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Chapter 1

S2 L IKE S TAR O RBITS N EAR THE G ALACTIC

C ENTER IN Rn AND Y UKAWA G RAVITY
Duško Borka∗,1 , Predrag Jovanović2 , Vesna Borka Jovanović1 and
Alexander F. Zakharov 3,4,5,6,7
1
Atomic Physics Laboratory (040), Vinča Institute of Nuclear Sciences,
University of Belgrade, P.O. Box 522, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia.
2
Astronomical Observatory, Volgina 7, 11060 Belgrade, Serbia.
3
National Astronomical Observatories of Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Datun Road 20A, Beijing, 100012 China.
4
National Research Nuclear University MEPhI
(Moscow Engineering Physics Institute), 115409, Moscow, Russia.
5
Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics,
117259 Moscow, Russia.
6
Bogoliubov Laboratory for Theoretical Physics, JINR, 141980 Dubna, Russia.
7
North Carolina Central University, Durham, NC 27707, USA.

Abstract
In this chapter we investigate the possibility to provide theoretical explanation for
the observed deviations of S2 star orbit around the Galactic Center using gravitational
potentials derived from extended gravity models, but in absence of dark matter. Ex-
tended Theories of Gravity are alternative theories of gravitational interaction devel-
oped from the exact starting points investigated first by Einstein and Hilbert and aimed
from one side to extend the positive results of General Relativity and, on the other
hand, to cure its shortcomings. One of the aims of these theories is to explain galactic
and extragalactic dynamics without introduction of dark matter. They are based on
straightforward generalizations of the Einstein theory where the gravitational action
(the Hilbert-Einstein action) is assumed to be linear in the Ricci curvature scalar R.
The f (R) gravity is a type of modified gravity which generalizes Einstein’s General
Relativity, i.e. the simplest case is just the General Relativity. It is actually a family of
models, each one defined by a different function of the Ricci scalar. Here, we consider
Rn (power-law fourth-order theories of gravity) and Yukawa-like modified gravities
∗
E-mail address:dusborka@vinca.rs
2 D. Borka, P. Jovanović, V. Borka Jovanović and A. F. Zakharov

in the weak field limit and discuss the constrains on these theories. For that purpose
we simulate the orbit of S2 star around the Galactic Center in Rn and Yukawa-like
gravity potentials and compare it with New Technology Telescope/Very Large Tele-
scope (NTT/VLT) as well as by Keck telescope observations. Our simulations result
in strong constraints on the range of gravity interaction and showed that both Rn and
Yukawa gravity could satisfactorily explain the observed orbits of S2 star. However,
we concluded that parameters of Rn and Yukawa gravity theories must be very close to
those corresponding to the Newtonian limit of the theory. Besides, in contrast to New-
tonian gravity, these two modified theories induce orbital precession, even in the case
of point-like central mass. The approach we are proposing seems to be sufficiently
reliable to constrain the modified gravity models from stellar orbits around Galactic
Center.

1. Introduction
The extended theories of gravity have been proposed like alternative approaches to New-
tonian gravity. These theories have to be also checked by astronomical observations taken
on different scales such as Solar system, binary pulsars, spiral galaxies, clusters of galaxies
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. These theories are based on a straightforward generalization of Ein-
stein theory where the gravitational action (the Hilbert-Einstein action) is assumed to be
linear in the Ricci curvature scalar R. In the case of f (R) gravity, one assumes a generic
function f of the Ricci scalar R (in particular, analytic functions) and searches for a the-
ory of gravity having suitable behavior at small and large scale lengths. Different alter-
native gravity theories have been proposed (see e.g. [8, 9, 10, 11, 12] for reviews), such
as: MOND [13, 14, 15, 16], scalar-tensor [17], conformal [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24],
Yukawa-like corrected gravity theories [25, 26, 27, 28] and theories of ”massive gravity”
[29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35].
One type of the extended theories of gravity is characterized by power-law Lagrangians
[36, 37]. Alternative approaches to Newtonian gravity in the framework of the weak field
limit of fourth order gravity theory have been proposed and constraints on these theories
have been discussed [38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48].
Yukawa-like corrections [49, 50, 51, 52] have been obtained, as a general feature, in
the framework of f (R) theories of gravity [42, 43]. Adelberger et al. [53] review exper-
iments and constraints about Yukawa forces in different ranges (see Figs. 9 and 10 from
[53]). These results show that the Yukawa term is relatively well constrained for the short
ranges. For longer distances Yukawa corrections have been successfully applied to clusters
of galaxies setting δ = +1/3 [54, 55] and for rotation curves of spiral galaxies [51].
Here we study the constraints on Rn and Yukawa-like gravity from the observed orbit
of S2 star. S2 star is one of the S-stars which move around the massive black hole located
in radio source named Sgr A∗ in the center of our Galaxy [56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61]. Progress
in monitoring bright stars near the Galactic Center have been made recently [59, 62]. These
stars, together with recently discovered dense gas cloud falling towards the Galactic Centre
[63], provide the convincing evidence that Sgr A∗ represents a massive black hole around
which S-stars are orbiting.1 For some of them, including S2, there are some observational
1
Another opportunity to test gravity in the strong gravitational field limit is an observational evaluation of a
 Orbit of S2 Star Near the Galactic Center in Rn and Yukawa gravity 3

indications that their orbits could deviate from the Keplerian case due to relativistic preces-
sion [59, 62], but the current astrometric limit is not sufficient to unambiguously confirm
such a claim. The orbital precession can occur due to relativistic effects (prograde pericen-
tre shift) or due to a possible extended mass distribution (retrograde shift [83]). Both shifts
will result in rosette shaped orbits. The astrometric accuracy is constantly improving from
around 10 mas during the first part of the observational period, currently reaching less than
1 mas. With that limit one can not say for sure that S2 star orbit really deviates from the
Newtonian case.

2. Theory
Rn gravity belongs to power-law fourth-order theories of gravity obtained by replacing the
scalar curvature R with f (R) = f0 Rn in the gravity Lagrangian [36, 38]. As a result, in the
weak field limit, the gravitational potential is found to be [36, 38]:
"  β #
GM r
Φ (r) = − 1+ , (1)
2r rc
where rc is an arbitrary parameter, depending on the typical scale of the considered system
and β is a universal parameter:
√
12n2 − 7n − 1 − 36n4 + 12n3 − 83n2 + 50n + 1
β= . (2)
6n2 − 4n + 2
This formula corresponds to a modification of the gravity action in the form:
√
Z
A = d4 x −g (f (R) + Lm ), (3)

where f (R) is a generic function of the Ricci scalar curvature and Lm is the standard matter
Lagrangian.
For n = 1 (then β = 0) the Rn potential reduces to the Newtonian one. Parameter β
controls the shape of the correction term and it must be the same for all gravitating systems,
and therefore it is universal constant [36, 38]. The parameter rc is the scalelength parameter
and is related to the boundary conditions and the mass of the system [36, 38].
In case of Yukawa gravity, in the weak field limit the gravitational potential is found to
be [51, 84]:
"  r #
GM −
Φ (r) = − 1 + δe Λ , (4)
(1 + δ)r

shadow size around the supermassive black hole at the Galactic Center. Theoretical studies showed that the size
of the smallest spot near a black hole practically coincides with shadow size because the spot is the envelope
of the shadow [64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74] (important related studies of gravitational lensing
in the strong gravitational field have been done in [75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80]). Doeleman et al. evaluated a size
of the smallest spot for the black hole at the Galactic Center with VLBI technique in mm-band [81] (see also
constraints done from previous observations [82]).
4 D. Borka, P. Jovanović, V. Borka Jovanović and A. F. Zakharov

where Λ is an arbitrary parameter (usually referred to as range of interaction), depending

on the typical scale of the system under consideration and δ is a universal constant. For
δ = 0 the Yukawa potential reduces to the Newtonian one. Yukawa-like corrections have
been successfully applied to clusters of galaxies setting δ = +1/3. The same value also
gives a very good agreement between the theoretical rotation curves of spiral galaxies and
the observational data [51].
In this chapter we make comparison between the simulated orbits of S2 star in Rn
[45] and in Yukawa [52] gravity potentials. The obtained results showed that both Rn
and Yukawa gravity could satisfactorily explain the observed orbits of S2 star. Besides, in
contrast to Newtonian gravity, these two modified theories induce orbital precession, even
in the case of point-like central mass.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Fitting Procedure
In this chapter we compare the obtained theoretical results for S2 star orbits in the Rn and
Yukawa potentials with two independent sets of observations of the S2 star, obtained by
New Technology Telescope/Very Large Telescope (NTT/VLT) and by Keck telescope. Ob-
servations are publicly available as the supplementary on-line data to the electronic version
of the paper [59].
The simulated orbits of S2 star were obtained by numerical integration of differential
equations of motion in Rn and Yukawa gravitational potential:
ṙ = v, µr̈ = −OΦ (r) , (5)
where µ is so called reduced mass in the two-body problem. In our calculations we assumed
that the mass of central black hole is MBH = 4.3 ×106 M and that the distance to the S2
star is d? = 8.3 kpc [59]. Perturbations from other members of the stellar cluster, as well
as from some possibly existing extended structures composed from visible or dark matter
[39], were neglected due to simplicity reasons.
The two-body simulations in Rn and Yukawa gravity potentials resulted with the true
orbits of S2 star in their orbital planes. In order to compare them with observed positions
we need to calculate the corresponding apparent orbits, i.e. we have to project them to the
observer’s sky plane. From the theory of binary stars it is well known that any point (x, y)
on the true orbit could be projected into the point (xc , y c ) on the apparent orbit according
to [85, 86]:
xc = l1 x + l2 y, y c = m1 x + m2 y, (6)
where the expressions for l1 , l2 , m1 and m2 depend on three orbital elements (Ω - longitude
of the ascending node, ω - longitude of pericenter and i - inclination). In this case orbital
precession ω is a function of time, and therefore should be in general treated as an adjustable
parameter during the fitting procedure. However, the previously mentioned theoretical and
observational results showed that in the case of S2 star this precession is very small, and we
can assume ω as a constant when projecting true positions to their corresponding apparent
values. For that purpose we used the following Keplerian orbital elements from [59]: i =
134◦ .87, Ω = 226◦ .53 and ω = 64◦ .98.
 Orbit of S2 Star Near the Galactic Center in Rn and Yukawa gravity 5

We fitted the observed orbits of S2 star using the following procedure:

1. initial values for S2 star true position (x0 , y0 ), orbital velocity (ẋ0 , ẏ0 ) and the pa-
rameters in Rn and Yukawa gravity potentials are specified;

2. the positions (xi , yi ) of the S2 star along its true orbit are calculated at the observed
epochs by numerical integration of equation of motions in Rn and Yukawa gravity
potentials, assuming that distance to the S2 star is d? = 8.3 kpc and mass of central
black hole MBH = 4.3 ×106 M [59];

3. the corresponding positions (xci , yic ) along the apparent orbit are calculated using the
expression (6);

4. the root mean square (O − C) goodness of fit is estimated according the following
expression: v
uN h i
(xoi − xci )2 + (yio − yic )2
uP
u
(O − C)rms = i=1
t
, where (xoi , yio ) is the i-th observed
2N
position, (xci , yic ) is the corresponding calculated position, and N is the number of
observations;

5. the values of the input parameters are varied and the procedure is repeated until the
minimum of (O − C)rms is reached.

3.2. Parameter Space

In Fig. 1 we presented the parameter space for Rn gravity under the constraint that, during
one orbital period, S2 star orbits in Rn gravity differ less than  from the corresponding
orbits in Newtonian gravity, for the following 2 values of parameter : 0.01 and 0.001 (10
mas and 1 mas). For ε = 0.01, we can see that the maximal value of β is around 0.032,
and the corresponding rc is around 100 AU. We investigate combinations : 0.01 and 0.001
because this represents precision at the beginning of the observed period of S2 star trajectory
and current limit, respectively.
In Fig. 2 we presented the parameter space for Yukawa gravity under the constraint
that, during one orbital period, S2 star orbits in Yukawa gravity differ less than  from
the corresponding orbits in Newtonian gravity, for the following 2 values of parameter :
0.01 and 0.001 (10 mas and 1 mas). We can see, like in the previous case of Rn gravity,
that value of parameter  has the very strong influence of constraints on the parameters of
Yukawa gravity theory, too.

3.3. Comparison Between the Theoretical Results and Observations in Rn

Gravity
In Fig. 3 we present two comparisons between the obtained best fit orbit for β = 0.01
in the Rn gravity potential and the positions of S2 star observed by NTT/VLT (left) and
Keck (right). The corresponding calculated distances of S2 star from massive black hole are
presented in Fig. 4, for NTT/VLT measurements in left panel and for Keck measurements in
6 D. Borka, P. Jovanović, V. Borka Jovanović and A. F. Zakharov
0.05 0.05

n n
R R
0.04 0.04

0.03 0.03

0.02 0.02

0.01 0.01

0.00 0.00

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

rc (AU) rc (AU)

Figure 1. The parameter space for Rn gravity under the constraint that, during one orbital
period, S2 star orbits in Rn gravity differ less than  from the corresponding orbits in New-
tonian gravity, for the following 2 values of parameter : 0.01 (10 mas) (left) and 0.001 (1
mas) (right).

1.0 1.0

Yukawa Yukawa
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

(AU) (AU)

Figure 2. The parameter space for Yukawa gravity under the constraint that, during one
orbital period, S2 star orbits in Yukawa gravity differ less than  from the corresponding
orbits in Newtonian gravity, for the following 2 values of parameter : 0.01 (10 mas) (left)
and 0.001 (1 mas) (right).
 Orbit of S2 Star Near the Galactic Center in Rn and Yukawa gravity 7

right panel. From these figures we can conclude that there is a good agreement between the
theoretical orbits and NTT/VLT observations. In the case of Keck measurements, following
the suggestion from [59], we first had to move the origin of the coordinate system with
respect to the both axes and after that we also achieved the satisfying agreement between
the observed and simulated orbits.

Figure 3. The fitted orbit of S2 star around massive black hole in Rn gravity for rc = 100
AU and β = 0.01 (solid lines in both panels). The NTT/VLT astrometric observations are
presented in the left panel, while the Keck measurements are presented in the right panel.

Figure 4. Comparison between the fitted (solid lines) and measured (open circles) distances
of the S2 star from black hole in the case of NNT/VLT (left) and Keck (right) observations.

We also made a comparison between the fitted and measured radial velocities for the S2
star (see Fig. 5). The well known expression for radial velocity in polar coordinates r and
θ is [85]: h i
vrad = sin i sin(θ + ω) · ṙ + r cos(θ + ω) · θ̇ . (7)
8 D. Borka, P. Jovanović, V. Borka Jovanović and A. F. Zakharov

Figure 5. Comparison between the fitted (solid line) and measured radial velocities for the
S2 star. Measured velocities are labeled with open circles (VLT data) and open rhombuses
(Keck data).

We used the corresponding expression in rectangular coordinates x = r cos θ and y =

r sin θ to calculate the fitted radial velocities:
sin i
vrad = p [sin(θ + ω) · (xẋ + y ẏ)+
x2 + y 2
(8)
+ cos(θ + ω) · (xẏ − y ẋ)] ,
y
where θ = arctan . As it can be seen from Fig. 5, the agreement between our theoretical
x
predictions and the observations is also satisfactory.

3.4. Comparison Between the Theoretical Results and Observations in

Yukawa Gravity
In Fig. 6 we presented two comparisons between the fitted orbits of S2 star in Yukawa
gravity for δ = +1/3 using the astrometric observations by NTT/VLT alone (left) and
NTT/VLT+Keck combination (right). In order to combine NTT/VLT and Keck data sets,
the position of the origin of Keck observations is first shifted by ∆x = 3.7 and ∆y = 4.1
mas, following the suggestion given in [59]. In both cases there is a good agreement be-
tween the theoretical orbits and observations. These figures also indicate a possible orbital
precession of S2 star.
In Figs. 7 and 8 we presented the comparisons between the observed and fitted coor-
dinates of S2 star and their O-C residuals in the case of NTT/VLT observations, as well as
NTT/VLT+Keck combined data set, respectively. In both cases, O-C residuals are higher in
the first part of observing interval (up to the 12 mas) and much less in its second part (less
than 2 mas). Also, the O-C residuals are larger in the case of the combined NTT/VLT+Keck
observations most likely due to the shift of the origin of the coordinate system, which was
necessary in order to get a reasonable fit. That is why we also presented the results for
NTT/VLT measurements alone.
In Fig. 9 we made the comparisons between the observed and fitted radial velocities
of S2 star for NTT/VLT data alone (left) and NTT/VLT+Keck combination (right). In the
 Orbit of S2 Star Near the Galactic Center in Rn and Yukawa gravity 9

Figure 6. The fitted orbits in Yukawa gravity for δ = +1/3 through the astrometric ob-
servations of S2 star (denoted by circles), obtained by NTT/VLT alone (left panel) and
NTT/VLT+Keck (right panel). The best fits are obtained for Λ = 2.59 × 103 AU and
Λ = 3.03 × 103 AU, respectively.

bottom parts of both panels in Fig. 9 the best fit O-C residuals for radial velocities are also
given. We also obtained satisfactory agreement between the predicted and observed radial
velocities of S2 star.
Fig. 10 presents the reduced χ2 for all fits with fixed value of δ=1/3 as a function
of the parameter Λ which was varied from 10 to 10 000 AU. In the case of NTT/VLT
observations the minimum of reduced χ2 is 1.54 and is obtained for Λ = 2.59 × 103
AU, while in the case of NTT/VLT+Keck combined data set the minimal value of 3.24 is
obtained for Λ = 3.03 × 103 AU. The reduced χ2 for Keplerian orbits (δ = 0) are 1.89 and
3.53, respectively, and these values are significantly higher than the corresponding minima
for δ = 1/3. This means that Yukawa gravity describes observed data even better than
Newtonian gravity and that δ = 1/3 is valid value at these scales.
The maps of the reduced χ2 over the Λ − δ parameter space for all simulated orbits of
S2 star which give at least the same or better fits than the Keplerian orbits are presented
in Figs. 11 and 12. Three contours (from inner to outer) enclose the confidence regions
in which the difference between the current and minimum reduced χ2 is less than 0.0005,
0.005 and 0.05, respectively. The most probable value for the scale parameter Λ, in the
case of NTT/VLT observations of S2 star, is around 5000 - 6000 AU, while in the case of
NTT/VLT+Keck combined data set the most probable value for Λ is around 6000 - 7000
AU. In both cases χ2 asymptotically decreases as a function of δ. Since the contours are
practically vertical strips, it is not possible to obtain reliable constrains on the universal
constant δ of Yukawa gravity using only astrometric data for S2 star. We can conclude that
these two parameters δ and Λ are highly correlated in the range (0 < δ < 1). For δ > 2
(the vertical strips) they are not correlated.
10 D. Borka, P. Jovanović, V. Borka Jovanović and A. F. Zakharov

Figure 7. The comparisons between the observed (open circles with error bars) and fit-
ted (solid lines) coordinates of S2 star (top), as well as the corresponding O-C residuals
(bottom). The left panel shows the results for ∆α and right panel for ∆δ in the case of
NTT/VLT observations and Yukawa gravity potential with δ = +1/3 and Λ = 2.59 × 103
AU.

Figure 8. The same as in Fig. 7, but for NTT/VLT+Keck combined observations and for
Yukawa gravity potential with Λ = 3.03 × 103 AU.
 Orbit of S2 Star Near the Galactic Center in Rn and Yukawa gravity 11

Figure 9. The comparisons between the observed (circles with error bars) and fitted
(solid lines) radial velocities of S2 star (top), as well as the corresponding O-C residu-
als (bottom). The left panel shows the results in the case of NTT/VLT observations and
Yukawa gravity potential with Λ = 2.59 × 103 AU, while the right panel shows the re-
sults for NTT/VLT+Keck combined observations and for Yukawa gravity potential with
Λ = 3.03 × 103 AU. In both cases δ = +1/3.

4.0

2.4

3.8

2.2

3.6
2

2.0

3.4

1.8

3.2

1.6

3.0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

(AU) (AU)

Figure 10. The reduced χ2 for δ=1/3 as a function of Λ in case of NTT/VLT alone (left)
and combined NTT/VLT+Keck (right) observations.
12 D. Borka, P. Jovanović, V. Borka Jovanović and A. F. Zakharov

Figure 11. The maps of reduced χ2 over the Λ − δ parameter space in case of NTT/VLT
observations. The left panel corresponds to δ ∈ [0, 1], and the right panel to the extended
range of δ ∈ [0.01, 106 ]. The shades of gray color represent the values of the reduced χ2
which are less than the corresponding value in the case of Keplerian orbit, and three con-
tours (from inner to outer) enclose the confidence regions in which the difference between
the current and minimum reduced χ2 is less than 0.0005, 0.005 and 0.05, respectively.

Figure 12. The same as in Fig. 11, but for the combined NTT/VLT+Keck observations.
 Orbit of S2 Star Near the Galactic Center in Rn and Yukawa gravity 13

The values δ ≈ 1/3 result with very good fits for which the reduced χ2 deviate from
the minimal value for less than 0.005 (middle contours in both figures). The corresponding
values for Λ range are approximately from 2500 to 3000 AU. More precisely, for δ = 1/3
we obtained the following values: Λ = 2590 ± 5 AU (NTT/VLT data) and Λ = 3030 ± 5
AU (NTT/VLT+Keck combined data).

3.5. Orbital Precession in Rn and Yukawa Gravity

Figure 13. The exact expression for precession angle ∆θ in Rn gravity (in degrees) as a
function of the parameter β (black solid line) and two its approximations: for β ≈ 0 (dash-
dotted line) and for β ≈ 1 (dotted line). The other parameters correspond to the case of S2
star: a = 919 AU, e = 0.87 and rc = 100 AU.

The derivation of orbital precession in Yukawa gravity is presented by Adkins and Mc-
Donnell [87] who calculated the precession of Keplerian orbits under the influence of arbi-
trary central force perturbations. For some examples including the Yukawa potential they
presented the results using hypergeometric functions. Following the same approach we
derived orbital precession in Rn gravity (see [45]).
We assume that Rn gravitational potential does not differ significantly from Newtonian
potential and we derive formula for precession angle of the theoretical orbit, during one
orbital period. First, we derive perturbing potential from:

GM
V (r) = Φ (r) − ΦN (r) ; ΦN (r) = − . (9)
r
Obtained perturbing potential has the following form:
 β !
GM r
V (r) = − −1 , (10)
2r rc
and it can be used for calculating the precession angle according to the equation (30) from
[87]:

Z1
−2L z · dz dV (z)
∆θ = √ , (11)
GM e2 1 − z 2 dz
−1
14 D. Borka, P. Jovanović, V. Borka Jovanović and A. F. Zakharov

Figure 14. The orbits of S2 star around massive black hole in Rn gravity (solid line) and in
Newtonian gravity (dashed line) for rc = 100 AU and β = 0.01 during 0.9 periods (left) and
9 periods (right).

Figure 15. The orbits of S2 star around massive black hole in Yukawa gravity (solid line)
and in Newtonian gravity (dashed line) for Λ = 3030 AU and δ = +1/3 during 0.9 periods
(left) and 9 periods (right).
 Orbit of S2 Star Near the Galactic Center in Rn and Yukawa gravity 15

Figure 16. The orbits of S2 star around massive black hole in Yukawa gravity (solid line)
and in Newtonian gravity (dashed line) for Λ = 3030 AU and δ = −1/3 during 0.9 periods
(left) and 9 periods (right).

L
where r is related to z via: r = . By differentiating the perturbing potential V (z)
1 + ez
and substituting its derivative (L = a 1 − e2 ) in Eq. (11) we obtain:

!β
π a 1 − e2
∆θ = β (β − 1) ×
2 rc (12)
 
β+1 β+2
×2 F1 , ; 2; e2 ,
2 2
where 2 F1 is hypergeometric function. The graphical presentation of the precession angle
∆θ for S2 star orbit as a function of β is given in Fig. 13 (black solid line). It can be seen
that ∆θ is negative for all values of β between 0 and 1, which are of interest in the case of
S2 star orbit.
In the case of β ≈ 0 the expansion of Eq. (12) in Taylor’s series over β, up to the first
order, leads to the following expression for precession angle:
√ 
π rad β 1 − e2 − 1
∆θ =
e2
√  (13)
◦
180 β 1 − e2 − 1
= .
e2
The expression in the case of S2 star orbit is presented in Fig. 13 as a dash-dotted
line. Similarly, expansion of Eq. (12) in power series for β ≈ 1, leads to the following
approximate expression for precession angle (dotted line in Fig. 13):
16 D. Borka, P. Jovanović, V. Borka Jovanović and A. F. Zakharov

√ 
π rad a (β − 1) 1 − e2 − 1 + e2
∆θ ≈
rc e2
√  (14)
180◦ a (β − 1) 1 − e2 − 1 + e2
= .
rc e2
In the case for β ≈ 1 precession angle depends on semimajor axis and eccentricity of
the orbit [88], as well as on both potential parameters β and rc . But in the case when β is
small (β ≈ 0), it depends only on eccentricity and universal constant β itself.
The analysis indicates that Rn gravity results with retrograde shift of the S2 star orbit.
Rubilar and Eckart [83] showed that the orbital precession can be due to relativistic effects,
resulting in a prograde shift, or due to an extended mass distribution, producing a retrograde
shift (see also, [39, 41]). We can conclude that the perturbing potential V (r) has a similar
effect as an extended mass distribution, since it produces a retrograde orbital shift.
In Fig. 14 we presented the orbits of S2 star around massive black hole in Rn gravity
(solid line) for rc = 100 AU and β = 0.01 and in Newtonian gravity (dashed line) during
0.9 periods (left) and 9 periods (right). The presented orbits fulfill request that Rn orbit
and corresponding Newtonian orbit differ less than 10 mas, during one orbital period. As it
can be seen from Fig. 14 the orbital precession is in negative direction, which is opposite
to the precession in General Relativity. The best fit is obtained for the universal constant:
β = 0.01, in which case the corresponding precession is around −1◦ [45].
In Fig. 15 we presented the orbits of S2 star around massive black hole in Yukawa
gravity (solid line) for Λ = 3030 AU and δ = +1/3 and in Newtonian gravity (dashed line)
during 0.9 periods (left) and 9 periods (right). Also, the presented orbits fulfill request that
orbits in Yukawa and Newtonian gravity differ less than 10 mas. As it can be seen from
this figure, for δ = +1/3 there is orbital precession in positive direction similarly to the
relativistic advance in General Relativity.
In Fig. 16 we presented the orbits of S2 like star around massive black hole in Yukawa
gravity (solid line) and in Newtonian gravity (dashed line) for Λ = 3030 AU and δ =
−1/3 during 0.9 periods (left) and 9 periods (right). For this value of universal constant δ
of Yukawa gravity the precession has negative direction, as in the case of extended mass
distribution or in Rn gravity [45].

4. Conclusions
In this chapter we make comparison between the simulated orbits of S2 star in Rn [45] and
in Yukawa [52] gravity potentials. The obtained results showed that both Rn and Yukawa
gravity could satisfactorily explain the observed orbits of S2 star. Additionally, we found
constraints on the parameters of Rn and Yukawa gravity theories using S2 star orbits under
assumed uncertainties of 10 mas and 1 mas.
We confirmed that parameters of Rn and Yukawa gravity theories must be very close to
those corresponding to the Newtonian limits of these theories. According to these results
we show:
 Orbit of S2 Star Near the Galactic Center in Rn and Yukawa gravity 17

1. for parameter β approaching to zero, we recover the value of the Keplerian orbit for
S2 star,

2. in contrast to General Relativity, Rn gravity gives retrograde direction of the preces-

sion of the S2 star orbit, like in the case when it is caused by an extended matter
distribution in Newtonian potential,

3. the same universal constant δ which was successfully applied to clusters of galaxies
and to rotation curves of spiral galaxies [54, 55] also gives a good agreement in
the case of observations of S2 star orbit around the supermassive black hole at the
Galactic Center,

4. if we take δ = +1/3 the scale parameter of Yukawa gravity in the case of S2 star is
about: Λ ≈ 3000 ± 1500 AU,

5. for δ approaching zero, we recover the Keplerian orbit of S2 star;

6. for δ = +1/3 there is orbital precession in positive direction like in General Relativ-
ity, and for δ = −1/3 the precession has negative direction, as in the case of extended
mass distribution or in Rn gravity.

In paper [45] we found that Rn gravity may not represent a good candidate to solve both
the flat rotation curves of spiral galaxies and the orbital precession of S2 star for the same
value of the universal constant β (β=0.817 and β ∼0.01, respectively). According to the
above results for the current astrometric precision the opposite conclusion is not eliminated
in the case of Yukawa gravity if we assume δ = 1/3. The future observations with advanced
facilities, such as GRAVITY which will enable extremely accurate measurements of the
positions of stars of ∼ 10 µas [89], or E-ELT with expected accuracy of ∼ 50-100 µas [90],
are needed in order to verify these claims.
Besides, as it was shown in [91, 92] similar analogues of the Newtonian and modi-
fied theories of gravity could be performed in the case of orbits of supermasive black hole
binaries providing the future tests of these theories of gravity.

Acknowledgements D. B., V. B. J. and P. J. acknowledge support of the Ministry of

Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia through the
project 176003 ”Gravitation and the large scale structure of the Universe”. A. F. Z. acknowl-
edges a partial support of the NSF (HRD-0833184) and NASA (NNX09AV07A) grants at
NCCU (Durham, NC, USA). A. F. Z. thanks also a senior scientist fellowship of Chinese
Academy od Sciences for a partial support.

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