sensors
Essay
Wave Propagation Characteristics and Compaction Status of
Subgrade during Vibratory Compaction
Junkai Yao 1 , Mao Yue 2, *, Hongsheng Ma 3 and Changwei Yang 2
Citation: Yao, J.; Yue, M.; Ma, H.;
Yang, C. Wave Propagation
Characteristics and Compaction
Status of Subgrade during Vibratory
Compaction. Sensors 2023, 23, 2183.
https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042183
Academic Editors: Longjun Dong
and Tiantian Wang
Received: 22 December 2022
Revised: 8 February 2023
Accepted: 8 February 2023
Published: 15 February 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sensors 2023, 23, 2183. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042183
1 State Key Laboratory for Track Technology of High-Speed Railway, China Academy of Railway Sciences
Corporation Limited, Beijing 100081, China
2 MOE Key Laboratory of High-Speed Railway Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong
University, Chengdu 610031, China
3 Sichuan Highway Planning Survey Design and Research Institute, Chengdu 610041, China
* Correspondence: ymhoo98@126.com
Abstract: Vibratory compaction status has a significant influence on the construction quality of sub-
grade engineering. This study carried out field experiments to study the propagation characteristics
of the vertical vibration wave in the soil field along the traveling direction of the vibratory roller. The
propagation coefficients of the peak acceleration at different positions and compacting rounds are
compared in both the time and frequency domains. The compaction status is estimated in the form of
dynamic modulus of deformation (Evd ) obtained by plate load tests. The experiment results show
that the propagation coefficient of peak acceleration is affected by the traveling speed, excitation
amplitude, and frequency of the vibratory roller, as well as the compacting rounds. An exponential
relationship between the wave amplitudes of the fundamental mode and higher-order modes is
revealed. The amplitude of the fundamental wave is maximum at the speed of 3 km/h, whereas
the amplitudes of higher-order waves have a maximum of 1.5 km/h. The influences of compaction
rounds on the average value of Evd are also investigated to provide a practical reference for engineer-
ing construction.
Keywords: subgrade engineering; vibratory compaction; wave propagation coefficient; dynamic
modulus of deformation
1. Introduction
As an extremely important part of road construction, the compaction of roadbeds
has been widely studied by many scholars, where the unevenness of compaction is one
of the important factors leading to uneven pavement. In order to solve this problem,
the California Department of Highways introduced the California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
in the 20th century and applied it to the corresponding compaction specifications [1].
Proctor introduced a novel method of soil compaction and applied it for the first time to
the construction of the Bouquet Canyon Reservoir in Los Angeles, USA, which was well
received [2]. After this, intelligent compaction (IC) technology, which incorporates several
functions, was first introduced in Europe in the late 1970s and is now also gradually being
used in practical projects because of its advantages such as enabling real-time monitor-
ing and automatic adjustment of the compaction process. Subsequently, many scholars
have proposed different compaction quality testing indicators or systems. Hani, H T. et al.
evaluated the construction quality of aggregate base layers based on the variability and
uniformity of density and modulus measurements during HMA pavement construction
in Wisconsin and assessed the effect of subgrade input parameters on the long-term per-
formance of HMA pavements along with sensitivity analysis [3]. Badakhshan, E., et al.
proposed a generalized damage criterion based on uncorrelated flow rules for predicting
the stress–strain behavior of unbound granular materials and evaluated the applicability
of this model by comparing the predicted results with the actual results [4]. Methods
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 2 of 18

for obtaining the compaction of roadbed fill include the density measurement method
and the compaction meter method, where the compaction judgment is made by calculat-
ing the relationship between the fundamental and harmonic amplitudes of acceleration
signals. Although a lot of theories are available now, theories still need to be verified
through practical tests [5–8]. The compaction meter method is done by calculating the
relationship between the amplitude of the acceleration signal of the fundamental wave
and the harmonic wave, which is a process from damage measurement to non-damage
measurement, and also a process from non-real-time monitoring to real-time monitoring
proposed a dynamic method—vibration compacting value to monitor the compaction of
subgrade in real-time [9–13]. Imran, S A. et al. proposed a real-time monitoring system for
rolling quality based on an artificial neural network [14]. Given the situation that CMV
cannot better reflect the compaction quality in some situations, Ma, Y. et al. proposed
an intelligent compaction quality evaluation index—accelerated intelligent compaction
value (AICV) [15]. Ma, Y. et al. verified the accuracy of the calculation results of intelligent
subgrade soil compaction through numerical simulation [16]. Lin, D. obtained the relation
between compaction degree, amplitude, and damping ratio of vibration wave through
spectrum analysis of acceleration signal through drop-hammer testing [17]. Through MAT-
LAB simulation calculation and other methods, Liu, H.H. et al. concluded that the optimal
compaction speed of the vibratory roller was 4 km/h when it met the code requirements
of 94% relative to the maximum theoretical density [18]. Hou, Z.Y. et al. designed and
developed a remote monitoring system with intelligent compaction index CMV as the
core [19]. Wang, S.X. obtained the optimal compaction speed matching with the vibration
frequency in the construction process by field test [20]. Ye, Y.S. et al. studied the attenuation
coefficient of peak acceleration in the horizontal direction of an adjacent lane by field
test [21]. Jia, M.C. et al. proposed the PFC/FLAC coupling method to study the process
of dynamic densification of granular soils [22]. Dan, H.C. et al. used sensors to measure
the dynamic response relationship between the vibrating wheel and the filler during the
rolling process [23].
Zhang, Z.P. et al. proposed a method for measuring the degree of layered compaction
of loess roadbed based on hydraulic compaction given the theory of layered compaction [24].
Liu, L. et al. proposed a parameter adjustment strategy for the frequency and amplitude
of the drum, based on the coupled nonlinear dynamic model of the vibration wheel [25].
Chen, A.J. et al. studied the propagation and attenuation laws of vibration waves on the
ground by conducting field tests [26]. Yang, C.W. et al. conducted a field test to study the
dynamic characteristics of the filling during the filling process [27].
The abovementioned research focuses on various aspects of compaction. In the actual
compaction process, the dynamic response characteristics of the vibration waves in the
horizontal direction of the filler are also very important, but there are still relatively few
papers on this aspect. By studying the diffusion law of the vibration wave in the horizontal
direction, we can obtain information on the attenuation degree of vibration energy, to study
the influence of the change of parameters such as travel speed and vibration frequency
on the compaction of the filler to improve the compaction efficiency and quality. Based
on this, this study conducted a field prototype test because of the shortage of existing
research, obtained the acceleration time range data at different monitoring points during
the compaction process by burying acceleration sensors on the surface of the filler, and
analyzed the peak propagation coefficient, time-history curve, and spectral characteristics
of the filler surface to study the peak acceleration coefficient and optimum compaction
conditions of the filler at different speeds of vibratory rollers. The peak acceleration
propagation coefficients and the optimum compaction conditions were investigated.

2. Test Overview
In this paper, the actual construction line is used as the experimental section for the
vibration compaction test. The site soil is sandy with a moisture content of 3.47%, and the
particle gradation curve is shown in Figure 1.
 2. Test Overview
In this paper, the actual construction line is used as the experimental section for the
Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 3 of 18
vibration compaction test. The site soil is sandy with a moisture content of 3.47%, and the
particle gradation curve is shown in Figure 1.

100

Percentage of sieving quality (%)

80

60

40

20

0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Screen hole diameter (mm)

Figure
Figure 1. Particle gradingcurve
Particle grading curveof of filling
filling soil.soil.

2.1. Test Equipment

2.1. Test Equipment
The vibratory roller adopted in this test is a single-drum roller with two types of
The modes:
working vibratory roller
strong adopted
excitation in this
and weak test is aThe
excitation. single-drum
mechanical roller withoftwo
parameters usedtypes of
working modes: strong excitation and weak excitation. The mechanical
vibration roller in the test are listed in Table 1. DH5922D, a 32−channel dynamic data parameters of
used vibration
acquisition roller in
equipment of the
the test are listed
Donghua in Table
test, and 1C3031.acceleration
DH5922D,sensor
a 32−channel dynamic data
of the Donghua
acquisition equipment
test were used in the test,ofwith range of ±
the aDonghua test,
16 g.and 1C303 acceleration sensor of the Donghua
test were used in the test, with a range of ±16 g.
Table 1. Vibratory roller parameters.
Table 1. Vibratory roller parameters.
Working Modes
Parameters
Working
Strong Excitation Modes
Weak Excitation
Parameters
Exciting force (kN) 416Strong Excitation Weak275 Excitation
Nominal amplitude (mm) 2.05 1.03
Exciting force (kN) 416 275
Vibration frequency (Hz) 27 31
Nominal Massamplitude
(kg) (mm) 2.05 26,700 1.03
Vibration wheel diameter (mm)
Vibration frequency (Hz) 27 1700 31
Vibrating wheel width (mm) 2170
Mass (kg) 26,700
Vibration wheel diameter (mm) 1700
Since the test site is located outside and is often rainy, a layer of glass glue is applied
Vibrating wheel width (mm) 2170
around the sensor to make it waterproof and protect the sensors. Steel pipes are embedded
in the connection line between the sensors and the data acquisition system to protect the
safetySince theline.
of the testSince
site isthe
located
sensorsoutside and is often
are three-way rainy,
sensors, the aforward
layer ofdirection
glass glue is applied
of the
around
vibratory the sensor
roller toXmake
is the it waterproof
−direction. and protect
The direction the sensors.
perpendicular Steel pipesdirection
to the advancing are embedded
in
of the connection
the vibratory line
roller andbetween
parallel the sensors
to the subgradeand the data
surface is theacquisition
Y−direction. system to protect the
The direction
perpendicular
safety to theSince
of the line. subgradethe surface
sensorsand parallel
are to the vibration
three-way sensors,direction of the direction
the forward vibratory of the
roller is the
vibratory Z−direction.
roller To ensure that
is the X−direction. Thethe sensorsperpendicular
direction did not shift in all directions
to the during
advancing direction
the experiments, a square thin plate with lightweight and high stiffness was
of the vibratory roller and parallel to the subgrade surface is the Y−direction. The directionpasted at the
bottom of the sensor, as shown in Figure 2.
perpendicular to the subgrade surface and parallel to the vibration direction of the vibra-
tory roller Layout
2.2. Sensor is the Z−direction. To ensure that the sensors did not shift in all directions dur-
ing the experiments, a square thin
To analyze the propagation plate with
mechanism lightweight
of vibration and
waves high
in the stiffness
filling, was pasted at
the sensors
the
are bottom
arrangedofinthe
the sensor, as in
filling soil shown in of
the way Figure
filling2.
and embedding. Six acceleration sensors
were arranged along the advancing direction of the single−lane vibratory roller in the test.
To ensure the accuracy of acceleration data, the acceleration sensors were buried in the
middle of the lane, and the buried depth was 5 cm below the surface of the filling soil layer.
A plate load test is carried out between every two acceleration measuring points to detect
the compaction performance of the subgrade filling soil after each compaction, as shown
Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 4 of 18

in Figure 2c. To test the compaction quality of the roadbed, the dynamic deformation
modulus index is commonly used for evaluation. The dynamic deformation modulus (Evd )
is obtained from a plate test with a certain size and time of action load applied by a falling
hammer impact, which represents the ratio of dynamic stress to dynamic strain at a point
Sensors 2023, 23, xinFOR
thePEER
roadbed and describes the ability of the point to resist the dynamic deformation
REVIEW 4
generated by the dynamic load in a certain state.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 2. Test siteFigure

and test2. equipment.
Test site and(a)
test equipment.
Vibratory (a) Vibratory
roller. roller.sensor.
(b) Accelerator (b) Accelerator sensor.
(c) Plate load (c) Plate lo
test.
test. (d) Test site.
(d) Test site.

2.2. Sensor Layout

2.3. Test Procedures
Six test lanes are Todesigned
analyze the propagation
in the mechanism
area of uniform of vibration
and flat waves
filling for in the filling, the se
the continuous
compaction testare of arranged in the filling
the subgrade. soil in the way
The compaction of filling
process and embedding.
parameters of eachSix acceleration
lane are se
shown in Table were
2. Thearranged
specific along the advancing
test steps direction of the single−lane vibratory roller in th
are as follows.
To ensure the accuracy of acceleration data, the acceleration sensors were buried i
(1) Before the start of the test, the moisture content and particle grading of the filling
middle of the lane, and the buried depth was 5 cm below the surface of the fillin
should be first detected.
layer. A plate load test is carried out between every two acceleration measuring poi
(2) After the static pressure leveling of each test area by vibratory roller, the rolling
detect the compaction performance of the subgrade filling soil after each compactio
compaction is carried out according to the corresponding test conditions. A round
shown in Figure 2c. To test the compaction quality of the roadbed, the dynamic d
compaction process includes two phases, rolling travel from measuring point 1 to 6,
mation modulus index is commonly used for evaluation. The dynamic deformation
and rolling travel from measuring point 6 to 1. After each round of rolling tests is
ulus (Evd) is obtained from a plate test with a certain size and time of action load ap
completed, the Evd test shall be conducted in the rolled area.
by a falling hammer impact, which represents the ratio of dynamic stress to dyn
(3) Six acceleration measuring points are arranged on the ground with a distance of 2 m
strain at a point in the roadbed and describes the ability of the point to resist the dyn
between adjacent measuring points to collect the acceleration response of the filling.
deformation generated by the dynamic load in a certain state.
The field between adjacent measuring points is divided into 5 sections on average,
with each section having a width of 0.4 m. As shown in Figure 3, select the middle
2.3. Test Procedures
three sections for the Evd test, and three tests are conducted on each section.
(4) Synchronously Six testthe
collect lanes are designed
acceleration in theofarea
response of uniform
the ground andand flat fillingroller,
the vibratory for the contin
compaction test of the subgrade.
and ensure that the time between them is consistent. The compaction process parameters of each lan
shown in Table 2. The specific test steps are as follows.
(1) Before the start of the test, the moisture content and particle grading of the f
should be first detected.
(2) After the static pressure leveling of each test area by vibratory roller, the rolling
paction is carried out according to the corresponding test conditions. A round
paction process includes two phases, rolling travel from measuring point 1 to 6
rolling travel from measuring point 6 to 1. After each round of rolling tests is
pleted, the Evd test shall be conducted in the rolled area.
 Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 5 of 18

Table 2. Test cases.

Case Number Compaction Rounds Travel Speed

1 static pressure and
1 1.5 km/h
6 weak vibration
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1 static pressure and 5 of 1
2 3.0 km/h
6 weak vibration
1 static pressure and
3 4.5 km/h
6 weak vibration
The field4 between adjacent measuring points is divided into
1 static pressure and 5 sections on average
1.5 km/h
6 weak vibration
with each section having a width of 0.4 m. As shown in Figure 3, select the middle
1 static pressure and
5
three sections for the Evd test,6 and tests are conducted3.0
onkm/h
weakthree
vibration each section.
(4) Synchronously
6
collect the 1acceleration
static pressure response
and of the ground
4.5 km/h
and the vibratory
6 weak vibration
roller, and ensure that the time between them is consistent.

Figure3.3.AAround
Figure round compaction
compaction process.
process.

3. Test 2.
Table Results and Analysis
Test cases.
In order to study the compaction state and acceleration propagation law of the filling
soilCase
underNumber
different vibrationCompaction
parameters of Rounds
the roller, we designed testsTravel
underSpeed
different
1 static
parameters in the working process pressurerollers
of vibratory and and used one round as a compaction
1
test to obtain the acceleration time-history
1.5 km/h
curve under different working conditions. For
6 weak vibration
acceleration time-course data,1the method
static of processing
pressure and the data is quite important [28,29].
The sampling2 frequency is the number of test data collected by the acceleration 3.0 km/hsensor
6 weak vibration
per second. If the sampling frequency is too low, the acceleration curve will have obvious
burrs, which 1 static pressure and
3 will reduce the accuracy of the experiment [30]. In order to ensure the smooth
4.5 km/h
6 weak
curve and the accuracy of the test, vibrationfrequency in this paper is 5000 Hz, that
the sampling
1 statics. pressure
is, the sampling interval is 0.0002 and the acceleration time-history curve
In this article,
4
of Z−direction and acceleration of 0.5 s are selected, and the detailed 1.5 km/hof the
display
6 weak vibration
time−history curve is shown in Figure 4.
1 static pressure and
5 3.0 km/h
6 weak vibration
1 static pressure and
6 4.5 km/h
6 weak vibration

3. Test Results and Analysis

In order to study the compaction state and acceleration propagation law of the filling
soil under different vibration parameters of the roller, we designed tests under differen
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 6 of 18 of the

curve of Z−direction and acceleration of 0.5 s are selected, and the detailed display
time−history curve is shown in Figure 4.

3
2

Acceleration (g)
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0 7 14 21 28 35 42
Time (s)

(a)

1.5
1.0
Acceleration (g)

0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time (s)
(b)
Figure
Figure4.4.Time−history
Time−historycurve
curve of
of acceleration. (a)Acceleration
acceleration. (a) Accelerationtime
time−history curve
−history curve in in
Z−Z−direction
direction (The
whole time period).
(The whole (b) Acceleration
time period). time−history
(b) Acceleration time−historycurve
curve in Z-direction(The
in Z-direction (The partial
partial timetime period).
period).

3.1. Propagation of Peak Acceleration

3.1. Propagation of Peak Acceleration
In the working process of the vibratory roller, the vibratory roller not only has an
impactIn the working
on the vibratingprocess of the
wheel and thevibratory
working area roller, theit but
under vibratory
also hasroller notimpact
a certain only has an
impact
on the on the vibrating
surrounding fillingwheel and
soil. In thisthe working
paper, area under
the propagation lawit but also haswave
of vibration a certain
alongimpact
onthethe surrounding filling soil. In this paper, the propagation law of
traveling direction is analyzed by taking the peak acceleration of each acceleration vibration wave along
the travelingpoint
measuring direction
as the is analyzed
research by taking
object. Figure 5the peakthe
shows acceleration
accelerationoftimeeach acceleration
−history
curve of a compaction
measuring point as theprocess.
research According to the analysis,
object. Figure 5 showsthetheeffective vibration
acceleration process is curve
time−history
ofabout 35 s. The vibratory
a compaction process. roller first goes
According through
to the measuring
analysis, point 1,vibration
the effective then passes through
process is about
measuring points 2, 3, 4, and 5 in sequence, and finally to measuring
35 s. The vibratory roller first goes through measuring point 1, then passes through point 6. Then it returns meas-
from point 6 to point 1 to complete a set of vibrating compaction tests.
uring points 2, 3, 4, and 5 in sequence, and finally to measuring point 6. Then it returns
The acceleration peak at each measurement point can be studied by obtaining the
from point
data from the 6 toacceleration
point 1 to sensors
complete a setatofsix
buried vibrating compaction
measurement points on tests.
the surface of the
fill, and then the acceleration peak propagation coefficient at the remaining measurement
points can be studied when the vibratory roller passes through a certain measurement
point, as shown in Figure 6. Analysis of Figure 6 shows that the acceleration peak value
decreases significantly along the direction of advance of the vibratory roller as the vibration
wave in the filler soil.
 2 Point 1
0
-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
4
2 Point 2
0
-2
Sensors
Sensors2023,
2023,23,
23,x2183
FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of
7 of1818
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
4

Acceleration (g)
2 Point 3
0
-2
4 40 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
2 2 Point 1 4
Point
0 0
-2 -2
0 55 1010 1515 2020 2525 3030 3535 4040
4 40
2 2 Point 2 5
Point
0 0
-2 -2
0 5 5 1010 1515 2020 2525 3030 3535 4040
4 40
Acceleration (g)
2 2 Point 3 6
Point
0 0
-2 -2
0 5 5 1010 1515 2020 2525 3030 3535 4040
4 0
Point 4
2 Time (s)
0
-2
Figure 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
4 5. Time−history curve of accelerations from point 1 to point 6.
2 Point 5
0
-2 The acceleration peak at each measurement point can be studied by obtaining the
data4 0from the5 acceleration
10 15
sensors 20
buried 25 measurement
at six 30 35points 40 on the surface of the
Point 6
fill, 2and then the acceleration peak propagation coefficient at the remaining measurement
0
points
-2 can be studied when the vibratory roller passes through a certain measurement
point, 0 as shown
5 10
in Figure 6. 15 20 of Figure
Analysis 25 6 shows
30 that35the acceleration
40 peak value
decreases significantly along the direction of advance of the vibratory roller as the vibra-
Time (s)
tion wave
Figure in −
5. Time the fillercurve
history soil. of accelerations from point 1 to point 6.
Figure 5. Time−history curve of accelerations from point 1 to point 6.
4 4
Acceleration (g)

Acceleration (g)

The acceleration peak at Point each1 measurement

2 2
Point 2
point can be studied by obtaining the
data 0from the acceleration sensors buried 0
at six measurement points on the surface of the
fill, and then the acceleration peak propagation coefficient at the remaining measurement
-2 -2
points can be studied when the vibratory roller passes through a certain measurement
-4 -4
point, 0.0as shown
0.1 0.2
in Figure 0.3 Analysis
6. 0.4 of
0.0Figure0.16 shows
0.2 that 0.3 0.4
the acceleration peak value
Time (s) Time (s)
decreases
4 significantly along the direction
4 of advance of the vibratory roller as the vibra-
Acceleration (g)

Acceleration (g)

Point 3 Point 4
tion wave
2
in the filler soil. 2
0 0
4 4
Acceleration (g)

Acceleration (g)

-2 Point 1 -2 Point 2
2 2
-4 -4
0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
-2 Time (s) -2 Time (s)
4 4
Acceleration (g)

Acceleration (g)

-4 Point 5 -4 Point 6
0.02 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.02 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0 Time (s) 0 Time (s)
4 4
Acceleration (g)

Acceleration (g)

-2 Point 3 -2 Point 4
2 2
-4 -4
0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
-2 Time (s) -2 Time (s)

-4 -4
Figure 0.1 time−
0.0 6. The 0.2history0.3
curve of0.4each measuring
0.0 0.1 point.
0.2 0.3 0.4
Figure 6. The time−history curve of each measuring point.
Time (s) Time (s)
3.1.1.
4 Propagation Coefficient of Peak4Acceleration under Different Compaction Conditions
Acceleration (g)

Acceleration (g)

Point 5 Point 6
2
During the propagation of the vibration2 wave in the filling, due to internal effects such
as0friction between particles in the subgrade 0 filling, part of the energy of the vibration wave
is-2consumed. The interaction between -2 the particles is closely related to the compactness
-4
of 0.0
the subgrade, so the 0.3
compaction -4of the subgrade filling has a certain impact on the
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
attenuation of Timethe (s)
vibration wave [28]. In this paper, Time (s) the ratio of peak acceleration in
the same time period is taken as the peak acceleration propagation coefficient (k, k ≤ 1).
Figure 6.the
When Thevibratory
time−historyroller works
curve of eachtomeasuring
measure point
point. 1, the peak acceleration of point 1 is
the largest, and the ratio of the peak acceleration value of measuring point 2 to measuring
point 6 to measuring point 1 is taken as the peak acceleration propagation coefficient of
each measuring point. This method is also used to calculate the propagation coefficient of
acceleration when the vibratory roller works at other measuring points.
 attenuation of the vibration wave [28]. In this paper, the ratio of peak acceleration in the
same time period is taken as the peak acceleration propagation coefficient (k, k ≤ 1). When
the vibratory roller works to measure point 1, the peak acceleration of point 1 is the largest,
and the ratio of the peak acceleration value of measuring point 2 to measuring point 6 to
Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 measuring point 1 is taken as the peak acceleration propagation coefficient of each meas- 8 of 18
uring point. This method is also used to calculate the propagation coefficient of accelera-
tion when the vibratory roller works at other measuring points.
From
Fromthe theanalysis
analysisofofFigure
Figure7,7,it itcan
canbebeseen
seenthatthatnonomatter
matterwhich
whichworking
workingposition
position
the
the vibratory roller is in, the peak acceleration of the soil uncompacted is greaterthan
vibratory roller is in, the peak acceleration of the soil uncompacted is greater thanthat
that
ininthe
thecompacted
compactedstate.state.The
Themaximum
maximum value
valueofofthethepeak
peakacceleration
accelerationdifference
differenceoccurs
occursatat
the
theworking
workingposition
positionofofthe
thevibratory
vibratoryroller,
roller,andandthe theadjacent
adjacentposition
positionisissecond.
second.As Ascan
canbebe
shown
shownininFigure
Figure 8,8, when the thevibratory
vibratoryroller rolleris is running
running directly
directly aboveabove
eacheach measuring
measuring point,
point, the propagation
the propagation coefficient
coefficient of peak
of peak acceleration
acceleration in uncompacted
in the the uncompacted statestate is greater
is greater than
than that in the compacted state of adjacent measuring points along
that in the compacted state of adjacent measuring points along the driving direction. The the driving direction.
The
main main reason
reason for for
thisthis phenomenon
phenomenon is that
is that in thein test
the area
test area
where where the filling
the filling has been
has been rolled,
rolled, the upper
the upper soilthe
soil and andlower
the lower soiltightly
soil are are tightly
bonded bonded together,
together, in a relatively
in a relatively dense dense
state,
state,
which which
has ahas a greater
greater restriction
restriction on theon the sensor,
sensor, making making the sensor
the sensor can beembedded
can be better better em-in
bedded
the soilinand
thevibrate
soil and vibratewith
together together
the soil.with
The the soil. The uncompacted
uncompacted soil fluffy,
soil is relatively is relatively
and the
upperand
fluffy, soilthe
is upper
not tightly
soil isbonded to the
not tightly lower to
bonded soil,
thewhich
lower has
soil,awhich
less restrictive
has a lesseffect on the
restrictive
sensor
effect onand enablesand
the sensor the enables
sensor to thereceive
sensorgreater
to receive vibration
greaterenergy.
vibration energy.

3 4
Uncompacted state Uncompacted state
Acceleration (g)

Acceleration (g)
Compacted state 3 Compacted state
2
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 9 of 18
1
1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)
vibration
6 conditions, and the more rounds 4 of compaction, the more obvious the penetra-
Uncompacted state Uncompacted state
Acceleration (g)

Acceleration (g)
tion
4 cracks are. From this phenomenon,
Compacted state 3it can be seen
Compacted state that with the improvement of the
soil
2
compaction state, the damping ratio of soil in the horizontal direction becomes larger
2

and0
larger, so the propagation coefficient1of peak acceleration decreases with the improve-
0
ment0 of the 2 soil 4compaction 6 8state. 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)
4 In the process of vibration wave propagation,
4 the acceleration peak propagation co-
Uncompacted state Uncompacted state
Acceleration (g)

Acceleration (g)

efficient
3 decreases
Compacted state due to the increase of distance
3 effect
Compacted state and damping effect. With the grad-
ual increase in distance in the horizontal direction, the influence of the distance effect in-
2 2
1
creases, so the increase in the damping 1effect accounts for the second factor. Therefore,
0 0
the effect
0 of
2 soil 4compaction 6 8on the 10 peak acceleration
0 2 propagation
4 6 coefficient
8 10 in the work-
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)
ing area far away from the vibratory roller is not as good as that in the adjacent working
area. 7. Peak acceleration attenuation curve.
Figure
Figure 7. Peak acceleration attenuation curve.

1.0 Uncompacted state 1.0 Uncompacted state

According to the analysis, thestatepeak acceleration and propagation coefficient of the
propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient

Compacted Compacted state

0.8 0.8
Peak acceleration
Peak acceleration

vibration wave near the working position of the vibratory roller in the uncompacted state
0.6 0.6
is greater than that of the compacted state 0.4 in the process of horizontal propagation. It is
0.4
concluded that the reason why the compaction of soil increases during the working pro-
0.2 0.2
cess of
0.0
the vibratory roller is that the reduction0.0
of pores in the vertical direction makes the
upper and lower soil more closely connected, which2 destroys
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 4 6
the 8
original 10
bonding effect
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)
in the horizontal direction. From the field filling in the compacted test section, it can be
1.0 Uncompa cted state 1.0 Uncompacted state
seen that there are many transverse penetration cracks
Compactedin
statethe surface perpendicular to the
propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient

Compa cted state

0.8 0.8
Peak acceleration
Peak acceleration

advanced
0.6
direction of the vibratory roller. These
0.6
cracks exist in both strong and weak
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)

1.0 Uncompacted state 1.0 Uncompacted state

propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient

Compacted state Compacted state

0.8 0.8
Peak acceleration
Peak acceleration

0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)

Figure 8. Peak acceleration propagation coefficient.

Figure 8. Peak acceleration propagation coefficient.

3.1.2. Propagation Coefficient of Peak Acceleration of Vibratory Roller at

Different Speeds
Different speeds of the vibratory roller have a certain influence on the propagation
Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 9 of 18

According to the analysis, the peak acceleration and propagation coefficient of the
vibration wave near the working position of the vibratory roller in the uncompacted state
is greater than that of the compacted state in the process of horizontal propagation. It is
concluded that the reason why the compaction of soil increases during the working process
of the vibratory roller is that the reduction of pores in the vertical direction makes the
upper and lower soil more closely connected, which destroys the original bonding effect
in the horizontal direction. From the field filling in the compacted test section, it can be
seen that there are many transverse penetration cracks in the surface perpendicular to
the advanced direction of the vibratory roller. These cracks exist in both strong and weak
vibration conditions, and the more rounds of compaction, the more obvious the penetration
cracks are. From this phenomenon, it can be seen that with the improvement of the soil
compaction state, the damping ratio of soil in the horizontal direction becomes larger and
larger, so the propagation coefficient of peak acceleration decreases with the improvement
of the soil compaction state.
In the process of vibration wave propagation, the acceleration peak propagation
coefficient decreases due to the increase of distance effect and damping effect. With the
gradual increase in distance in the horizontal direction, the influence of the distance effect
increases, so the increase in the damping effect accounts for the second factor. Therefore,
the effect of soil compaction on the peak acceleration propagation coefficient in the working
area far away from the vibratory roller is not as good as that in the adjacent working area.

3.1.2. Propagation Coefficient of Peak Acceleration of Vibratory Roller at Different Speeds

Different speeds of the vibratory roller have a certain influence on the propagation law
of the vibration wave in the filling. In order to further study the horizontal propagation
law and horizontal propagation coefficient of the vibration wave, in this paper, the peak
acceleration propagation coefficient is selected under the conditions of strong vibration
when the speed of the vibratory roller is 1.5 km/h, 3 km/h and 4.5 km/h, and the filling
under different compaction states are as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9a shows that the soil is in an uncompacted state, and the peak acceleration
propagation coefficient has a negative correlation with the speed of the vibratory roller,
that is, when the speed of the vibratory roller is 1.5 km/h, the vibration wave propaga-
tion coefficient in the horizontal direction is the largest, followed by 1.5 km/h, and the
propagation coefficient is the smallest at 4.5 km/h. The analysis shows that when the soil
is in the uncompacted state, the slower the speed of the vibratory roller, the better the
propagation of the vibration wave along the horizontal direction. That is, the same test area
is vibrated and compacted under the same working conditions, and the energy carried by
the vibration wave is the same when the vibration wave moves from the vibratory roller
to the filling. At this time, the slower the speed of the vibratory roller, the greater the
horizontal propagation coefficient of the peak acceleration, and the slower the vibration
wave propagates in the same distance, the greater the energy carried by the vibration wave,
which is more conducive to soil compaction.
According to Figure 9b, when the soil is in the compacted state, the propagation
coefficient of peak acceleration is not negatively correlated with the speed of the vibratory
roller as it is in the uncompacted state. Instead, when the speed of the vibratory roller is
3 km/h, the horizontal propagation coefficient of peak acceleration of the soil is greater
than that of the vibratory roller whose speed is 1.5 km/h and 4 km/h. The analysis shows
that the maximum propagation coefficient of peak acceleration occurs between 1.5 km/h
and 4 km/h when the soil is compacted.
When the filling soil is in an uncompacted state, decreasing the speed of the vibratory
roller is beneficial to the compaction of the filling soil, and with the increase of vibratory
roller compaction rounds, the soil compaction condition becomes better and better. At this
time, the optimal speed of the vibratory roller for compaction is not the smaller the better,
while the vibratory roller’s optimum working speed should be near 3 km/h after the soil is
in a state of compaction. The amplification coefficient of peak acceleration is closely related
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 10 of 18

to the filling. At this time, the slower the speed of the vibratory roller, the greater the
horizontal propagation coefficient of the peak acceleration, and the slower the vibration
wave propagates
to material in thegradation,
damping, same distance, the greater
moisture content,the
andenergy carried
frequency andby the vibration
amplitude of the
wave, which is more conducive
vibration wave itself. to soil compaction.

1.0 V=1.5 km/h 1.0 V=1.5 km/h

propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient
V=3.0 km/h V=3.0 km/h

Peak acceleration

Peak acceleration
0.8 0.8
V=4.5 km/h V=4.5 km/h
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)
1.0 V=1.5 km/h 1.0 V=1.5 km/h
propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient
V=3.0 km/h V=3.0 km/h
Peak acceleration

Peak acceleration
0.8 0.8
V=4.5 km/h V=4.5 km/h
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)
1.0 V=1.5 km/h 1.0 V=1.5 km/h
propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient
V=3.0 km/h V=3.0 km/h
Peak acceleration

Peak acceleration
0.8 0.8
V=4.5 km/h V=4.5 km/h
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)

(a)
propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient

1.0 V=1.5 km/h 1.0 V=1.5 km/h

Peak acceleration

Peak acceleration

0.8 0.8
V=3.0 km/h V=3.0 km/h
0.6 0.6
0.4 V=4.5 km/h 0.4 V=4.5 km/h
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)
propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient

1.0 1.0 V=1.5 km/h

V=1.5 km/h
Peak acceleration

Peak acceleration

0.8 0.8
V=3.0 km/h V=3.0 km/h
0.6 0.6
0.4 V=4.5 km/h 0.4 V=4.5 km/h
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)
propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient

1.0 V=1.5 km/h 1.0 V=1.5 km/h

Peak acceleration

Peak acceleration

0.8 0.8
V=3.0 km/h V=3.0 km/h
0.6 0.6
0.4 V=4.5 km/h 0.4 V=4.5 km/h

0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)

(b)
Figure 9. Propagation
Figure 9. Propagationcoefficient of peak
coefficient of acceleration of vibrating
peak acceleration roller at roller
of vibrating different
at speeds.
different(a)speeds.
Un-
compacted soil. (b) Compacted soil.
(a) Uncompacted soil. (b) Compacted soil.

3.1.3. The Influence

According of Different
to Figure 9b, whenAmplitudes and
the soil is in theFrequencies
compacted on thethe
state, Propagation
propagation co-
Coefficient
efficient of Peak
of peak Acceleration
acceleration is notduring Vibratory
negatively Rollerwith
correlated Operation
the speed of the vibratory
Initthe
roller as compaction
is in process of
the uncompacted subgrade,
state. Instead,the combination
when the speedofofstrong vibrationroller
the vibratory and weak
is 3
vibration is a common working condition in practical engineering. In
km/h, the horizontal propagation coefficient of peak acceleration of the soil is greater than past work, more
attention
that was paidroller
of the vibratory to thewhose
compaction
speed isdegree of strong
1.5 km/h and 4 vibration
km/h. Theand weakshows
analysis vibration
thatto
subgrade
the maximum soil, and less attention
propagation to the
coefficient of upward propagation
peak acceleration law between
occurs of vibration
1.5 wave
km/h in and the
fillingwhen
4 km/h soil with
the strong vibration and weak vibration. In this paper, the influence of the peak
soil is compacted.
acceleration
When thepropagation
filling soil iscoefficient under strong
in an uncompacted and
state, weak vibration
decreasing conditions
the speed is studied.
of the vibratory
It can be seen from Figure 10 that the peak acceleration propagation
roller is beneficial to the compaction of the filling soil, and with the increase of vibratory coefficient under
the strong vibration condition is always greater than that under the weak
roller compaction rounds, the soil compaction condition becomes better and better. At this vibration condi-
tion, whether the filling soil is in a compacted or uncompacted state. The analysis shows
that the natural frequency of the soil itself in the compacted state and the uncompacted state
is more similar to the frequency of the vibratory roller under strong vibration conditions, so

Sensors 2023, 23, 2183
peak acceleration propagation coefficient under strong and weak vibration conditions is
studied.
It can be seen from Figure 10 that the peak acceleration propagation coefficient under
the strong vibration condition is always greater than that under the weak vibration con-
dition, whether the filling soil is in a compacted or uncompacted state. The analysis shows11 of 18
that the natural frequency of the soil itself in the compacted state and the uncompacted
state is more similar to the frequency of the vibratory roller under strong vibration condi-
tions, so thepropagation
the energy energy propagation
coefficientcoefficient of the wave
of the vibration vibration waveduring
is larger is larger
the during the
propagation
propagation process of
process of filling soil. filling soil.

1.0 Weak 1.0 Weak

propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient
Strong Strong

Peak acceleration

Peak acceleration
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)

1.0 Weak 1.0 Weak

propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient
Strong 0.8 Strong
Peak acceleration

Peak acceleration
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)

1.0 Weak 1.0 Weak

propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient
Strong Strong
0.8
Peak acceleration

Peak acceleration
0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 0.0 12 of 18
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)

(a)
1.0 Weak 1.0 Weak
propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient

Strong Strong
Peak acceleration

Peak acceleration

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)

1.0 Weak 1.0 Weak

propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient

Strong Strong
Peak acceleration

Peak acceleration

0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)
1.0 Weak 1.0 Weak
propagation coefficient

propagation coefficient

Strong Strong
Peak acceleration

Peak acceleration

0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Working position of vibratory roller (m) Working position of vibratory roller (m)

(b)
Figure
Figure10.10. Propagation coefficient of
Propagation coefficient ofpeak
peakacceleration
acceleration under
under different
different amplitudes
amplitudes of vibratory
of vibratory roller.
roller. (a) Propagation coefficient of peak acceleration under uncompacted state. (b) Propagation
(a) Propagation coefficient of peak acceleration under uncompacted state. (b) Propagation coefficient
coefficient of peak acceleration
of peak acceleration under compacted
under compacted state. state.

3.2.Spectrum
3.2. SpectrumAnalysis
AnalysisofofAcceleration
AccelerationSignal
Signal
FastFourier
Fast Fouriertransform
transformisisaacommon
commonmethod
methodforforsignal
signalprocessing,
processing,ininwhich
whichFourier
Fourier
forward transform is a processing method to transform time-domain signal into fre-−
forward transform is a processing method to transform time-domain signal into frequency
domain signal. signal.
quency−domain

𝐹 𝑤 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 𝑑𝑡
→

𝑓 𝑡 —Original signal
T—Period of the original signal
Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 12 of 18

Z T
2
F (w) = lim f (t)e− jωt dt
T →∞ T
2

f (t)—Original signal
T—Period of the original signal
e− jωt —Function of complex variable
The original acceleration signals of different compaction rounds are transformed
by FFT, and the results are shown in Figure 11. It can be seen from the figure that the
frequency of the fundamental wave and the frequency of the harmonic wave in the filling
do not change with the increase of the number of compactions, while the amplitude of
the vibration wave changes with the increase of the number of compactions, in which
the amplitude of the fundamental wave first increases and then decreases. According to
the analysis, this is because the degree of compaction does not increase linearly with the
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18
increase in the number of compaction rounds, but when the degree of compaction reaches
a certain value, it will fluctuate up and down around a certain value if it is pressed again.

0.12
1st
0.09
0.06
0.03
0.00
0 40 80 120 160 200
0.12
2nd
0.09
0.06
0.03
0.00
0 40 80 120 160 200
0.20 3rd
0.15
0.10
Amplitude

0.05
0.00
0 40 80 120 160 200
0.16
4th
0.12
0.08
0.04
0.00
0 40 80 120 160 200
0.24
5th
0.18
0.12
0.06
0.00
0 40 80 120 160 200
0.16
6th
0.12
0.08
0.04
0.00
0 40 80 120 160 200
Frequency (Hz)
signal.
Figure 11. FFT spectrum of the acceleration signal.

The
The amplitudes
amplitude lawof fundamental and harmonic
of the fundamental wave atwaves are obtained
different speeds offrom the original
vibratory rollers
acceleration signal by FFT. As the speed of the vibratory roller has a certain influence
is similar to the amplitude law of the fundamental wave at different rounds of compaction on
the
and the horizontal propagation coefficient law of the peak value at different speeds of
horizontal direction of the vibration wave, the relationship between the amplitude of
the fundamental
vibratory rollers.wave
That and harmonic
is, with wave isinfurther
the increase speed,studied by only of
the amplitude changing the speed
the fundamental
of the does
wave vibratory roller monotonously,
not change under the condition that the
but when other variables
speed remain unchanged,
of the vibratory as is
roller is 3 km/h,
shown in Figure 11.
the amplitude of the fundamental wave is greater than that of the vibratory roller when
the speed is 1.5 km/h and 4.5 km/h. This law is consistent with the law of the horizontal
propagation coefficient of vibration waves at different speeds. When the speed of the vi-
bratory roller is 3 km/h, the horizontal propagation coefficient of the vibration wave peak
is the largest. The amplitude of harmonic waves has a different relationship from that of
the fundamental wave. When the speed of the vibratory roller is 1.5 km/h, the amplitude
Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 13 of 18

The amplitude law of the fundamental wave at different speeds of vibratory rollers is
similar to the amplitude law of the fundamental wave at different rounds of compaction
and the horizontal propagation coefficient law of the peak value at different speeds of
vibratory rollers. That is, with the increase in speed, the amplitude of the fundamental
wave does not change monotonously, but when the speed of the vibratory roller is 3 km/h,
the amplitude of the fundamental wave is greater than that of the vibratory roller when
the speed is 1.5 km/h and 4.5 km/h. This law is consistent with the law of the horizontal
propagation coefficient of vibration waves at different speeds. When the speed of the
vibratory roller is 3 km/h, the horizontal propagation coefficient of the vibration wave peak
is the largest. The amplitude of harmonic waves has a different relationship from that of
the fundamental wave. When the speed of the vibratory roller is 1.5 km/h, the amplitude
of the harmonic is obviously greater than that of the vibratory roller with speeds of 3 km/h
and 4.5 km/h.
From the analysis of Figure 12, it can be seen that the relation between the amplitudes
of fundamental waves and multiple harmonic waves is nonlinear, fitting y = a·xb , and the
specific parameters of the fitting results a and b can also be seen from the figure, in which
the square of the similarity coefficient (R2 ) of the fitting curves of fundamental waves and
harmonic waves of different vibratory roller speeds and different measuring points is at
least 0.97, while the rest R2 are above 0.99.

3.3. Plate Load Test

This test is divided into six rounds, each round of compaction including two phases: the
vibratory roller travels from measuring point 1 to 6, and then from measuring point 6 to 1. In
order to analyze the compaction of subgrade soil after each round of rolling, the traditional
test method plate load test is used to determine the Evd , and finally, the compaction degree
of subgrade soil is evaluated.
In this paper, 15 points of each Evd measurement are taken as the abscissa, and
the number of compactions is taken as the ordinate to draw the contour map measured
by Evd and the broken-line map measured at different points under different rounds of
compactions. According to the contour map, the continuous change in Evd along the
abscissa direction shows the compaction condition of the test lane after each vibration
compaction. From the longitudinal coordinate direction, it can be seen that the continuous
change in Evd can be obtained by six measurements of the same measuring point. The
contour maps show the Evd value in different colors, and the Evd value corresponding to
red and yellow is larger than that of blue. By linear fitting between two adjacent points,
the continuous variation in the number of vibration compactions along the test section and
different points in the same lane can be obtained. The broken−line chart shows the specific
Evd of different compaction rounds in the abscissa direction of the contour map.
From the analysis of Figure 13, it can be seen that the contour map corresponding
to the vibratory roller under strong vibration conditions at different speeds is dominated
by warm colors, while the contour map corresponding to the vibratory roller under weak
vibration conditions at different speeds is dominated by cold colors. According to the
analysis, the reason for this phenomenon is that the Evd value appears when the test
condition is in weak vibration and is larger than that of other measuring points, while the
Evd value appears when the test condition is in strong vibration and is smaller than that of
other measuring points.
It can be seen from Figure 14 that the average curve of Evd of the first three rounds
of compaction is quite different. We think that the main reason for this situation is that
the compaction degree of soil has a big difference when it is laid loose, so the last three
compacts are taken as the main analysis object. According to the analysis, the mean value
of Evd under strong vibration conditions and weak vibration conditions does not show a
monotonous change with the increase in the number of vibration compactions. When the
speed of the vibratory roller is 3 km/h and the vibration condition is weak vibration, the
mean value of Evd of the sixth compaction is larger, with a magnitude of 28.5 MPa, while the
 Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 14 of 18

Evd mean value of the other conditions is around 23 MPa. This corresponds to the vibratory
roller being at 3 km/h, which has the maximum amplitude of the fundamental wave and
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18
the maximum propagation coefficient of peak acceleration under the soil compacted state
in the previous paper.

0.14
Point 1
0.12 Point 2
Fourier amplitude Point 3
0.10 Point 4
Point 5
0.08
Point 6
0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
Fundamental wave Second harmonic Third harmonic Fourth harmonic Fifth harmonic
Equation y=a·x^b
Drawing Point 1 to 6
a 0.1317 ± 0.00239 0.13338 ± 0.00177 0.13493 ± 0.00109 0.12043 ± 0.00161 0.10226 ± 0.00179 0.08937 ± 0.00567
b -1.43063 ± 0.04705 -1.41637 ± 0.03388 -1.34659 ± 0.01943 -2.06963 ± 0.06204 -1.92634 ± 0.07156 -1.91446 ± 0.25677
R·R(COD) 0.9982 0.99901 0.99962 0.99919 0.99858 0.98227
R·R after adjustment 0.9976 0.99868 0.99949 0.99892 0.99811 0.97637

(a)
0.20
Point 1
Point 2
0.16 Point 3
Fourier amplitude

Point 4
0.12 Point 5
Point 6
0.08

0.04

0.00
Fundamental wave Second harmonic Third harmonic Fourth harmonic Fifth harmonic

Equation y=a·x^b
Drawing Point 1 to 6
a 0.13549 ±0.00155 0.16545 ±8.93965E-4 0.13672 ±0.00122 0.11228 ±0.00372 0.1371 ±0.00124 0.12662 ±0.00343
b -2.57201 ±0.08212 -2.50871 ±0.03679 -2.28647 ±0.05027 -1.76124 ±0.11652 -2.25744 ±0.0495 -1.90988 ±0.10901
R·R(COD) 0.99944 0.99988 0.99965 0.99482 0.99964 0.99665
R·R after adjustment 0.99926 0.99983 0.99954 0.99309 0.99953 0.99553

(b)
0.12
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
Fourier amplitude

0.08
Point 4
Point 5
Point 6
0.04

0.00
Fundamental wave Second harmonic Third harmonic Fourth harmonic Fifth harmonic
Equation y=a·x^b
Drawing Point 1 to 6
a 0.11739 ±0.00129 0.11096 ±6.37778E-4 0.10137 ±0.00107 0.07232 ±7.12574E-4 0.06352 ±0.00181 0.05745 ±0.00199
b -2.08436 ±0.05166 -2.26403 ±0.03173 -2.20474 ±0.05541 -2.23125 ±0.05286 -1.71608 ±0.09632 -1.69305 ±0.11411
R·R(COD) 0.99946 0.99986 0.9995 0.99957 0.996 0.99417
R·R after adjustment 0.99927 0.99981 0.99933 0.99942 0.99467 0.99223

(c)
Figure Amplitudes of
Figure 12. Amplitudes offundamental
fundamentaland andharmonic
harmonicat at different
different vibratory
vibratory roller
roller speeds.
speeds. (a) The
(a) The
speed
speed of the
the vibrated
vibratedroller
rollerisis1.5
1.5km/h.
km/h.(b)
(b)The
The speed
speed of of
thethe vibrated
vibrated roller
roller is 3 is 3 km/h.
km/h. (c) The
(c) The speed
speed
of
of the
the vibratory rollerisis4.5
vibratory roller 4.5km/h.
km/h.

3.3. Plate Load Test

This test is divided into six rounds, each round of compaction including two phases:
the vibratory roller travels from measuring point 1 to 6, and then from measuring point 6

Sensors 2023, 23, 2183
warm colors, while the contour map corresponding to the vibratory roller under weak
vibration conditions at different speeds is dominated by cold colors. According to the
analysis, the reason for this phenomenon is that the Evd value appears when the test con-
dition is in weak vibration and is larger than that of other measuring points, while the Evd
value appears when the test condition is in strong vibration and is smaller than15thatof 18 of

other measuring points.

Weak excitation
Strong excitation 36
1 round

Evd value (MPa)

30 1 round
32 2 round

Evd value (MPa)

2 round
25 3 round
3 round 28
4 round 4 round
20 24 5 round
5 round
6 round 6 round
15 20

3 6 15 point 9 12 15 3 6 15 Point 9 12 15
6 6

5 5

4 4
6 round

6 round
3 3

2
2

1
1

(a)
Strong excitation Weak excitation
30
1 round 40 1 round

Evd value (MPa)

28
Evd value (MPa)

2 round 36 2 round
26 3 round 3 round
32
24 4 round 4 round
22 5 round 28 5 round
20 6 round 24 6 round
18 20
3 6 15 Point 9 12 15 3 6 15 point 9 12 15
6 6

5 5

4 4
6 round
6 round

3 3

2 2
Sensors 2023, 23, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 18
1 1

(b)
Strong excitation Weak excitation
32
28 1 round 1 round
Evd value (MPa)
Evd value (MPa)

2 round 28 2 round
24 3 round 3 round
4 round 24 4 round
20 5 round 5 round
6 round 20 6 round
16
16
3 6 Point 9 12 15 3 6 Point 9 12 15
6 6

5 5

4 4
Round

Round

3 3

2 2

1 1

(c)
Figure 13.13.Evd
Figure Evdcontour
contourmap.
map.(a) (a)The
Thespeed
speed of
of the vibratory
vibratoryroller
rollerisis1.5
1.5km/h.
km/h.(b)
(b)The
Thespeed
speed
of of
thethe
vibrated roller
vibrated rollerisis3 3km/h.
km/h.(c)(c)The
Thespeed
speedof
ofthe
thevibrated
vibrated roller is 4.5
roller is 4.5km/h.
km/h.

It can be seen from Figure 14 that the average curve of Evd of the first three rounds of
compaction is quite different. We think that the main reason for this situation is that the
compaction degree of soil has a big difference when it is laid loose, so the last three com-
pacts are taken as the main analysis object. According to the analysis, the mean value of
Evd under strong vibration conditions and weak vibration conditions does not show a mo-
notonous change with the increase in the number of vibration compactions. When the
speed of the vibratory roller is 3 km/h and the vibration condition is weak vibration, the
mean value of Evd of the sixth compaction is larger, with a magnitude of 28.5 MPa, while
 speed of the vibratory roller is 3 km/h and the vibration condition is weak vibration, the
mean value of Evd of the sixth compaction is larger, with a magnitude of 28.5 MPa, while
the Evd mean value of the other conditions is around 23 MPa. This corresponds to the vi-
bratory roller being at 3 km/h, which has the maximum amplitude of the fundamental
Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 wave and the maximum propagation coefficient of peak acceleration under the 16 soil
of 18 com-

pacted state in the previous paper.

31 31

27 27

Evd value (MPa)

Evd value (MPa)

23 23

19 19

V=1.5 km/h V=1.5 km/h

15 V=3.0 km/h 15 V=3.0 km/h
V=4.5 km/h V=4.5 km/h
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Compaction rounds Compaction rounds
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure14.
14. Curve
Curveofofaverage
average EEvd
vd under
under different rounds of
different rounds ofcompaction.
compaction. (a)
(a)Strong
Strongexcitation.
excitation. (b)
Weak excitation.
(b) Weak excitation.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
Through field tests of vibration compaction, the following conclusions are drawn.
Through field tests of vibration compaction, the following conclusions are drawn.
(1) Due to the damping of soil mass and the joint action of upper soil and lower soil mass,
(1) Due to the damping of soil mass and the joint action of upper soil and lower soil
the peak acceleration propagation coefficient in the uncompacted state is greater than
mass,
that inthe
the peak acceleration
compacted propagation
state at adjacent coefficient
measuring in the
points along theuncompacted state is
driving direction
greater than that in
of the vibratory roller.the compacted state at adjacent measuring points along the driv-
(2) ing direction
When of the
the speed vibratory
of the vibratory roller.
roller is 3 km/h, the acceleration propagation coeffi-
cient is greater than that at 1.5 km/h and 4.5 km/h. The speed of the vibratory roller
that is most conducive to the compaction of the test-filling soil is between 1.5 km/h
and 4.5 km/h. The specific value needs more detailed design test and analysis.
(3) When the speed of the vibratory roller is 3 km/h, the amplitude of the fundamental
wave at each acceleration measuring point reaches the maximum, while when the
speed of the vibratory roller is 1.5 km/h, the amplitude of the harmonic wave at
acceleration measuring point reaches the maximum. The relationship between the
amplitude of the fundamental wave and the amplitude of multiple harmonic waves
of each vibration wave is y = a·xb .
(4) Through several rolling tests, it was found that the average Evd value of the vibratory
roller under the weak vibration and the speed of 3km/h was significantly higher than
the rest of the working conditions.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.Y. and M.Y.; methodology, J.Y.; software, M.Y.; validation,
H.M. and C.Y.; formal analysis, J.Y. and C.Y.; investigation, H.M.; resources, H.M. and C.Y.; data
curation, J.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, J.Y. and M.Y.; writing—review and editing, J.Y.;
visualization, H.M. and C.Y.; supervision, J.Y.; project administration, C.Y.; funding acquisition, J.Y.
and H.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Sichuan Transportation Science and Technology Project
(2020-A-01), project 2021YJ046 supported by the China Academy of Railway Sciences Corporation
Limited Foundation, and project 4220021531 of National Natural Fund Youth Project.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the
study. Written informed consent has been obtained from the patient(s) to publish this paper.
Data Availability Statement: The data used in this article are listed in the graphs and tables.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sensors 2023, 23, 2183 17 of 18

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