EXPERIMENT – 01

Aim: Measurement of ground vibration by seismograph.

Apparatus Required: Seismograph (Instantel MiniMate Plus) with all accessories, Cracker (Source
of creating ground vibration), pads (weights).

Theory: A seismograph consists of a seismometer and a recording unit collectively. The recording
unit might be just a graph paper with scrolling mechanisms. But, nowadays digital recording systems
are available which makes them sensitive, robust and more suitable than ever.

The seismometer is shown below. It essentially consists of a pivot, a boom lever and an inertial mass
system. The movement generates electric current in permanent magnet coils; the amount of current is
recorded and calibrated by a digitizer to a measuring unit of earthquake (say, Richter scale which rates
an earthquake by the size of its seismic waves on a scale from 1 to 10, while its upper limit is not
fixed) by means of an analyzer.

Figure 1.1: S102 Seismometer

About the Instantel Minimate Plus:

It is one of the modern digital seismographs manufactured by a global company, Instantel, Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada,. It can measure ground vibration as well as sound level using a microphone. It has
both modes of recordings the automatic continuous monitoring and the manual operation for a given
period.

When the automatic monitoring is opted it monitors when the signal (Vibration or sound level)
exceeds the pre-set value. Whereas the manual operation is opted for given period of time to sense
any value.
Accessories with Instantel Minimate Plus:

Geophone: This is sensor mounted vibration recorder working on the principles of seismograph as
described later.

Microphone: This is sensor mounted sound level recorder working on the principles of sound level
induced electric impulse generation and its calibration to the given sound level.

Microphone Stands: These are erected one over one to set microphone mounted on it upright in
towards the sound source.

Spikes: These are fixed at the base of geophone in order to dig these into sub-soil tightly so as to have
tight contact with ground.

Digital Data Logger/ Monitor: This is microprocessor based monitor which receives and processes
the data and then presents it as output. It has data storing capacity as well as printing capacity. It
supports computer based data transferring mechanisms.

Working Principle:
Procedure:
Result: The recorded ground vibration level was found to be __________________

Precautions: a) The geophone must be affixed to the ground affirmably b) There should not be any
aerial signal hindrance to Microphone like trees or shed etc. c) Operate the Seismograph as per
manual.

Signature of faculty
 EXPERIMENT – 2

Aim: Development of Predictor Equation from recorded data

Apparatus Required: Seismograph (Digital Data logger) data sets, Microsoft Excel

Theory: A blast generates ground shock and vibration which may cause damage to the surrounding
structures. In the recent decades, blast-induced ground shocks and their propagation in rock mass have
been drawing more and more attention. The blast effects include change in rock behavior having
implications on the stability and integrity of structures. Structures are designed and constructed to
bear static and dynamic loads in addition to taking care of settlement of foundations within
permissible limits. Dynamic loads include earthquake load, vibratory machine load, blast load, etc.
The blast load on structures is caused by quarrying, mining activities, accidental explosion of
underground explosives, terrorist attacks, excavation activities, etc. There are complexities in the
wave and ground motion characteristics, blasting parameters and site factors. Various experimental
site-specific studies have been performed to predict and control blasting effects. The parameters
associated with the vibration are displacement, velocity and acceleration with their respective
frequencies. It has been inferred from literature that peak particle velocity (PPV) is generally a good
index of damage to structure (IS 6922, 1973, Monjezi et al., 2010, Kumar et al., 2012). The vibration
level at a distance depends on charge per delay, vibration frequency, rock characteristics (type, unit
weight, layering, slope of layers), blast-hole conditions, presence of water, propagation of surface and
body waves in the ground, and to a lesser extent on method of initiation. Fractures are developed in
rocks due to tensile and shear stresses. Hence, studies of blast-induced ground vibrations in rocks
have become important.

The relationship between PPV and scaled distance (D) can be written as

v = kD – b ……………… (1)
where v is the PPV (m/s); D is the scaled distance (m/kg1/2), which is defined as the ratio of distance
from charge point, R (m), to the square root of charge mass, Q (kg), expressed in TNT net equivalent
charge weight, i.e. D = R/Q1/2; k and b are site constants.

The relation between the peak particle velocity and scaled distance is shown in the following graph:
Procedure

1) Collect data from seismograph and tabulate it as under:

Experimenta PPVn (mm/s) Scaled Distance, Dn ( m/kg1/2)

l Set No.
1 PPV1 = D1 =
2 PPV2 = D2 =
3 PPV3 = D3 =
4 PPV4 = D4 =
5 PPV5 = D5 =
6 PPV6 = D6 = (and so on)

2) Export the data from this monitor to excel spreadsheet. Use regression analysis to model this
data using ‘data analysis toolpack’
3) Take printout of the regression analysis.
4) Find out the regression coefficient and then equate a standard predictor equation to the
formula found using excel.

Alternatively,

1) Equate the general empirical formula to that of set 1 and set 2 and find K12 and b12
2) Similarly find several values of these k and b and average it to get final predictor equation.

Calculation Work:

Result: The developed predictor equation for given condition is PPV = ___D---- where k = ___ and b
= _____

Signature of the faculty

 EXPERIMENT – 3

Aim: Study of measurement of VOD by VOD mate and its analysis.

Apparatus Required: VOD mate Software and related apparatuses like computers/ software, Shot
hole drilled by portable hand held drill as jackhammer drill, a light explosive

Theory:

1. Introduction: Explosives are used extensively for mining and other civil use like tunnel, well
making, building demolition etc. The performance of explosive invariably depends on the
Velocity of Detonation. The rate at which the detonation wave travels through an explosive
column is called the Velocity of Detonation (VOD). It is one of the most important properties of
explosive on which its performance is dependent. It is essential to use explosives in an optimum
quantity for better results, avoiding wastage at the same time for maximizing the performance. It
is an established fact that measuring velocity of detonation gives good indication of the strength
and hence the performance of explosive. This VOD value could be typically from 2500m/s to up
to 7000m/s depending on the type and form of the explosive used. The typical lengths of
explosives involved are from 0.2m to several 10s of meters. Correspondingly the time span of the
measurement could be from 50useconds to few 10s of milliseconds. Thus it is essentially a very
short duration phenomenon.
2. VOD measuring techniques: Detonation velocity is an important property to consider when
rating an explosive. It has been observed that most of the manufacturers and the utilities rely on
calculations based the chemical composition of the bulk explosive to arrive at the VOD value.
Needless to mention such interpretation can be fairly inaccurate due to variations in raw material
quality, manufacturing process followed and more importantly it is still a theoretical value only.
Deriving the correct value of VOD with the proper measurement techniques will result in
reduction in the consumption of explosives with optimized results. Presently the explosives used
can be in two forms Cartridge & Bulk. Cartridge is a packed form in tubular shape while bulk is
free flowing slurry which is put in the hole from a pump truck. Detonation velocity may be
expressed as a confined or unconfined value and is normally given in meter per second (m/s). The
confined detonation velocity measures the speed at which the detonation wave travels through a
column of explosive within a borehole or other confined space. The unconfined velocity indicates
this rate when the explosive is detonated in the open. Explosives generally are used under some
degree of confinement.
There are number of VOD Measuring Techniques disadvantages with their advantages and
disadvantages. Existing practices for measurement of VOD adapted worldwide can be broadly
classified into methods listed as follows:

a) Dautriche Method: In this method two detonation wave propagating from both the ends of
explosive column via a detonating fuse bound on an aluminum plate collide. The distance of
collision mark from mid point is measured. This distance is directly proportional to Velocity of
Detonation. This method of VOD measurement is suitable for unconfined space where the
explosives are used in cartridge form.

b) Photographic Method: Another method in the category is photographic method, where

detonation wave is monitored continuously using Streak and framing (high speed) camera.
Explosion is an auto luminous process. The light emitted is captured continuously in real time.
The VOD can be easily calculated from the motion video.
 c) Discrete points (Point to point) Electric Method: Point to point VOD systems are basically
supported by electronics start and stop timer. The one end of sensor cables are inserted into the
explosive column at varying distance and other end to the VOD recorder where the start and stop
signals are recorded. When detonation reaches the first sensor timing clock is started and the
following sensor cables end the stop signals when detonation reaches to it. The distance between
sensor cables are known and thus VOD can be calculated. This method is limited in providing
information for critical experiments because of discontinuity of the sensor cable in the explosive
column.

d) Resistance Wire Continuous VOD method: This method was developed in early 1960s by the
United States of Mines (USBM). This method basically for this method ionization caused by
explosion provides electric short continuously causing the voltage drop monitored by the
instrument which is equivalent to the change in resistance value and the constant current. Thus a
voltage drop can be measured instantaneously at any point in time. In this method single wire or
two twisted wire of known resistance can be acted as single or double sensors respectively at the
same time. It is observed in the experimentation that if in this method sensors are not ruggedized
or distance with the return path is not maintained properly for shorting during detonation then the
results are usually not deciphered or no readings are obtained.

e) SLIFER continuous VOD system: The SLIFER (Shorted Location Indication by Frequency of
Electrical Resonance) system was originally developed by Sandia National laboratories to
measure the propagation of shockwaves from nuclear explosion. It consists of a shorted length of
coaxial cable as a sensor in the explosive column which is connected to the oscillator circuit. This
small device show the frequency which is controlled by length of sensor in the explosive column.
As the wire length decreases, the frequency of oscillation increases. By monitoring this frequency
as a function of time, the rate of cable length change can be determined, leading directly the
measurement of VOD. This system has been limited to laboratory work. The restriction with the
SLIFER system is that recording cable length with the oscillator is 66m per channel, moreover
each sensor must have oscillator connected in a line which should be placed close to the hole or
shot area.

f) TDR continuous VOD system: The TDR system originally developed by the Los Alamos
National Laboratory to test and verify nuclear reaction yields and stress velocities into the
surrounding medium. This system can also be called as CORRTEX system later changed to the
VODR-I when the system was declassified for commercialization. In this system narrow electric
pulse is sent through the cable sensor and return or reflected path is detected which is from the
other end of sensor. This method does not require the sensing cable to be shorted in order to
acquire date. This is one of the safest to use with any commercial or military explosive.

g) Method based on fiber-optic: In this method optical fiber is used which is capable of detecting
and transmitting a light signal accompanying the detonation wave front. This method is point to
point to type wherein the first cable signals the start whereas the second cable placed at a known
fixed distance stops the timing clock. The fixed distance between probes divided by the timed
clock directly gives the VOD value.

The comparison among the various VOD measuring Technique

The comparison of various VOD measuring technique is given in table below. The VODmate
could be read and understood by its second column.
 Parameters VODMate Datatrap/ VODEX - Speed – Shot– FO - 2000P
Minitrap 100 A VOD Track
VOD measuring Continuous Continuous Discrete TDR TDR Fibre optic
Techniques Wire, Wire, Points
Electrical Electrical Wire,
Electrical
Resolution <10 mm < 10 mm < 5 mm 62 mm 62 mm <5 mm
Noise influence Susceptible Susceptible Susceptible Immune Immune Immune

Set – up time 5-15 min. 10-20 min. 20-30 min. 10-20 10 – 20 10-20 min.
requirement min. min
Consumable Sensor cable Probe rod Ribbon RG-6, RG-6, Fibre optic cable
required or cable cable RG – 58, RG – 58,
RG - 59 RG - 59
Type of Skilled Skilled Semi- Skilled Skilled Semi-skilled
manpower skilled
required for set
up
Cost of Low High Average Moderate Moderate Very high
consumable
Multi-hole Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
capacity and
software
capability
Direct Display of No No Yes No No Yes
VOD
Continuous yes Yes No Yes Yes No
Measurements of
VoD
Suitability for Not known Not Not Yes Yes Yes
water logged Known Known
holes

Analysis:
The analysis of VOD by VODmate is assimilated in various curves as shown below:
(Draw these)
(Draw these)

Signature of Teacher
 EXPERIMENT - 4

Aim: Study of various fragmentation assessment techniques

Theory: Blasting is one of the cheapest methods of rock fragmentation. The performance of any
blasting depends upon many complex parameters, site specific geological conditions, physio-
mechanical properties of rock and blasting design etc. A good blasting is characterized by evenly
fragmented (sized) and thrown muck pile in the form of heap. The poor blasting on the other hand
generates unevenly fragmented rock pieces with excess boulders. These boulders need secondary
blasting to be suitable for loaders which gather and load these to various kinds of haulage
machineries. Moreover, the mineral produced must be processed to make them of desired size and
grade pertaining to market demand. Thus, fragmentation should match the demand in order to make
the run-of-mine valuable and cost – effective. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the fragmentation
after rock breakage. This makes the planning of wining mineral more vigilant and perform better on
site specific conditions.

Techniques: Throughout the history of mining, there have been many methods developed for
estimating rock size distribution. The common methods are:

 Visual observation
 Sieve analysis
 Image analysis

Visual observation: It involves inspecting the rock pile and subjectively judging the quality of the
blast. This subjective method can lead to inaccurate results.

Sieve analysis: It involves taking a sample of the rock pile being studied and passing it through a
series of different size sieve trays. The rock size distribution is calculated by measuring the mass or
volume of the rock material that remains on each tray. This method generates more consistent results;
however, it is more expensive, time consuming and in certain cases impractical to perform as the
sample rock size distribution may not be statistically representative of the whole rock pile.

Image analysis: These methods have been developed with the rise of computer image processing and
analysis tools. Conducting image analysis involves taking 2D photos, stereo images or 3D laser scans
of the rock pile, and processing these images to determine particle sizes. Image analysis techniques
enable practical, fast, and relatively accurate measurement of rock fragmentation. However, the
following limitations of image analysis have been identified:

 Delineation of particles might be limited due to disintegration and fusion of particles.

 Transformation of surface measurements of particles into volumes may not be representative
of the particles being sampled.
 The resolution of the image system is limited compared to that of sieve analysis. Accuracy of
the fines regions using image analysis can be very low if the photo captured is not of high
enough resolution.
 Mesh sizes assigned to certain rock sizes in image analysis may be different than that
assigned in sieving due to the effect of particle shape.
 A constant density is generally applied to all particle sizes so that volume distributions in
image analysis are directly related to mass distributions.
Image analysis lead to about less than 30% error in course region but the same is about less than 85-
100% in finer region. This makes image analysis unsuitable for finer fragmentation Regardless of
these limitations, image analysis is still the most common method used to measure rock fragmentation
in mines. The most common image analysis technique applied in mines uses 2D fixed cameras located
(i) at the base of a rock pile, (ii) on shovels and truck buckets, (iii) at crusher stations, or on conveyors
in the processing plant to capture photos.

These 2D image analysis techniques have the following limitations:

(i) Fixed single camera located at the base of a muck pile:

 Technicians must place scaling objects on the rock pile.

 Photos have to be taken at a distance of less than 20m from the rock pile. This can interrupt
production and may place technicians at risk.
 The shape of the muck pile can influence the accuracy of the image analysis.
 Only a limited dataset can be collected from a fixed location.
 Dust, fog, rain, snow and particulates can obstruct the image.
 Lighting conditions can drastically impact the results of the image analysis.

(ii) Fixed single camera mounted on shovel booms or truck buckets:

 This requires installing a camera with a clear view at a perspective that is perpendicular to the
shovel bucket, which can be difficult.
 Equipment generates large amounts of vibration and shock during operation which can
influence the quality of images.
 Shielding is required to protect the camera from falling debris and direct sun light.
 Lighting may not be controlled adequately.
 If truck or shovel is down, no data is collected. Imaging the same material multiple times
biases the results.

(iii) Fixed single camera installed in crusher stations:

 Detailed masking of images is required.

 Scale object must be visible in image.
 Difficult to match material with source.
 Large amount of dust generation obstructs the image.
 Imaging the same perspective multiple times biases the results.

(iv) Unmanned Arial Vehicles (UAV): To eliminate the above limitations Unmanned Arial Vehicles
are also used nowadays. A typical high resolution camera (Camera 14 Megapixel; Video: 1920X1080
pixel) with high storage (8 GB) and long serving battery 2700 mAh is attached to UAV.

The process of UAV operating with such a camera is depicted in the figure as given below
To use this sieve analysis baseline in the statistical analysis of the manual and automated image
analysis methods, a rock size distribution curve was fit to the collected data. The three-parameter
Swebrec function [20] was found to be an excellent fit to the data and predicted the coarse region of
data much more accurately than the Rosin-Rammler function. The Swebrec function is given by:

P(<x)= 1/(1+f(x)) ………….. (1) with

f(x)=[ ln(xmax/x)/ln(xmax/x50)]b………. (2)

where P(<x) is percent passing, x is the rock fragment size, xmax is the largest fragment size in the
distribution, x50 is the size at 50% passing, b and is a curve-modulation factor. To best fit the curve,
we find the optimal curve shaping parameters xmax, x50, and b. A plot of the sieve analysis results and
the Swebrec function fitted to the data is plotted in Figure given below.

(Draw all the figures)

Signature of Teacher
 Experiment – 5

Aim: Handling of WipFrag software.

Theory:

Wipware’s wipfrag software allows opening and analyzing images of post-blast fragmentation.
WipFrags’s proprietary edge detection is used to render a polygon network around each particle to
instantly generate fragmentation results. Every analysis performed is saved to a CSV file. You can
also save the charts and merged results as PDF, BMP, JPG, EMF or WMF. Using WipFrag, any
number of results can be merged.

WipFrag comes with a portable handset with in-built software and Camera. But the images of blast-
induced fragmentation heap could be taken from other device also and uploaded to device having the
software for image analysis.

Its operation is simple and quick and it has provisions of auto-scaling of images. Thus it might not
require placing a scale in the background of piles while taking the images with latest versions of
software. However, if it is desired to have such a scale to avoid ambiguity and suspicion, a scale
might be placed in the slant face of pile.

WipFrag Process:

Below is a simple overview of the WipFrag process:

1. Open an image.
2. Set the scale.
3. Generate the edges.
4. Generate the results.

Collecting Quality Image Samples

The more you can establish standards and reduce variables the more consistent your images will be.
The better your images are, the better your results.

 Operators - The fewer personnel taking pictures the better, to avoid personal biases affecting
sample procedure.
 Equipment - Use the same camera and lens where feasible.
 Physical Setup - Camera position, camera height, and camera-to-subject distance should be
standardized as much as possible.
 Lighting - Use consistent lighting: Lighting geometry, light to subject distance, light height,
lighting angle (relative to camera position) and lighting orientation (aiming).
 Camera Settings - Try to standardize Aperture, Shutter, ISO, White Balance, Capture size &
quality.
 Sample Selection - Work in a systematic manner to capture statistically representative
samples. Large drifts, or those containing primarily small particles, should be photographed in
grid-like segments.

Camera Configuration & Settings:

Although the camera settings and photography is not the part of this experiment, this art becomes very
critical for better results. If poor image is analyzed with the WipFrag, there is a greater chances of
getting errors may be even up to 50%. It is therefore some critical aspects of the same are described
below:

a) File Format: the file format of image should be original and space saving. JPEG files create
compressed files that occupy minimal disc space. But, over compression, changing and saving
multiple times must be avoided as it makes the original details suffer with each save option.
b) Capture Size: it should be done in camera itself. A size 1.5 – 5.0 MP is suitable for the
software. Beyond the both limits either makes it insufficient or excessive.
c) Capture Quality: Use the least amount of compression possible with your camera. Use the
Underlined among many configurations - Good/Better/Best, or Normal/Fine/Superfine, or
Smooth/Stepped. In each case the underlined term is the preferred setting to use.
d) White Balance: Not overly critical for this application. Auto White Balance can be used, or if
using halogen work lamps, set white balance to Tungsten (Incandescent).
e) Focal Length: Wide-angle lenses with effective focal lengths below 35mm should not be used
due to perspective error; foreshortening between foreground and background will skew
results. Corner and edge distortion inherent to wide angle optics will produce sizing
inaccuracies. Using wide-angle optics also complicates light placement.

For muck piles, use the longest focal length that is practical in any given situation. Placing the
camera further away from the pile and zooming in to fill the viewfinder with muck will yield
the best results.

Below is a comparison of identically sized coffee mugs shot with telephoto (Figure (a) and
(b)) and wide-angle to illustrate perspective distortion.

f) Point of View (Camera location): If possible, elevate the camera position and orient the
camera back parallel to the face of the muck pile. This approach will yield the best
perspective on the pile and result in images that are more representative of the actual material
being analyzed.
g) Composition: Fill your viewfinder with rock particles and avoid capturing surrounding areas
such as tunnel roof, floor or walls underground, or areas of sky in outdoor images.

h) Aperture: Aperture settings larger than f5.6 (f4, f2.8 etc.) may not provide sufficient depth-of-
field to hold all particles in sharp focus. Smaller aperture provides better results as shown
below:

i) ISO: You should use the lowest ISO setting that is adequate in any given situation. Noise
increases with higher ISO settings. If, after setting the aperture, your shutter speed is too slow
to hand-hold, adjust ISO setting upwards until shutter speed meets or exceeds the hand-
holding threshold.
Below is an image shot with a low ISO setting of 100 (Figure 3-9) and one shot with a very
high ISO setting of 12,800 (Figure 3-10). Note the appearance of grain-like noise throughout
the image with the high ISO setting (Figure 3-10).
j) Lighting: the intensity should be sufficient enough so as to overcome the sharpening
irregularities while shutter closure and it should be from both pile as well as background. The
uniformity of light is desired as shades may result in analysis fault. Shades are formed
because light intensity falls with distance. The closure light source produces more shades and
hence distant light source which produces more uniformity, is desired. Photographic
fragmentation analysis is dependent on contrast between rock particles and the shadows
between the particles. If contrast is too high, surface texture of individual particles may result
in the software interpreting them as multiple smaller blocks. If contrast is too low, shadows
between blocks may be absent and the software may misinterpret small particles as larger
single blocks.
k) Shadows: the shadow should be clear and soft. The high contrast and strong shadow might be
misinterpreted as particle.
l) Placement of supplementary light source: the ideal lighting could be hardly achieved without
use of supplementary light sources. They should be as low intensity as possible to avoid sharp
shadows. They must be placed distant if brighter light sources are used as they form
uniformity in light intensity. A pair of light source might be used but it should not produce
multiple shadows which might result in analysis problem to software.

Analysis:

The software analysis steps are as follows:

(Draw all the figures) Signature of Teacher

 Experiment – 6

Aim: Design of blast for underground coal face

Theory:

The blasting is the process of instant oxidation reaction producing huge amount of heat, gas and
pressure energy exerting the huge wall pressure to blast hole, ultimately breaking the whole mass
containing the blast hole. It is cheapest mode of rock fragmentation.

In underground coal mines, the blasting suffers unique problem of constrained free face and presence
of inflammable gases such as firedamp. This makes blasting practice a challenging act. The heat
produced while detonation should not be strong enough to ignite the firedamp. That is why Permitted
Explosives (P3 for Degree II & P5 for Degree III gassy mines) are used in UG Coal Mines.

The underground blast designing is basically tunnel blasting whereas bench blasting is the feature of
blasting in surface mines. The main difference between tunnel blasting and bench blasting is that
tunnel blasting is done towards one free surface while bench blasting is done towards two or more
free surface.

Various drilling patterns have been developed for blasting solid rock faces, such as:

i) Wedge cut or V cut

ii) Pyramid or diamond cut
iii) Drag cut
iv) Fan cut
v) Burn cut
Wedge cut or V Cut

Blast-holes are drilled at an angle to the face in a uniform wedge formation so that the axis of
symmetry is at the centre line of the face.

The cut displaces a wedge of rock out of the face in the initial blast and this wedge is widened to the
full width of the drift in subsequent blasts, each blast being fired with detonators of suitable delay
time. The apex angle is as near as possible to 60 0 (Figure 1). This type of cut is particularly suited to
large size drifts, which have well laminated or fissured rocks. Hole’s placement should be carefully
preplanned and the alignment of each hole should be accurately drilled.
 Figure 1: Wedge Cut or V Cut (After ICI)

Pyramid or diamond cut

The pyramid or diamond cut is a variation of the wedge cut where the blast-holes for the initial cavity
may have a line of symmetry along horizontal axis as well as the vertical axis (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Pyramid or Diamond Cut (After ICI)

Drag cut
The drag cut is particularly suitable in small sectional drifts where a pull of up to 1 m is very useful
(Figure 3).

Figure 3: Drag Cut (After ICI)

Fan cut
The fan cut is one-half of a wedge cut and is applicable mainly where only one machine is employed
in a narrow drive. Generally the depth of pull obtainable is limited to 1.5 m (Figure 4).
Burn cut

A series of parallel holes are drilled closely spaced at right angles to the face. One hole or more at the
centre of the face are uncharged. This is called the burn cut (Figure 5).

The uncharged holes are often of larger diameter than the charged holes and form zones of weakness
that assist the adjacent charged holes in breaking out the ground.

Since all holes are at right angles to the face, hole’s placement and alignment are easier than in other
types of cuts. The burn cut is particularly suitable for use in massive rock such as granite, basalt etc.

Figure 5: Burn Cut (After ICI)

Sequence of detonation

For both fragmentation and throw, blasting efficiency depends on the delay sequence of blast-hole
detonation. Delayed detonation improves load-ability of the entire cut, contributes to a better strata
control and reduction of blast-induced vibrations.

(In tunneling) Signature of Teacher

 Experiment – 7

Aim – Design of blast for Underground metal Mine

Theory:

The underground metal mines seldom affected by inflammable gases. Therefore there is no restriction
as such to use permitted explosives. The characteristics of ore body and country rocks vary more
frequently than those of coal mines. There are various developmental operations such as shaft sinking,
drifting, tunneling, raising or winzing and stoping operation at any underground metal mine.

Shaft sinking is first to make an access (shaft) to very deep underground mineral deposit. Shaft is
favored over incline when the depth is greater because shaft is the least possible drivage to make and
maintain. However it could be made in both metalliferous as well as coal mines, but the steep veins
makes shaft a must to opt as mode of access. The blast design of for shaft sinking is mentioned below.

Shaft Sinking

In mining, shafts form a system of vertically or inclined passageways, which are used for
transportation of ore, refill, personnel, equipment, air, electricity, ventilation etc. In quarrying, glory
holes for transportation of materials.

An important requirement in shaft sinking is to provide optimum fragmentation of the rock so that it
can be cleared quickly from the congested shaft-face area.

Blasting operation is carried out against gravity, and the scatter of the broken rock is confined in the
shaft. It is common to use generous distribution of explosives throughout the rock using a large
number of small diameter (35 – 42 mm) shotholes.

The number of holes N required for sinking a shaft of cross sectional area (A) in m 2 is given by:

N = 2.5A + 22

The drilling patterns for shaft sinking are basically the same as those used in tunneling but generally
the cone cut is favoured (Figure 1.a and 1.b). Another commonly used pattern, unique to shaft
sinking, is the bench cut (Figure 2).

Figure (1.a) Blast hole pattern

 Figure (1.b): Cone or Pyramid Cut in Shaft – Shinking.

Bench-Cut in Shaft-Sinking

Figure (2):

Benching in Shaft Sinking

The explosives used in shaft sinking must always be water resistant. Even if the ground is dry, the
flushing water from the drilling machines will always stay in the blastholes. Suitable explosives such
as Emulex 150 or any suitable NG based explosives are easily tamped to utilize the hole volume well.

The powder factor in shaft sinking is rather high, ranging from 2.0 kg/m3 to 4.0 kg/m3.

If charges are fired electrically, great care must be taken in wiring the circuit. Since more than 100
detonators can be involved in each blast, they are connected either in parallel or in series-parallel. It is
therefore, important to ensure that the resistance of the circuit is properly balanced and that no
charged hole is omitted from the circuit.

Due to higher risk of such errors in the generally unfavourable shaft sinking environment, Nonel type
detonators are increasingly preferred for initiation.

Blasting in underground metal mines

Underground mines are to extract underground metal-bearing orebodies. The excavation work for
underground mines is usually divided into two broad categories. These are the development and
production.

Development involves tunneling, shaft sinking, cross cutting, raising, etc so that the ore bodies are
easily accessible and transportable after excavation. The blasting procedure is the same as discussed
previously.

The production work can be subdivided into two categories: short-hole and long-hole blasting.

Short-hole blasting

a) Breast Stopping

The diameter and length of shotholes are usually limited to 43mm and 4m respectively. Short-hole
blasting is usually used in breast stoping for narrow, tubular orebodies such as gold or platinum reefs.
Figure (3) is an example of blasting arrangement in breast stoping in a gold mine in South Africa.
Capped safety fuse and igniter cord (burning speed of 18s/m) make the carrier of the initiating system.

The igniter cord is usually fired by an electric starter for igniter cord.

Figure 3: Blasting Arrangement in Breast Stoping

Long-hole blasting

a) Ring Blasting
b) Bench Blasting
c) Vertical Crater Retreat
a) Ring Blasting

Figure 4) Retreating in Ring Blasting (Top), Ring Drilling fashion (left) and Stemming (Right)
b) Bench Blasting
Bench blasting is essentially to surface excavation. A development heading is first excavated at
the top sublevel to provide drilling space. Then depending on thickness of orebody and/or
availability of drilling machinery, either vertical or horizontal blastholes are drilled to increase the
height of the excavation

Figure 5: Bench Blasting Methods Figure 6: VCR method (after Agnew Nickel)

c) Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR)

Vertical or sub-vertical blast-holes are drilled downward from the top level to the bottom level. A
cuboid of ore-body can be excavated from the lower level upward by a number of horizontal
slices using the same blast-holes (Figure 6 & 7). Spherical charges should be placed to obtain the
maximum cratering effect. Gravity enlarges the crater dimensions.
A spherical charge is one with length to diameter ratio of blast-hole ranging between 4 to 6.
 Figure 7: Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR) arrangements

(Explain the design of blasts by understanding the figures in your own words)

Signature of Teacher
 Experiment – 8

Aim: Design of blast for Bench – blasting

Theory:

Benching is large step like formation made by blasting and excavation in surface mining which is
done to make climbing and working of man and machinery over various levels safely. Any bench
could be said to have a floor, a sloped face and a back. The overlying benches must be stripped in
advance in order to widen the floor of pit and subsequently to open a new trench at there. The trench
is then widened by blasting and excavation which ultimately forms a new underlying bench.

Because benching is a surface phenomenon or open phenomenon it has more than one free faces.
Depending upon the depth of bench, the size of blasthole is determined. The burden and spacing is
determined by many factors as physico-mechanical characteristics of rockmass the bench is composed
off and target production per available bench.