝑥𝑥 − 1)3 do the following:
a. Find the 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄 functions of a FOLDE in standard form
b. Solve the integrating factor


For the given differential equation (3𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 − 4)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, do the following:
a. Find the 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄 functions of a FOLDE in standard form
c. Find the general solution
C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs
1. What is the standard form of a first ordered linear differential equation?
Ans.: Either + 𝑦𝑦𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥) or + 𝑥𝑥𝑷𝑷(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑸𝑸(𝑦𝑦)
2. Is there a hint to finding the integrating factor?

Ans.: Yes, the simple hint is that it is a function that has the same reference independent variable with 𝑷𝑷
and 𝑸𝑸 functions from the standard form of FOLDE. Moreover, it is dependent on the value of 𝑃𝑃 function.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
2
a. 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) = −6(3𝑥𝑥 − 1)−1 and 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥) = −10(3𝑥𝑥 − 1)−3
b. ∅ = ∅(𝒙𝒙) = (3𝑥𝑥 − 1)−2
a. 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) = 3(𝑥𝑥 + 1)−1 and 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥) = 4(𝑥𝑥 + 1)−2
b. ∅ = ∅(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 + 1)3
c. y(𝑥𝑥 + 1)3 = 2(𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝐶𝐶

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Name: Class Number:

Lesson 8: Bernoulli Differential Equations and its Solution Materials:

Lesson Objectives: Ballpoint and notebook
1. Transform a given DE to a possible standard form of Bernoulli References:
differential equation https://brilliant.org/wiki/bernoullis-
2. Find the integrating factor for a first ordered linear differential equation/
https://www.math.tamu.edu/~zelenko/Enri
equation chment_w2_2.pdf
3. Solve a Bernoulli differential equation by the use of given or found https://www.mathsisfun.com/calculus/diffe
integrating factor rential-equations-bernoulli.html
Productivity Tip:
Batch similar tasks.
Instead of working on tasks from different areas of your lessons, spend large chunks
of each day – perhaps an entire day – working on similar tasks. The main idea behind
this is to collect up a group of similar activities and do them all in one swoop. You can
work efficiently on multiple tasks without losing your flow if the activities require
similar mindsets. This will also help you manage your time effectively.
The Bernoulli differential equation is a non-linear differential equation that can be reduced to
a linear one or the form of FOLDE by a clever substitution, which can be solved explicitly. The
Bernoulli equation was one of the first differential equations to be solved, and is still one of very few
non-linear differential equations that can be solved explicitly. Most other such equations either have
no solutions, or solutions that cannot be written in a closed form, but the Bernoulli equation is an
exception.
But let us have Activity 1 first.

the integrating factor of a
Bernoulli DE?
2. What classification of DE is
Bernoulli DE similar with?

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B. MAIN LESSON
BERNOULLI DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

The Bernoulli differential equation is an equation of the form which can be written in the standard
form of
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 𝑦𝑦𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥) − − − (1),
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where P and Q are both functions of 𝑥𝑥, the independent variable and 𝑛𝑛 is any real number such that 𝑛𝑛 ≠
0 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 1. For if 𝑛𝑛 = 1, equation (1) reduces to a differential equation that has separable variables while
for 𝑛𝑛 = 0, the equation can be solved as a FOLDE.
However, for the case where 𝑦𝑦 is the independent variable, P and Q will be both functions of 𝑦𝑦, and
equation (1) will be written as follows:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 𝑥𝑥𝑷𝑷(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 𝑸𝑸(𝑦𝑦) − − − (1. a)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
TRANSFORMATION OF A BERNOULLI DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

In order to solve these Bernoulli DEs of the form of equation (1), we’ll first consider to divide the differential
equation by 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 to get,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦 −𝑛𝑛 + 𝑦𝑦 1−𝑛𝑛 𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥 ) − − − (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We are now going to use the variable substitution 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑦𝑦1−𝑛𝑛 to convert this into a differential equation
in terms of 𝑧𝑧. As we’ll see this will lead to a differential equation that we can solve.
We are going to have to be careful with this however when it comes to dealing with the derivative, 𝑦𝑦 ′ =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We need to determine just what 𝒚𝒚′ is in terms of our substitution. This is easier to do than it might at
.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
first look to be. All that we need to do is to differentiate both sides of our substitution with respect to 𝑥𝑥.
Remember that both 𝑧𝑧 and 𝑦𝑦 are functions of 𝑥𝑥 and so we’ll need to use the chain rule on the right side.
If you remember your Calculus I you’ll recall this is just implicit differentiation. So, taking the derivative
gives us,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑧𝑧 ′ = (1 − 𝑛𝑛)𝑦𝑦 −𝑛𝑛 → 𝑦𝑦 −𝑛𝑛 =� �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 − 𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Now, plugging this as well as our substitution into the differential equation gives,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦 −𝑛𝑛 + 𝑦𝑦 1−𝑛𝑛 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� � + 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥)
1 − 𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
After multiplying both sides of the equation we have

𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
+ 𝒛𝒛(𝟏𝟏 − 𝒏𝒏)𝑷𝑷(𝒙𝒙) = (𝟏𝟏 − 𝒏𝒏)𝑸𝑸(𝒙𝒙) − − − (3)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

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This is a linear differential equation that we can solve for 𝑧𝑧 and once we have this in hand we can also
get the solution to the original differential equation by plugging 𝑧𝑧 back into our substitution and solving
for 𝑦𝑦.
Now, let us see the transformation to FOLDE!
Going back to the above equation (3), and we can let the substitution as follows:
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 (𝑥𝑥) = (1 − 𝑛𝑛)𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥)
𝑄𝑄𝑟𝑟 (𝑥𝑥) = (1 − 𝑛𝑛)𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥)
And therefore, we reduced the above equation (3) as
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
+ 𝒛𝒛𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓(𝒙𝒙) = 𝑸𝑸𝒓𝒓 (𝒙𝒙) − − − (𝟒𝟒)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Which is a form of first ordered differential equation linear in x!
DETERMINATION OF THE INTEGRATION FACTOR AND SOLUTION
To find the integrating factor (I.F.) of the transformed Bernoulli DE in equation (4), we will follow the
procedure in FOLDE, that is,
∅ = ∅(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 (𝒙𝒙)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

And its general solution is of the form as follows:
𝑧𝑧∅(𝑥𝑥) = � ∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑸𝑸𝒓𝒓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
Or
𝑧𝑧𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 (𝒙𝒙)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 (𝒙𝒙)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑸𝑸𝒓𝒓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
Moreover, for the case where the Bernoulli DE is in the standard form as in equation (1.a), we have it’s
the substitution to 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 1−𝑛𝑛 , the integrating factor I.F. as ∅ = ∅(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 (𝒚𝒚)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , and the corresponding
general solution as
𝑧𝑧∅ = � ∅𝑸𝑸𝒓𝒓 (𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑧𝑧𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 (𝒚𝒚)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 (𝒚𝒚)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑸𝑸𝒓𝒓(𝑦𝑦) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
The idea behind the Bernoulli equation is the substitution of the independent variable with another
variable say, 𝒛𝒛.

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SOLVING A BERNOULLI DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

Example 1. For the given DE, do the following:
�𝒙𝒙𝟓𝟓 𝒚𝒚𝟕𝟕 − 𝒙𝒙𝟓𝟓 𝒚𝒚�𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 − 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟎𝟎
a. Find its integrating factor;
b. Determine its general solution.
Procedure:
a. 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (𝑥𝑥 5 𝑦𝑦 7 − 𝑥𝑥 5 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, you try to divide the given DE by 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 but I recommend that we
divide the given DE by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 so that we arrive at
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 5 𝑦𝑦 7 − 𝑥𝑥 5 𝑦𝑦 − =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The idea that we should have in solving Bernoulli is that we need to transform it to a form of
FOLDE. And so we continue to rearrange carefully as follows:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 5 𝑦𝑦 7 = + 𝑥𝑥 5 𝑦𝑦
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 5 = 𝑦𝑦 7 𝑥𝑥 5 − − − (𝑎𝑎)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Hence, it is a standard form of equation (1): + 𝑦𝑦𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥).
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Then, based on the discussion above let us first identify the value of 𝑛𝑛 to set the value of 𝒛𝒛.
Looking at equation (a), and by correspondence, we will let 𝒏𝒏 = 𝟕𝟕 and so we have:

𝒛𝒛 = 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏−𝒏𝒏 = 𝒚𝒚𝟏𝟏−𝟕𝟕 = 𝒚𝒚−𝟔𝟔
After this, we can solve the reduced function

𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 (𝑥𝑥) = (1 − 𝑛𝑛)𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) = −6(𝑥𝑥 5 )
5 �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (−6)𝑥𝑥6 𝟔𝟔
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 → 𝐼𝐼. 𝐹𝐹. 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 (𝒙𝒙)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 ∫�−6𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 6 = 𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 (𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨)
b. And to continue with the 𝑄𝑄𝑟𝑟 (𝑥𝑥) = (1 − 𝑛𝑛)𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥) = −6(𝑥𝑥 5 )
Therefore, we reduced the above equation (a) as
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
+ 𝒛𝒛𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 (𝒙𝒙) = 𝑸𝑸𝒓𝒓 (𝒙𝒙)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 𝑧𝑧(−6𝑥𝑥 5 ) = (−6𝑥𝑥 5 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

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Also, the form of the general solution follows as:

𝑧𝑧𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 (𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑄𝑄𝑟𝑟 (𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
6 6
𝑦𝑦 −6 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = � 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 (−6𝑥𝑥 5 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶 | � 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 6 ; 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 6𝑥𝑥 5 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
6 6
𝑦𝑦 −6 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶
6 𝟔𝟔
or by dividing by 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝒚𝒚−𝟔𝟔 = −𝟏𝟏 + 𝑪𝑪𝒆𝒆−𝒙𝒙 (𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨, 𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺)
Example 2. Solve = + 𝑥𝑥 9 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦
Procedure:
Rearrange the given DE as follows:
− = 𝑥𝑥 9
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 −𝟏𝟏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

+ 𝒙𝒙 � � = 𝒙𝒙𝟗𝟗 (𝟏𝟏) | 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 (1. 𝑎𝑎) + 𝑥𝑥𝑷𝑷(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 𝑸𝑸(𝑦𝑦)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒚𝒚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 = 9 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 1−𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥 −8
After this, we can solve the reduced function

1
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 (𝑦𝑦) = (1 − 𝑛𝑛)𝑃𝑃(𝑦𝑦) = −
𝑦𝑦
1
∫�−𝑦𝑦�𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −1 �
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 → 𝐼𝐼. 𝐹𝐹. 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 (𝒚𝒚)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙�𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 −1 (𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰)
And so, with the 𝑄𝑄(𝑦𝑦) = 1 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 0 = 1

𝑄𝑄𝑟𝑟 (𝑦𝑦) = (1 − 𝑛𝑛)𝑄𝑄(𝑦𝑦) = −8
Therefore, we reduced the above equation (a) as

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 𝑧𝑧𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 (𝑦𝑦) = 𝑄𝑄𝑟𝑟 (𝑦𝑦)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
+ 𝑧𝑧 �− � = −8
Also, the form of the general solution follows as

𝑧𝑧𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 (𝒚𝒚)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑷𝑷𝒓𝒓 (𝒚𝒚)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑸𝑸𝒓𝒓 (𝑦𝑦) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑥𝑥 −8 𝑦𝑦 −1 = � 𝑦𝑦 −1 (−8) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
The general solution is
𝒙𝒙−𝟖𝟖 𝒚𝒚−𝟏𝟏 = −𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒚𝒚 + 𝑪𝑪

5
Name: Class Number:

For the given differential equation (𝑥𝑥 5 + 3𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0 do the following:
a. Find the integrating factor
b. General Solution


𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
For the given differential equation 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + = 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, do the following:
𝑥𝑥
a. Find the reduced functions of 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄
c. Determine the general solution
C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQ
1. What is the purpose of the variable substitution in finding the integrating factor and solution of
Bernoulli differential equation?
Ans.: To transform the Bernoulli differential equation to a form of a first ordered linear differential equation
where one can find the integrating factor and solve the DE in a similar way.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
a. ∅ = ∅(𝒙𝒙) = 𝑥𝑥 −3
1
b. 𝑥𝑥 −3 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝐶
2

−1
a. 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 (𝑥𝑥) = and 𝑄𝑄𝑟𝑟 (𝑥𝑥) = −3𝑥𝑥 −2
𝑥𝑥
b. ∅ = ∅(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 −1
3
c. 𝑥𝑥 −1 𝑦𝑦 −1 = − 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝐶
2

6
Name: Class Number:

Lesson 9: Differential Equations with Coefficients Linear in Two Materials:

Variables and its Solution Ballpoint and notebook
Lesson Objectives:
Upon completion of this lesson, you can: References:
1. Determine the case of a given differential equation with https://www.math.tamu.edu/~zelenko/Enri
coefficients linear in two variables chment_w2_2.pdf
2. Find the solution to a given differential equation with coefficients
Zamora, John T. Module in MATH 311
linear in two variables
Differential Equations
Productivity Tip:
Limit your focus.
While multitasking may seem like a great way to get a lot done quickly, it turns out that people
are actually rather bad at it. Juggling multiple tasks at once can dramatically cut down on
productivity and makes it much harder to hone in on the details that are truly important. Part of
improving your mental focus is all about making the most of the resources you have available.
Minimize multitasking and give your full attention to one thing at a time.
At this point in time, how do you feel when I tell you that this topic will be the last topic concerning
the classification of a differential equation and determination of the corresponding solution. But this is not
our last lesson for the course.
In this lesson, we will recall and use the principles of parallel lines and intersecting lines from
analytic geometry to determine the case of a differential equation with coefficients linear in two variables.
But let us do this first.
Write two equations of parallel lines?
Formulate two equations of intersecting lines.

1. How can you identify a DE with
coefficients linear in two variables?
2. What possible classification of DE
that we previously discussed does
a DE with coefficients linear in two
variables becomes when it
considers a third case?

1
Name: Class Number:

B. MAIN LESSON
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WITH COEFFICIENTS LINEAR IN TWO VARIABLES
The standard form of a first ordered D.E. having coefficients linear in two variables, say, 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦, is as
follows:
(𝐴𝐴1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝑦𝑦 + 𝐶𝐶1 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (𝐴𝐴2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝐶𝐶2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 − − − −(1)
𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒: 𝐴𝐴1 , 𝐴𝐴2 , 𝐵𝐵1 , 𝐵𝐵2 , 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Remark: If 𝐶𝐶1 = 𝐶𝐶2 = 0 , equation (1) reduces to a D.E. with coefficients linear in 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 and also
homogeneous of degree 1.
If the coefficients of differentials 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 in equation (1) are equated to zero, both equations will
represent straight lines, that is,
𝐴𝐴1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝑦𝑦 + 𝐶𝐶1 = 0
- - - - (2)
𝐴𝐴2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝐶𝐶2 = 0
The two cases as mentioned will be treated as
Case 1: When equation (2) represents two non-identical parallel lines.
Case 2: When equation (2) represents two non-parallel lines with 𝐶𝐶1 and/or 𝐶𝐶2 are not equal to zero.
Remark: The third possible case is similar to Case 2 except that 𝐶𝐶1 = 𝐶𝐶2 = 0, which is eventually a
homogeneous differential equation (HDE) of degree 1.
SOLVING A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WITH COEFFICIENTS LINEAR IN TWO VARIABLES
Solution to Case 1. (PARALLEL LINES)
a. For the lines of equation (2) to be parallel, we must have 𝐴𝐴2 = 𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴1 and 𝐵𝐵2 = 𝑘𝑘𝐵𝐵1 , where k is the
proportionality constant. Substitution of these conditions to equation(1) gives
(𝐴𝐴1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝑦𝑦 + 𝐶𝐶1 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + {𝑘𝑘(𝐴𝐴1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝑦𝑦) + 𝐶𝐶2 }𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 − − − (3)
𝑣𝑣−𝐴𝐴1 𝑥𝑥 1
b. Let 𝑣𝑣 = 𝐴𝐴1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦 = such that 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝐴𝐴1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑).
𝐵𝐵1 𝐵𝐵1
1
Then equation (3) becomes (𝑣𝑣 + 𝐶𝐶1 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝐶𝐶2 ) (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝐴𝐴1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) =0
𝐵𝐵1
c. Separation of variables leads to
(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝐶𝐶2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + = 0.
𝐵𝐵1 (𝑣𝑣 + 𝐶𝐶1 ) − 𝐴𝐴1 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝐶𝐶2 )
d. Integration of the above equation will be the solution in the form of 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑣𝑣) or 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 0
e. Finally, the solution of gives the required solution equation in terms of the original variables 𝑥𝑥 and
𝑦𝑦.

2
Name: Class Number:

Solution to Case 2. (INTERSECTING LINES)
a. The simultaneous solution of equation (2) gives the point of intersection of these non-parallel lines
say (ℎ, 𝑘𝑘).
b. Let 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑢 + ℎ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑘𝑘 such that 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
c. Substitution of the above equations in equation (2) gives
(𝐴𝐴1 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝑣𝑣 = 0 and 𝐴𝐴2 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐵𝐵2 𝑣𝑣 = 0) − − − −(4)
Remark: Since (h,k) is a common point to the lines in equation (4), the terms involving the h’s in the
D.E. with coefficients linear in x and y, the k’s vanish after the substitution as may be seen in equation
(4).
Using equation (4), equation (1) now takes the form of (𝐴𝐴1 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝑣𝑣)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (𝐴𝐴2 𝑢𝑢 + 𝐵𝐵2 𝑣𝑣)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 which is
a homogeneous equation of degree 1. As such, the solution to this type of D.E. has been previously
discussed.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Example 1. For the given DE with coefficients linear in two variables, do the following:
(2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 + 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
a. Identify if the case of the DE
Procedure:
a. Considering the coefficient of the differentials 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and equating each to zero, then we set
equations of line as follows:
𝐴𝐴1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝑦𝑦 + 𝐶𝐶1 = 0 → 2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 − 1 = 0 − − − (1)
𝐴𝐴2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝐶𝐶2 = 0 → 2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 + 2 = 0 − − − (2)
Looking at the two equations, both have the same coefficient for x and for y, that is, based on the
discussions above before this example, we can show that if there exist a proportionality constant 𝒌𝒌
such that
𝐴𝐴1 𝐵𝐵1 𝐴𝐴2 𝐵𝐵2
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑘𝑘 =
𝐴𝐴2 𝐵𝐵2 𝐴𝐴1 𝐵𝐵1
Then, the case that the coefficients equated to zero represents parallel lines.
In this problem,
𝐴𝐴1 2 𝐵𝐵1 3
= = 𝟏𝟏 = 𝒌𝒌 = =
𝐴𝐴2 2 𝐵𝐵2 3
Then, there exist as 𝒌𝒌 = 𝟏𝟏, we have a case that the coefficients equated to zero represents
parallel lines.

3
Name: Class Number:

b. To start determining the general solution, let us consider the variable substitution in the following
manner:
Let 𝒗𝒗 = 𝐴𝐴1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵1 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 3𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1
And if we want x in terms of y, let us consider 𝒅𝒅𝑥𝑥 = (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 3𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
2
Then, do substitute the above in the given DE and continue simplifying until my next question.
(2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 + 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
1
(𝑣𝑣 − 1) (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 3𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) + (𝑣𝑣 + 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
2
(𝑣𝑣 − 1)(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 3𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) + 2(𝑣𝑣 + 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
(𝑣𝑣 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 3(𝑣𝑣 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 2(𝑣𝑣 + 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
(𝑣𝑣 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + [−3(𝑣𝑣 − 1) + 2(𝑣𝑣 + 2)]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
(𝑣𝑣 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (−3𝑣𝑣 + 3 + 2𝑣𝑣 + 4)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
(𝑣𝑣 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (−𝑣𝑣 + 7)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Stop! Look and observe at the last equation we have simplified. Can you tell something about it?
Can you confirm that it is leading to a DE that has separable variables?
If YES, we proceed as follows up to integration process:
𝑣𝑣 − 1
� � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
−𝑣𝑣 + 7
𝑣𝑣 − 1
−� � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑣𝑣 − 7
𝑣𝑣 −1
−� + � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑣𝑣 − 7 𝑣𝑣 − 7
(𝑣𝑣 − 7) + 7 1
−� − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑣𝑣 − 7 𝑣𝑣 − 7
𝑣𝑣 − 7 7 1
−� + − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑣𝑣 − 7 𝑣𝑣 − 7 𝑣𝑣 − 7
7 1
− �1 + − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑣𝑣 − 7 𝑣𝑣 − 7
7 1
− � �1 + − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑣𝑣 − 7 𝑣𝑣 − 7
6
− � �1 + � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑣𝑣 − 7
−[𝒗𝒗 + 𝟔𝟔 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥(𝒗𝒗 − 𝟕𝟕)] + 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑪𝑪 − − − (𝟑𝟑)
substituting back to the original variables 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦, we recall from above the following:
𝒗𝒗 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
To equation (3),
−[2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 + 6 ln(2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 − 7)] + 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐶𝐶
−2𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 − 6 ln(2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 − 7) + 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐶𝐶
𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻, 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝟔𝟔 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 − 𝟕𝟕) = 𝑪𝑪.

4
Name: Class Number:

Example 2. For the given DE with coefficients linear in two variables, do the following:
(𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 − 4)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − (2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 − 5)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
c. Identify if the case of the DE
d. Determine its general solution.
Procedure:
a. Considering the coefficient of the differentials 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and equating each to zero, then we set
equations of line as follows:
𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 − 4 = 0 − − − (1)
2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 − 5 = 0 − − − (2)
Case is with coefficients representing lines that are not parallel. So, let us find the point of
intersection (h, k).
Now, the next step is to find the point of intersection (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = (ℎ, 𝑘𝑘) of the two formulated lines in
equations (1) and (2). So, we solve the variables 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 as follows:
From equation (2): 𝒚𝒚 = 𝟓𝟓 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − − − (3)

then substitute in equation (1): 𝑥𝑥 + 2(−5 − 2𝑥𝑥) − 4 = 0 → 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐
With the derived value of 𝑥𝑥, substitute it in equation (3): 𝑦𝑦 = 5 − 2(2), 𝒚𝒚 = 𝟏𝟏
Here, we assign or set the derived 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 to be the point of intersection as follows:
(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = (𝒉𝒉, 𝒌𝒌) = (𝟐𝟐, 𝟏𝟏)
b. To start determining the general solution, let me ask you first.
Question: What should we do with this (𝒉𝒉, 𝒌𝒌) = (𝟐𝟐, 𝟏𝟏)?
The answer is a procedure and it goes like this….
Let us use the technique we have used in previous lessons, that is called as variable substitution,
the first two of the three variable substitution are as follows:
Let 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒖𝒖 + 𝒉𝒉 = 𝑢𝑢 + 2 → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒗𝒗 + 𝒌𝒌 = 𝑣𝑣 + 1 → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Then the given DE becomes

(𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 − 4)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − (2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 − 5)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
[𝒖𝒖 + 𝟐𝟐 + 2(𝒗𝒗 + 𝟏𝟏) − 4]𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 − [2(𝒖𝒖 + 𝟐𝟐) + (𝒗𝒗 + 𝟏𝟏) − 5]𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 0
[𝑢𝑢 + 2 + 2𝑣𝑣 + 2 − 4]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − [2𝑢𝑢 + 4 + 𝑣𝑣 + 1 − 5]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0

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[𝒖𝒖 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐]𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 − [𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝒗𝒗]𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟎𝟎 − − − (𝟒𝟒)
STOP! Let us analyze the last equation before this statement.
Look at it and carefully assess visually. Can you tell the classification of this DE?
Hmmm.
Are we on the same side? Are you thinking of homogeneous DE? If yes, then you
correct!
Can you tell the degree of this homogeneous DE in equation (4)?
True that it is of degree 1.
Let us proceed then with the third variable substitution using 𝒛𝒛. The first two variable substitution
that we used above are 𝑢𝑢 and 𝑣𝑣.
Here, we have to choose one, either use

𝒖𝒖 = 𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 → 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 + 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝒗𝒗 = 𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 → 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 + 𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖
Now, if we choose the first pair which means that “𝒖𝒖 is in terms of 𝒗𝒗”, [ I encourage you to try on
your own the other pair of substitution]
Then we see that equation (4) becomes equation (5) as shown below.
[𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 + 2𝑣𝑣](𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 + 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 ) − [𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝑣𝑣]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 − − − (𝟓𝟓)
Simplifying further, [ Recall that the use of variable substitution in homogenous DE is to transform
it to a DE with separable variables]
Question: What do we expect from here?

YES, we can factor out a common variable that is expected to be of same degree
as the homogeneous DE which is of degree one!
What is that common variable? v of 1st degree
𝒗𝒗[𝒛𝒛 + 2](𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 + 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 ) − 𝒗𝒗[𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 1]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Then, we divide by the v of 1st degree and the result is

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[𝒛𝒛 + 2](𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 + 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 ) − [𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 1]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Let us continue to transform the equation to become a DE with separable variables as mentioned
in the above sentence.
[𝑧𝑧 + 2]𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 + [𝑧𝑧 + 2]𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 − [2𝑧𝑧 + 1]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
[𝑧𝑧 2 + 2𝑧𝑧]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + [𝑧𝑧 + 2]𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 − [2𝑧𝑧 + 1]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
Rearrange terms to combine under one differential 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑:

[𝑧𝑧 2 + 2𝑧𝑧]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − [2𝑧𝑧 + 1]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + [𝑧𝑧 + 2]𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 0
[𝑧𝑧 2 + 2𝑧𝑧 − (2𝑧𝑧 + 1)]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + [𝑧𝑧 + 2]𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 0
[𝑧𝑧 2 − 1]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + [𝑧𝑧 + 2]𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 0
Then after separating the variables, we have
1 𝑧𝑧 + 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 2 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑣𝑣 𝑧𝑧 − 1
Then prepare for integration as follows:
𝟏𝟏 𝒛𝒛 + 𝟐𝟐
� 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 + � � 𝟐𝟐 � 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟎𝟎 − − − (6)
𝒗𝒗 𝒛𝒛 − 𝟏𝟏
Integration Integration by
leading to ln partial fractions
Let us set aside the whole integrable function

and focus on the function to be integrated using 𝒛𝒛 + 𝟐𝟐 = 𝑨𝑨(𝒛𝒛 − 𝟏𝟏) + 𝑩𝑩(𝒛𝒛 + 𝟏𝟏)
integration by partial fractions. For 𝒛𝒛 = 𝟏𝟏: 1 + 2 = 𝐴𝐴(1 − 1) + 𝐵𝐵(1 + 1)
→ 𝑩𝑩 = 𝟑𝟑/𝟐𝟐
𝑧𝑧 + 2 𝑧𝑧 + 2 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 For 𝒛𝒛 = −𝟏𝟏: − 1 + 2 = 𝐴𝐴(−1 − 1) + 𝐵𝐵(−1 + 1)
2 = = +
𝑧𝑧 − 1 (𝑧𝑧 + 1)(𝑧𝑧 − 1) 𝑧𝑧 + 1 𝑧𝑧 − 1 → 𝑨𝑨 = −𝟏𝟏/𝟐𝟐
𝑧𝑧 + 2 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵
� = + � (𝑧𝑧 + 1)(𝑧𝑧 − 1)
(𝑧𝑧 + 1)(𝑧𝑧 − 1) 𝑧𝑧 + 1 𝑧𝑧 − 1
Now, let us go back to prepared integrable functions in equation (6).

1 𝑧𝑧 + 2
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + �� 2 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑣𝑣 𝑧𝑧 − 1
And have the substitution from partial fractions above as follows:

1 3
1 �− �
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + �� 2 + 2 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑣𝑣 𝑧𝑧 + 1 𝑧𝑧 − 1

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1 3
ln 𝑣𝑣 − ln (𝑧𝑧 + 1) + ln (𝑧𝑧 − 1) = 𝐶𝐶
2 2
After multiplying the equation by 2, we have
2 ln 𝑣𝑣 − ln (𝑧𝑧 + 1) + 3ln (𝑧𝑧 − 1) = 𝐶𝐶
After applying sum of ln and the coefficient of ln as power as properties applied
ln 𝑣𝑣 2 − ln (𝑧𝑧 + 1) + ln (𝑧𝑧 − 1)3 = 𝐶𝐶
𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 (𝒛𝒛 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟑𝟑
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 � � = 𝑪𝑪 − − − (𝟕𝟕)
𝒛𝒛 + 𝟏𝟏
Furthermore, substituting back to the original variables 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦, we recall from above the following:
𝒙𝒙 = 𝒖𝒖 + 2 → 𝒖𝒖 = 𝒙𝒙 − 𝟐𝟐 and 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒗𝒗 + 1 → 𝒗𝒗 = 𝒚𝒚 − 𝟏𝟏
𝒖𝒖 𝒙𝒙 − 𝟐𝟐
𝒖𝒖 = 𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 → 𝒛𝒛 = =
𝒗𝒗 𝒚𝒚 − 𝟏𝟏
To equation (7),
𝟑𝟑
⎧(𝒚𝒚 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟐𝟐 ��𝒙𝒙 − 𝟐𝟐� − 𝟏𝟏� ⎫
𝒚𝒚 − 𝟏𝟏
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 = 𝑪𝑪
⎨ 𝒙𝒙 − 𝟐𝟐 ⎬
+ 𝟏𝟏
⎩ 𝒚𝒚 − 𝟏𝟏 ⎭
Also, after applying the inverse function of ln which is the exponential “e” function on both sides of
the equation, we have
3
𝑥𝑥 − 2
(𝑦𝑦 − 1)2 �� − 1�
𝑦𝑦 − 1
= 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶
𝑥𝑥 − 2
+1
𝑦𝑦 − 1
If we want to simplify further, let us consider the following:
3
𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥 − 2
(𝑦𝑦 − 1)2 �� − 1� = 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶 � + 1�
𝑦𝑦 − 1 𝑦𝑦 − 1
𝑥𝑥 − 2 − (𝑦𝑦 − 1) 3 𝑥𝑥 − 2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 1)
(𝑦𝑦 − 1)2 � � = 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶 � �
𝑦𝑦 − 1 𝑦𝑦 − 1
𝑥𝑥 − 2 − 𝑦𝑦 + 1 3 𝑥𝑥 − 2 + 𝑦𝑦 − 1
(𝑦𝑦 − 1)2 � � = 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶 � �
𝑦𝑦 − 1 𝑦𝑦 − 1
(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 − 1)3 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 − 3
� (𝑦𝑦 − 1)2 3 = 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶 � � � (𝑦𝑦 − 1)
(𝑦𝑦 − 1) 𝑦𝑦 − 1
General solution is (𝒙𝒙 − 𝒚𝒚 − 𝟏𝟏)𝟑𝟑 = 𝒆𝒆𝑪𝑪 (𝒙𝒙 + 𝒚𝒚 − 𝟑𝟑).

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For the given DE with coefficients linear in two variables, do the following:
(6𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 + 2)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − (2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 − 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0

Proceed to What I Know Chat for this part.

For the given DE with coefficients linear in two variables, do the following:
(𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 5)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQs
1. What is the technique used in both cases of the DE with coefficients linear in two variables?
Ans.: variable substitution
2. What are the two classifications of DE that the transformation using the variable substitution will
lead us before integrating to be able to solve the DE itself?
Ans.: For the case of DE with coefficients representing parallel lines, variable substitution will lead to DE
with separable variables while for the case of DE with coefficients representing intersecting lines, the first
two variable substitution will lead to homogenous DE then the third variable substitution will lead to DE with
separable variables.
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
a. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 ∶ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
b. 3𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 − 5 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙| 2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 4| = 𝐶𝐶
a. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶: 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑦𝑦+1
b. ln|(𝑥𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦𝑦 + 1)2 | + 4 tan−1 � � = 𝐶𝐶
𝑥𝑥+2

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Name: Class Number:

Lesson 10: Basic Applications of Separable D.E. Materials: Ballpoint and notebook
(Exponential Growth/Decay and Newton's Law of Cooling) References:
https://byjus.com/jee/newtons-law-of-cooling/
Lesson Objectives: http://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/elementar
Upon completion of this lesson, you can: y-differential-equations/
1. Solve problems regarding decomposition or growth using a https://mathinsight.org/exponential_growth_de
cay_differential_equation_refresher
differential equation
https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Calcul
2. Solve problems applying a differential equation involving us/Book
Newton’s Law of Cooling
Productivity Tip:
Meditate.
Not only does meditation help keep you cool, calm, and collected but can also boost your
attention span significantly. Allow a 10-to-20-minute meditation a day and see improvements in
your attention after just four days. So, if you want the power to focus on your studies for hours
at a time, start your mornings off just focusing on your breath for a few minutes.
Modeling is the process of writing a differential equation to describe a physical situation. Almost
all of the differential equations that we will use in our life situations are there because somebody, at some
time, modeled a situation to come up with the differential equation that you are using.
This lesson is not intended to completely teach you how to go about modeling all physical
situations. A whole course could be devoted to the subject of modeling and still not cover everything! In all
of these situations we will be forced to make assumptions that do not accurately depict reality in most cases,
but without them the problems would be very difficult and beyond the scope of this discussion.
Since derivatives measure rates of change, a differential equation tells us about how one variable
changes with respect to another. In general, different starting values for the variables lead to different
solutions. Thus, when we use differential equations to model situations in the real world, we often also
have initial conditions for the variables, which determine a unique solution.
So, let’s get started with Activity 1.
1. What is the meaning of
constant half-life?
2. What is the formula for

Newton’s Law of Cooling?

1
Name: Class Number:

B. MAIN LESSON
GROWTH/DECAY: A Basic Application of Differential Equations with Separable Variables

Consider the equation
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
= 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 − − − (𝟏𝟏)
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Where, 𝑡𝑡 and 𝑥𝑥 are variables and 𝒌𝒌 is a constant with 𝑘𝑘 ≠ 0. As an equation involving derivatives, this is an
example of a differential equation. We often think of t as a measuring time, and 𝑥𝑥 as measuring something
positive quantity over time. That is, 𝑥𝑥 is a function of time.
If the constant 𝒌𝒌 is positive it has exponential growth and we call 𝒌𝒌 as continuous growth constant while
if 𝒌𝒌 is negative then it has exponential decay and we call 𝒌𝒌 as continuous decay constant.
Actually, there are many quantities in the real world that approximately obey an equation similar to this one,
as we will see shortly. We will first solve the equation in general.
To solve the differential equation in (1), we have to do the following:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
as a DE with separable variables
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
= 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
𝒙𝒙
And integrating it as
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
� = � 𝒌𝒌 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒙𝒙
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝐶𝐶
And applying the exponential function, the inverse function of ln,
𝑒𝑒 ln 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘+𝐶𝐶
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶 → 𝐶𝐶
𝒙𝒙 = 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
And at 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟎𝟎, 𝒙𝒙 = 𝑪𝑪.
Depending on whether 𝒌𝒌 is positive or negative, the quantity 𝒙𝒙 grows or decays with respect to 𝒕𝒕 as shown
in the following graphs.

2
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One of the most common applications of an exponential decay model is carbon dating. As a particular
example, Carbon-14 decays (emits a radioactive particle) at a regular and consistent exponential rate.
𝟏𝟏
Situations that exhibit exponential decay have a constant half-life is given by − 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍. Therefore, if we know
𝒌𝒌
how much carbon was originally present in an object and how much carbon remains, we can determine the age
of that object.
𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟎𝟎, 𝒙𝒙 = 𝑪𝑪
𝑪𝑪
then at some later time 𝒕𝒕 = 𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏 = 𝒕𝒕𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓 , 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐
𝑪𝑪
𝟐𝟐
= 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝒌𝒌𝒕𝒕𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓
𝟏𝟏
𝟐𝟐
= 𝒆𝒆𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓
𝟏𝟏
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝟐𝟐 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓
𝟏𝟏
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝟐𝟐 = 𝒌𝒌𝒕𝒕𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝟐𝟐−𝟏𝟏 = −𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐 = −𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝟐𝟐 = 𝒌𝒌𝒕𝒕𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓
𝟏𝟏
𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏 = 𝒕𝒕𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓 = − 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒌
Example 1: A colony of bacteria is growing exponentially. At time 𝑡𝑡 = 0 it has 10bacteria in it, and at
time 𝑡𝑡 = 4 minutes, it has 2,000. At what time will it have 100,000 bacteria?
Procedure:
Let 𝑡𝑡 = 0, 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐶𝐶 = 10 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
At 𝑡𝑡 = 4 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝑥𝑥 = 2,000 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

2000 = 10𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑘(4)
2,000
𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘(4) = = 200
10
1
𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘 = 2004

3
Name: Class Number:

At 𝑡𝑡 =? 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝑥𝑥 = 100,000 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝑡𝑡 1 𝑡𝑡
100,000 = 10𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘(𝑡𝑡) = 10�𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘 � = 10 �2004 �
1 𝑡𝑡 100,000
�2004 � = = 10,000
10
1 𝑡𝑡
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 �2004 � = ln 10,000
1
𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 �2004 � = ln 10,000
ln 10,000
𝑡𝑡 = 1
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 �2004 �
𝒕𝒕 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
Example 2: The half-life of carbon-14 is approximately 5,370 years. This means that after 5,370 years,
50 percent of the material has converted from the original carbon-14 to the new non-radioactive
nitrogen-14. Determine the following:
a. If today, we have 100 g carbon-14, how much is left after 50 years?
b. If an artifact that originally contained 100 g of carbon and today it only contains 10 g, how old is
it?
Procedure:
𝟏𝟏
a. Consider the system of constant half-life to have − 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍. Therefore, we have
𝒌𝒌
𝟏𝟏 −𝟏𝟏
𝟓𝟓, 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 = − 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 → 𝒌𝒌 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 < 𝟎𝟎
𝒌𝒌 𝟓𝟓, 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
Let it be at the time 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡0 = 0, 𝐶𝐶 = 100

So, the model equation will have an exponent that is negative in sign after substitution
Becomes
−𝟏𝟏
� 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍�𝒕𝒕
𝒙𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟓𝟓,𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
An in 50 years time, 𝑡𝑡 = 50
−1
� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2�50
𝑥𝑥 = 100𝑒𝑒 5,370
𝒙𝒙 = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒈𝒈
b. To be able to determine the age of the artifact, we must consider the amount of carbon today such
that
𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒈𝒈
−1
�5,370𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2�𝑡𝑡
And in 𝑥𝑥 = 100𝑒𝑒
−1
� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2�𝑡𝑡
10 = 100𝑒𝑒 5,370
10 �
−1
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2�𝑡𝑡
= 𝑒𝑒 5,370
100

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Applying the ln function to both sides of the equation, we have

10 �
−1
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2�𝑡𝑡
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 5,370
100
10 −1
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 =� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2� 𝑡𝑡
100 5,370
𝒕𝒕 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚
NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING: A Basic Application of Differential Equations with Separable

Variables
Newton’s law of cooling describes the rate at which an exposed body changes temperature
through radiation which is approximately proportional to the difference between the object’s temperature
and its surroundings, provided the difference is small.
According to Newton’s law of cooling, the temperature of the body changes at a rate that is directly
proportional to the difference in temperature between the outside medium and the body itself.
The greater the difference in temperature between the system and surrounding, the more rapidly
the heat is transferred, that is, the faster the body temperature of body changes.
Newton’s Law of Cooling Derivation

For small temperature difference between a body and its surrounding, the rate of cooling of the body is
directly proportional to the temperature difference and the surface area exposed
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∝ (𝑇𝑇 – 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 )]
From above expression, the differential equation is

𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
= −𝒌𝒌(𝑻𝑻 – 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 )
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
where:
• 𝑇𝑇 = temperature of body or object at any time 𝑡𝑡
• 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = temperature of the surrounding or ambient temperature
• 𝑘𝑘 = depends on the area and nature of the surface of the body under consideration.
Deriving Newton’s Law of Cooling Formula:
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
= −𝒌𝒌(𝑻𝑻 – 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 )
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇 – 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑇𝑇 – 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 ) = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑇𝑇 – 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 ) = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘+𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇 – 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶
𝑻𝑻 – 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 = 𝑪𝑪𝒆𝒆−𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 − − − (1)
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁: 𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶 → 𝐶𝐶
𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟎𝟎 → 𝑻𝑻 = 𝑻𝑻𝟎𝟎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (1)
𝑇𝑇0 – 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘(0) → 𝑪𝑪 = 𝑻𝑻𝟎𝟎 – 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔

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Hence, equation (1) becomes
𝑻𝑻 – 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 = (𝑻𝑻𝟎𝟎 – 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 )𝒆𝒆−𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌

Or
𝑻𝑻 = 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 + (𝑻𝑻𝟎𝟎 – 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 )𝒆𝒆−𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
Newton’s Law of Cooling Formula

𝑻𝑻(𝒕𝒕) = 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 + (𝑻𝑻𝟎𝟎 – 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 ) 𝒆𝒆−𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
where:
• 𝑡𝑡 = time,
• 𝑇𝑇(𝑡𝑡) = temperature of the given body at any time 𝑡𝑡 (temperature as a function of time)
• 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 = surrounding temperature,
• 𝑻𝑻𝟎𝟎 = initial temperature of the body,
• 𝑘𝑘 = constant.
Limitations of Newton’s Law of Cooling

a. The difference in temperature between the body and surroundings must be small;
b. The loss of heat from the body should be by radiation only;
c. The major limitation of Newton’s law of cooling is that the temperature of surroundings must remain
constant during the cooling of the body.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Example 1. A thermometer which has been at the reading of 70°F inside a house is placed outside where
the air temperature is 10°F. Three minutes later it is found that the thermometer reading is 25°F. Find the
thermometer reading after 6 minutes.
Given: 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 10°𝐹𝐹, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 = 0 → 𝑇𝑇0 = 70°𝐹𝐹
Procedure: 𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭: 𝑻𝑻 = 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 + (𝑻𝑻𝟎𝟎 – 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 )𝒆𝒆−𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
𝑇𝑇 = 10 + (70 – 10)𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑇𝑇 = 10 + 60𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
At 𝑡𝑡 = 3 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 → 𝑇𝑇 = 25°𝐹𝐹
25 = 10 + 60𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘(3)
25 − 10
𝑒𝑒 −3𝑘𝑘 = = 0.25
60
3
�𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘 � = 0.25
3 1
𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘 = √0.25 = 0.253
At 𝑡𝑡 = 6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 → 𝑇𝑇 = __? ___
𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇 = 10 + 60�𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘 �
1 6
𝑇𝑇 = 10 + 60 �0.253 �
𝑻𝑻 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕°𝑭𝑭

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Example 2. A thermometer reading 75 degrees Celsius is taken out where the temperature is 20 degrees
Celsius. The thermometer reading is 30 degrees Celsius 4 minutes later. Find the time (in minutes) taken
for the reading to drop from 75 degrees Celsius to within half degree of the air temperature.
Given: 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 20°𝐶𝐶, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 = 0 → 𝑇𝑇0 = 75°𝐶𝐶
Procedure: 𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭: 𝑻𝑻 = 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 + (𝑻𝑻𝟎𝟎 – 𝑻𝑻𝒔𝒔 )𝒆𝒆−𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
𝑇𝑇 = 20 + (75 – 20)𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
At 𝑡𝑡 = 4 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 → 𝑇𝑇 = 30°𝐶𝐶
30 = 20 + 55𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘(4)
30 − 20 10 2
𝑒𝑒 −4𝑘𝑘 = = =
55 55 11
−𝑘𝑘 4 2
�𝑒𝑒 � =
11
1
−𝑘𝑘
2 4
𝑒𝑒 = � �
11
At 𝑡𝑡 = ___ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 → 𝑇𝑇 = 20.5°𝐶𝐶
𝑡𝑡
20.5 = 20 + 55�𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘 �
1
2 4𝑡𝑡
0.5 = 55 � �
11
1
0.5 2 4𝑡𝑡
=� �
55 11
Applying 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 to the equation,
1
0.5 2 4𝑡𝑡
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �
55 11
0.5 1 2
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = �4𝑡𝑡� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �
55 11
0.5
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
1
𝑡𝑡 = 55
4 2
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �
11
𝒕𝒕 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
According to experienced baristas, the ideal temperature to serve coffee is between 155°F and 175°F.
Assuming that coffee is poured at a temperature of 200°F, and after 22 minutes in a 70°F room it has
cooled to 180°F, solve the following:
a. When is the coffee first cool enough to serve?
b. When is the coffee too cold to serve?


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Name: Class Number:


Suppose that an object initially having a temperature of 20 degrees Celsius is placed in a large
temperature-controlled room of 80 degrees Celsius and one hour later the object has a temperature of
35 degrees Celsius. What will its temperature be after three hours?
C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQ
1. How do we treat or assign the sign for “k” in the formula of exponential growth or decay?
Ans.: To rule out any confusion, for exponential growth, the formula or equation should be 𝒙𝒙 = 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 but for
exponential decay, we assign the negative as follows: 𝒙𝒙 = 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪−𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
a. 𝑡𝑡 = 2.5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
b. 𝑡𝑡 = 5.09 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

a. 54.69 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

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Name: Class Number:

Lesson 11: Mixing (Non reacting Fluids), Electric Circuits Materials: Ballpoint and notebook
References:
Lesson Objectives: https://www.intmath.com/differential-equations/5-
rl-circuits.php
Upon completion of this lesson, you can: https://www.dummies.com/education/science/scie
nce-electronics/analyze-a-parallel-rl-circuit-using-
1. Solve a problem in RL circuits applying a first ordered linear a-differential-equation/
differential equation http://www.cfm.brown.edu/people/dobrush/am33/
2. Solve a mixing problem applying a first ordered linear Mathematica/ch2/RC.html
differential equation http://www.math.ubc.ca/~israel/m215/mixing/
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/de/modelin
g.aspx
Productivity Tip:
Stay curious.
The more curious you are about the world, the greater the stamina of your concentration will be
when it comes to any endeavor. Charles Darwin was a master of this concept. He could discover
more and more about a single object by homing in on various details, examining it in different
ways, asking new questions. This is what the genius does, in whose hands a given topic
coruscates and grows.
We now move into two of the main applications of differential equations.
This lesson is not intended to completely teach you how to go about modeling all physical
situations. A whole course could be devoted to the subject of modeling and still not cover everything!
Also in here is a section designed to introduce you to the process of modeling and show you what is
involved in modeling. We will look at two different situations in this section: Mixing Problems and RL
electrical circuits.
So, let’s have a quick start.

1. What is the classification or

form of differential equation
that can be used in solving
mixing problems or RL
electrical circuits?
the concentration of a
substance in a given volume
of liquid?

1
Name: Class Number:

B. MAIN LESSON
Series RL Circuit: An Application of First Ordered Linear Differential Equations

A first-order RL parallel circuit has one resistor (or network of resistors) and a single inductor.
First-order circuits can be analyzed using first-order differential equations. By analyzing a first-order circuit,
you can understand its timing and delays.
The RL circuit shown below has a resistor and an inductor connected in series. A constant
voltage V is applied when the switch is closed.
The (variable) voltage across the resistor is given by: 𝑽𝑽𝒓𝒓 = 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
The (variable) voltage across the inductor is given by: 𝑽𝑽𝑳𝑳 = 𝑳𝑳
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Kirchhoff's voltage law says that the directed sum of the voltages around a circuit must be zero. This
results in the following differential equation:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Where: 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 (𝑉𝑉)
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑂𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (Ω)
𝑖𝑖 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝐴𝐴)
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑠𝑠(𝐻𝐻)
Once the switch is closed, the current in the circuit is not constant. Instead, it will build up from zero to
some steady state.
SOLVING THE DE FOR A SERIES RL CIRCUIT

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The solution of the differential equation 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is
𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅
𝑖𝑖 = �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −� 𝐿𝐿 � 𝑡𝑡�
𝑅𝑅
Proof: Let us begin with:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐸𝐸
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

2
Name: Class Number:

Subtracting Ri from both sides:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝐿 = 𝐸𝐸 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Multiply both sides by dt and then divide both sides by (𝐸𝐸 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅), we have
=
𝐸𝐸 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿
Integrate (use Basic Logarithm Form)

� =�
𝐸𝐸 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿
ln(𝐸𝐸 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) 1
− = 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿
Now, with 𝑖𝑖 = 0 when 𝑡𝑡 = 0, we have:

ln 𝐸𝐸
𝐾𝐾 = −
𝑅𝑅
Substituting K back into our expression, we see that it becomes

ln(𝐸𝐸 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) 1 ln 𝐸𝐸
− = 𝑡𝑡 −
𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅
Rearranging the terms, we then have this:

ln 𝐸𝐸 ln(𝐸𝐸 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) 1
− = 𝑡𝑡
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿
And we continue some simplifications and that

𝑅𝑅
− ln 𝐸𝐸 + ln(𝐸𝐸 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) = − 𝑡𝑡
𝐿𝐿
Applying the property of sum of logarithm

𝐸𝐸 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � = − 𝑡𝑡
𝐸𝐸 𝐿𝐿
And taking the inverse function of log, the exponential function “e” to both sides of the equation, we
have
𝐸𝐸−𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � 𝐸𝐸 � − � 𝐿𝐿 �𝑡𝑡
𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒
𝐸𝐸 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
− � �𝑡𝑡
= 𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿
𝐸𝐸
Or
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
− � �𝑡𝑡
1− 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿
𝐸𝐸
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
− � �𝑡𝑡
− 𝑖𝑖 = −1 + 𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿
𝐸𝐸

3
Name: Class Number:

𝐸𝐸
Multiplying both sides by − � �:
𝑅𝑅
𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅
𝑖𝑖 = �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −� 𝐿𝐿 �𝑡𝑡 �
𝑅𝑅
𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
And now, we can visualize the function solution 𝑖𝑖 = �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −� 𝐿𝐿 �𝑡𝑡 � of the ODE 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 in the
𝑅𝑅
graph as follows:
𝐸𝐸
𝑅𝑅
𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅
Graph of 𝑖𝑖 = �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −� 𝐿𝐿 �𝑡𝑡 �
𝑅𝑅
The plot shows the transition period during which the current adjusts from its initial value of zero to the
final value, which is the steady state.
THE TIME CONSTANT

𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
The time constant (TC), known as “tau” 𝜏𝜏, of the function 𝑖𝑖 = �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −� 𝐿𝐿 �𝑡𝑡 � is the time at which is
𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅 𝐿𝐿
unity � = 1�. Therefore, for the RL transient, the time constant is 𝜏𝜏 = seconds.
𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅
−�𝑅𝑅�𝑡𝑡
At 1 𝜏𝜏, the term 1 − 𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −1 = 1 − 0.368 = 0.632.
This means that at this time, the current is 63.2% of its final value.
Similarly, at 2 𝜏𝜏,
𝑅𝑅
1 − 𝑒𝑒 −� 𝐿𝐿 �𝑡𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −2 = 1 − 0.135 = 0.865,
And the current is 86.5% of its final value.
−�𝑅𝑅 �𝑡𝑡
After 7 𝜏𝜏 the transient is generally regarded as terminated since 1 − 𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −7 = 0.999 ≅ 1.
For convenience, the time constant τ is the unit used to plot the current of the equation
𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅
𝑖𝑖 = �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −� 𝐿𝐿 �𝑡𝑡 �
𝑅𝑅
𝐸𝐸 𝑡𝑡
That is, 𝜏𝜏 =
𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅
, we think of it as: 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑅𝑅 �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 �

4
Name: Class Number:

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Example 1. An RL circuit has an emf of 5 V, a resistance of 50 Ω, an inductance of 1 H, and no initial
current.
a. Find the current in the circuit at any time t.
b. Distinguish between the transient and steady-state current.
Procedure:
a. 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝟏𝟏 (𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫):
Given: 𝑅𝑅 = 50 Ω and 𝐸𝐸 = 5V
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷: 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐸𝐸
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Substitute the given as follows:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
50𝑖𝑖 + 𝐿𝐿 =5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
It looks like a FOLDE, right! � + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥)�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Rearranging it as, + 50𝑖𝑖 = 5 implies that 𝑃𝑃 (𝑡𝑡) = 50, a constant and 𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) = 5, also a
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
constant, with 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄 both functions of time 𝑡𝑡.
From the previous lesson in FOLDE, the formula for the general solution is
𝑦𝑦∅(𝑥𝑥) = � ∅(𝑥𝑥)𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑦𝑦𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∅(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and applying correspondence, we have 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥 and therefore it follows that

𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(t)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(t)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
and continue with the integrating factor ∅(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(t)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 50𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 50𝑡𝑡
so, we have
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(t)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(t)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
5 50𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 50𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑒𝑒 50𝑡𝑡 (5) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑒𝑒 + 𝐶𝐶
50
1
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 50𝑡𝑡 =
� 5𝑒𝑒 50𝑡𝑡 (50) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
50
5 50𝑡𝑡 1 50𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 50𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 + 𝐶𝐶 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 50𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 + 𝐶𝐶
50 10
As an initial value problem (IVP), when 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟎𝟎, 𝒊𝒊 = 𝟎𝟎, so we have

1 50𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 50𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 + 𝐶𝐶
10

5
Name: Class Number:

1 50(0) 1
(0)𝑒𝑒 50(0) = 𝑒𝑒 + 𝐶𝐶; 𝐶𝐶 = −
10 10
This gives us
1 50𝑡𝑡 1
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 50𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 −
10 10
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 50𝑡𝑡 = 0.1𝑒𝑒 50𝑡𝑡 − 0.1
Dividing the equation by 𝑒𝑒50𝑡𝑡
0.1
𝑖𝑖 = 0.1 −
𝑒𝑒 50𝑡𝑡
𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓 𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐞𝐞𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐭𝐭: 𝒊𝒊 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝒆𝒆−𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
Therefore the transient current is 𝒊𝒊 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝒆𝒆−𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝑨𝑨, 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝐴𝐴)
And the steady state current is 𝒊𝒊 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨, 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝐴𝐴)
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝟐𝟐 (𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭):

Given: 𝑅𝑅 = 50 Ω, 𝐸𝐸 = 5V , 𝐿𝐿 = 1𝐻𝐻 and the formla is
𝑬𝑬 𝑹𝑹
𝒊𝒊 = �𝟏𝟏 − 𝒆𝒆−� 𝑳𝑳 �𝒕𝒕 �
𝑹𝑹
By substitution, we have
5 50
𝑖𝑖 = �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −� 1 �𝑡𝑡 � = 0.1[1 − 𝑒𝑒 −50𝑡𝑡 ]
50
𝐿𝐿 1
And the time constant TC is 𝜏𝜏 = = = 0.02
𝑅𝑅 50
This means that the current can reach steady state by 𝑡𝑡 = 0.02 𝑥𝑥 5 = 0.1 seconds.
Example 2. An inductance of L Henrys and a resistance of 10 Ohms are connected in series with an
emf of 100V. If the current is initially zero, and is equal to 9 Amperes after 1 second, find the following:
a. Inductance L
b. Current after 0.5 of a second.

6
Name: Class Number:

Procedure:
Identifying the given from the Problem statement, 𝐸𝐸 = 100𝑉𝑉, 𝑅𝑅 = 10 𝑂𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝑹𝑹 𝑬𝑬
Formula: 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 + 𝑳𝑳 = 𝑬𝑬 or the form in FOLDE that is linear in 𝒊𝒊 as + 𝒊𝒊 =
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝑳𝑳 𝑳𝑳
a. And substituting the given, we have
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10 100
+ 𝑖𝑖 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
And therefore the solution is of the form
𝒊𝒊𝒆𝒆∫ 𝑷𝑷(𝐭𝐭)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = � 𝒆𝒆∫ 𝑷𝑷(𝐭𝐭)𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 + 𝑪𝑪
𝑅𝑅 10 𝐸𝐸 100
𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡) = = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) = =
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
10 10
� 𝑃𝑃(t)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑡𝑡
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
10 10 100
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = � �𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 � � � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
𝐿𝐿
10 100 10 10 10
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = � �𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶 | 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹: � 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −→ 𝒖𝒖 = 𝑡𝑡 and 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
10 100 𝑳𝑳 10 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = � � � �𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
𝐿𝐿 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳
10 10
𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = 10𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶
10
10𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑖𝑖 = 10
𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡
𝑪𝑪
𝒊𝒊 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒆𝒆 𝑳𝑳 𝒕𝒕
𝐶𝐶
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 = 0, 𝑖𝑖 = 0: 0 = 10 + 10
− −→ 𝑪𝑪 = −𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.
(0)
𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿
𝐶𝐶
Then substituting back to 𝑖𝑖 = 10 + 10 it becomes
𝑡𝑡
𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒊𝒊 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒆𝒆 𝑳𝑳 𝒕𝒕
Also, applying the condition that at 𝑖𝑖 = 9 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 after 𝑡𝑡 = 1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠.
10
𝟗𝟗 = 10 − 10
𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 ( 𝟏𝟏 )
10 10
9𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 = 10𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 − 10
10
−𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 = −10
10
𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 = 10
10
ln 𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙10
10
= ln 10
𝐿𝐿
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑳𝑳 = = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑯𝑯
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

7
Name: Class Number:

b. At 𝒕𝒕 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒂𝒂 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 as a condition and the derived value 𝑳𝑳 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑯𝑯
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆, 𝒊𝒊 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒆𝒆𝟒𝟒.𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒕𝒕
10
𝑖𝑖 = 10 − 10
𝑒𝑒 4.34(0.5)
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪, 𝒊𝒊 = 𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑨𝑨
Mixing Problem: An Application of First Ordered Linear Differential Equations

In mixing problems, we will start with a substance that is dissolved in a liquid. Liquid will be entering and
leaving a holding tank. The liquid entering the tank may or may not contain more of the substance dissolved
in it. Liquid leaving the tank will of course contain the substance dissolved in it.
From above, a typical mixing problem deals with the amount of salt in a mixing tank. Salt and water enter
the tank at a certain rate, are mixed with what is already in the tank, and the mixture leaves at a certain rate.
We want to write a differential equation to model the situation, and then solve it.
The independent variable will be the time, 𝒕𝒕, in some appropriate unit (seconds, minutes, etc.). It may not
be so obvious what to use for a dependent variable: the concentration of salt in the liquid, or the amount of
salt. It is usually simpler to use the amount, 𝑸𝑸 (again, in appropriate units such as kilograms). Then the basic
principle determining the differential equation to model this situation is:
Rate at Rate at
Rate of change of
= which 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) – which 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕)
𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕)
enters the tank exits the tank
where:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 Rate of change of 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕): = 𝑄𝑄′(𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 Rate at which 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) enters the tank : (flow rate of liquid entering) x (concentration of
substance in liquid entering)
 Rate at which 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) exits the tank : (flow rate of liquid exiting) x (concentration of substance in
liquid exiting)
For a substance like salt is not created or destroyed in this process, the change in the amount of salt in the
tank comes from the balance between what enters and what leaves.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Example 1: Initially a tank contains 10000 litres of brine with a salt concentration of 1 kg salt per 100 litres.
Brine with 2 kg salt per 100 litres enters the tank at a rate of 20 litres per second. The well-stirred mixture
leaves at the same rate. Find the concentration of salt as a function of time.
Procedure: Let 𝑸𝑸 be the amount (in kg) of salt in the tank, and 𝒕𝒕 the time in seconds, with 𝑡𝑡 = 0 initially. We
have 𝑄𝑄(0) = 1/100 (10000) = 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. From above, Rate at which 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) enters the tank: (flow rate of
liquid entering) x (concentration of substance in liquid entering)
The rate at which salt enters is 20 (2/100) = 0.4 kg/sec.
Also, from above, Rate at which 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) exits the tank: (flow rate of liquid exiting) x (concentration of
substance in liquid exiting)

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So, the rate at which salt leaves is 20 𝑪𝑪(𝒕𝒕), where 𝑪𝑪(𝒕𝒕) is the concentration of salt in the tank at
𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕)
time t. Now 𝑪𝑪(𝒕𝒕) = where 𝑽𝑽(𝒕𝒕) is the volume of liquid in the tank.
𝑽𝑽(𝒕𝒕)
Since liquid leaves at the same rate as it enters, the volume is a constant (10000 litres). So the differential
equation is based on the formula
Rate at Rate at
Rate of change of
= which 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) – which 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕)
𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕)
enters the tank exits the tank
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡)

= 0.4 − 20𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0.4 − 20
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉(𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡)
= 0.4 − 20
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10,000
+ = 0.4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 500
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
This is a first-order linear equation 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 𝑦𝑦𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥). Using
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
correspondence for formulating the integrating factor, we have to let 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡), 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) =
1
, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥) = 0.4.
500
1 1
The integrating factor is formatted with the formula 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑡𝑡.
500 500
1
The IF is therefore 𝑒𝑒 500𝑡𝑡 , and the general solution is of the form
𝑦𝑦𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
And so, for this problem we have

1 1
𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) 𝑒𝑒 500𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑒𝑒 500𝑡𝑡 (𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 1 1
𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) 𝒆𝒆𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒕𝒕 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 � 𝒆𝒆𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒕𝒕 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 + 𝑪𝑪 | 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 � 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
500 500
1 1 1
𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) 𝑒𝑒 500𝑡𝑡 = 0.4(500) � 𝑒𝑒 500𝑡𝑡 � � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
500
1 1
𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) 𝑒𝑒 500𝑡𝑡 = 200𝑒𝑒 500𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶
1 − 𝟏𝟏
Diving by 𝑒𝑒 500𝑡𝑡 , 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝑪𝑪𝒆𝒆𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒕𝒕
− 𝟏𝟏
Substituting the initial condition 𝑡𝑡 = 0, 𝑄𝑄 = 100 in 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝑪𝑪𝒆𝒆𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒕𝒕, then 𝑪𝑪 = −𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏.
− 𝟏𝟏
𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝒆𝒆𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒕𝒕

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Name: Class Number:

For the concentration of salt as a function of time, 𝑪𝑪(𝒕𝒕) is the concentration of salt in the tank at time t.
−1
𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) 200 − 100𝑒𝑒 500𝑡𝑡
𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) = =
𝑉𝑉(𝑡𝑡) 10,000
− 𝟏𝟏
𝑪𝑪(𝒕𝒕) = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒆𝒆𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒕𝒕 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂.
Note: As 𝑡𝑡 → ∞ ∶ 𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) → 200. 𝑸𝑸 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 is an equilibrium solution: at this value of 𝑄𝑄,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, so 𝑄𝑄 would stay constant at this value.
Example 2: Take the same setup as in the previous example, but the mixture leaves the tank at only 10
litres per second. Of course the tank will eventually fill up, but we want to know the amount of salt at any
time before this.
Procedure:
This time instead of being constant, the volume 𝑉𝑉(𝑡𝑡) is a function of time: 𝑉𝑉(𝑡𝑡) = 10000 + 10 𝑡𝑡. The
differential equation is
= 0.4 −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1,000 + 𝑡𝑡
+ = 0.4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1, 000 + 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
This is a first-order linear equation 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 𝑦𝑦𝑷𝑷(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥). Using
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
correspondence for formulating the integrating factor, we have to let 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡), 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) =
1
, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥) = 0.4.
1,000+𝑡𝑡
1
The integrating factor is formatted with the formula 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1000 + 𝑡𝑡)
1,000+𝑡𝑡
Then, IF is 𝒆𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍(𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏+𝒕𝒕) = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝒕𝒕, and the general solution is of the form
𝑦𝑦𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑒𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑃(x)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑸𝑸(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶
And so, for this problem we have
𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) (𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝒕𝒕) = �(𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝒕𝒕)(𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐶𝐶
𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐
𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) (𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝒕𝒕) = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 �𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + � + 𝑪𝑪
𝟐𝟐
𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) (𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝒕𝒕) = 400𝑡𝑡 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐 + 𝐶𝐶
Diving by (1,000 + 𝑡𝑡) 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
400𝑡𝑡 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) =
1,000 + 𝑡𝑡

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400𝑡𝑡+𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐 +𝐶𝐶
Substituting the initial condition 𝑡𝑡 = 0, 𝑄𝑄 = 100 in 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) = , then 𝑪𝑪 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎.
1,000+𝑡𝑡
− 𝟏𝟏
𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝒆𝒆𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝒕𝒕
Problem: A vessel contains 1,000 Liters of brine with 15 kg of dissolved salt. Pure water enters the
vessel at 10 liters per minute. The solution is kept thoroughly mixed and drains from the vessel at the
same rate. How much salt is in the tank after 𝒕𝒕 minutes?


Problem: A large tank holds 300 gallons of brine solution with 40 pounds (lb) of salt. A concentration of
2 lb/gallon is pumped in a rate of 4 gal/min. The concentration leaving the tank is pumped out at a rate
of 3 gal/min. How much salt is in the tank after 12 minutes?
C. LESSON WRAP-UP

FAQ
1. Can mixture or mixing problems be solved in another way or method but still using DE?
Ans.: YES, using separable variables. And now, you explore on this. GOOD LUCK!
KEY TO CORRECTIONS
Answer: 𝑸𝑸(𝒕𝒕) = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝒆𝒆−𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

Answer: 126.12 lb of salt

11

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MAT 052

PEN CODE: MAT 052 Credit: 3 units Lecture

II. Course Objective:

III. Course Outline and Time Allotment:

IV. Grading System

This document is the property of PHINMA EDUCATION

PEN CODE: MAT 052 Credit: 3 units Lecture

Class Standing, CS = 50% quiz + 50% class participation

VI. Course Requirements

VII. Contact Information

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Lesson 1: Introduction to Differential Equations Materials:

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart (3 mins)

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

2. Do you know how to

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Applications of Differential Equations. A differential equation

Let us see some differential equation applications in real world.

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(A) Characteristics of a Differential Equation

Examples for order of DE:

𝒅𝒅𝟒𝟒 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚 𝒅𝒅𝟒𝟒 𝒚𝒚

Examples for degree of DE:

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3. TYPE – basic types of DE are ordinary DE or partial D

The general form of nth order ODE is given by:

b. Partial Differential Equation: Partial differential equation (PDE) is an equation involving

Examples: Characterize the following DEs:

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(B) Linear Differential Equations - Real World Example

To understand DEs, let us consider the following simple example.

3) Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

4) Activity 5: Check for Understanding (10 mins)

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2. Should a DE be written better in a prime notation or Leibnitz notation?

Activity 5: Check for Understanding

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A solution to a DE is also an equation which is defined as a function or a set of functions free

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

2. Do you know what mathematical

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Example 2: Consider the given DE 𝒚𝒚′ = 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝟑𝟑.

Then, integrate both sides. ∫ 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = ∫�𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝟑𝟑� 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

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Example 3. Find the general solution of �𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝒙𝒙�𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑.

Moreover, applying the inverse function of 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 which is the exponential

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To answer the bubble question, let’s

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