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Chapter 07: The Genetics of Populations
MULTIPLE CHOICE
4. Consider a population that is in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium at a locus with two alleles, A and a, at
frequencies of p and q, respectively. Assuming the population remains in Hardy–Weinberg
equilibrium, what is the expected frequency of Aa heterozygotes after 100 generations?
a. 1 c. 0.5
b. 2pq d. p2
ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: 7.2
OBJ: 7.2.d. Explain the predictions of the Hardy– Weinberg model and apply the model to example
populations. MSC: Understanding
5. Consider a locus with only two alleles, A and a, in a population of diploid individuals. If the
frequencies of A and a in the population are p and q, respectively, then p q =
a. 1.0. c. 2.0.
b. 0.5. d. p2.
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: 7.2
OBJ: 7.2.d. Explain the predictions of the Hardy– Weinberg model and apply the model to example
populations. MSC: Remembering
6. Consider a locus with only two alleles, A and a, in a population of diploid individuals. The frequencies
of A and a in the population are p and q, respectively. If individuals mate randomly with respect to
genotype, then the frequency of AA after random mating is
a. 1. c. 0.25.
b. 2pq. d. p2.
ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: 7.2
OBJ: 7.2.d. Explain the predictions of the Hardy– Weinberg model and apply the model to example
populations. MSC: Remembering
7. Consider two events that are mutually exclusive, that is, if one occurs, the other cannot occur. The
probability that either one will occur is ________, and the probability that both will occur is
________.
a. one; zero c. one; the product of their probabilities
b. the product of their probabilities; one d. the sum of their probabilities; zero
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: 7.2
OBJ: 7.2.f. Understand basic probability calculations for two events, in the case that the events are
mutually exclusive and in the case that the events are independent.
MSC: Understanding
8. A sample of 2,000 individuals from a human population was scored for MN blood group. The
following frequencies were found: 1,600 MM, 250 MN, and 150 NN. How do these numbers compare
to those expected under Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium?
a. The genotype frequencies match the expectation.
b. The population has fewer MM homozygotes than expected.
c. The population has more N alleles than expected.
d. The population has fewer MN heterozygotes than expected.
ANS: D DIF: Difficult REF: 7.2
OBJ: 7.2.e. Test whether a population is in Hardy– Weinberg equilibrium at a locus and use the
chi-square test to determine the statistical significance of any deviation between observed and
expected values. MSC: Applying
9. Stalk height in sunflowers is determined by two alleles at a locus, T and t, which display incomplete
dominance. TT individuals are tall, Tt are medium, and tt are short. In a population that is in
Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, we count 1,546 short plants out of 9,666. How many plants do you
expect to be tall?
a. 4,640 c. 3,480
b. 1,546 d. 0.36
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: 7.2
OBJ: 7.2.d. Explain the predictions of the Hardy– Weinberg model and apply the model to example
populations. MSC: Applying
10. Why do you need to use a statistical test (e.g., the chi-square test) to compare the observed genotype
frequencies in a population to those expected under Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium?
a. to distinguish between natural selection and other factors that could cause a population to
deviate from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium
b. because it is impossible to know what the observed genotype frequencies are in a
population
c. to assess whether the deviation of observed from expected frequencies is likely due to
chance
d. because the frequencies expected under Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium are not accurate
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: 7.2
OBJ: 7.2.e. Test whether a population is in Hardy– Weinberg equilibrium at a locus and use the
chi-square test to determine the statistical significance of any deviation between observed and
expected values. MSC: Understanding
11. Consider a locus with two alleles, A and a. Under which of the following scenarios will the frequency
of the A allele increase?
a. The fitness of AA and Aa individuals are higher than the fitness of aa individuals.
b. The fitness of heterozygotes is higher than the fitness of either homozygote.
c. The fitness of heterozygotes is lower than the fitness of either homozygote.
d. The fitness of aa individuals is higher than the fitness of Aa and AA individuals.
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: 7.3
OBJ: 7.3.a. Use a simple model of natural selection to predict the change in allele and genotype
frequencies over time as the result of natural selection, with intensity quantified by the selection
coefficient, s. MSC: Applying
12. Which of the following would best help you predict the fate of an allele in a population?
a. calculate the rate of nonrandom mating
b. determine survival rates of individuals of each genotype
c. determine whether individuals mate randomly with respect to genotype
d. calculate the frequency of each genotype in the population
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: 7.3
OBJ: 7.3.a. Use a simple model of natural selection to predict the change in allele and genotype
frequencies over time as the result of natural selection, with intensity quantified by the selection
coefficient, s. MSC: Applying
13. The figure shows the change in allele frequencies over many generations. What differs between the
populations represented by the three colors?
14. Pocket mice have light- or dark-colored coats and live in dark- or light-colored habitats. Pocket mice
whose coat colors match their environment are less susceptible to predation. In the scenarios shown in
the figure, which of the following selection coefficients might you expect (on each genotype in each
habitat)?
a. A: 1, B: 0, C: 0, D: 1 c. A: 0.5, B: 0.2, C: 0, D: 0.5
b. A: 0, B: 0.2, C: 0.1, D: 0 d. A: 0.1, B: 0, C: 0, D: 0.2
ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: 7.3
OBJ: 7.3.a. Use a simple model of natural selection to predict the change in allele and genotype
frequencies over time as the result of natural selection, with intensity quantified by the selection
coefficient, s. MSC: Applying
15. The figure shows the allele frequency trajectories for two populations starting from two different
initial frequencies. Which evolutionary processes could produce this result?
a. overdominance
b. directional selection
c. negative frequency-dependent selection
d. underdominance
ANS: C DIF: Difficult REF: 7.3
OBJ: 7.3.b. Compare and contrast various modes of selection (e.g., directional selection,
overdominance, underdominance, positive frequency-dependent selection, and negative
frequency-dependent selection). MSC: Understanding
18. Population sex ratios, that is, how many males and females there are in a population, are most likely
influenced by which process?
a. assortative mating c. frequency-dependent selection
b. mutation d. directional selection
ANS: C DIF: Difficult REF: 7.3
OBJ: 7.3.b. Compare and contrast various modes of selection (e.g., directional selection,
overdominance, underdominance, positive frequency-dependent selection, and negative
frequency-dependent selection). MSC: Applying
19. Proponents of eugenics sought to eliminate alleles for so-called undesirable traits by not allowing
people with those traits to reproduce. Which of the following scenarios would prevent the elimination
of these alleles?
a. Undesirable traits have high heritability.
b. Undesirable traits are caused by rare, recessive alleles.
c. Undesirable traits occur in large populations.
d. Undesirable traits result in decreased fitness.
ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: 7.3
OBJ: 7.3.c. Explain how allelic dominance influences the rate of fixation under directional selection.
MSC: Applying
20. Which of the following genotypic fitness values would result in the most rapid fixation of the
beneficial allele, A?
a. AA: 1.0, Aa: 1.0, aa: 0.8 c. AA: 1.0, Aa: 0.8, aa: 0.8
b. AA: 1.0, Aa: 0.9, aa: 0.8 d. AA: 1.0, Aa: 1.0, aa: 1.0
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: 7.3
OBJ: 7.3.c. Explain how allelic dominance influences the rate of fixation under directional selection.
MSC: Analyzing
21. Natural selection can act on both ________, which is the probability of survival, and ________, which
is the number of offspring produced.
a. epistasis; epigenetics
b. directional selection, frequency-dependent selection
c. livelihood; income
d. viability; fecundity
ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: 7.3
OBJ: 7.3.d. Describe how viability and fecundity combine to influence fitness.
MSC: Remembering
22. The table shows the survival and seed production of hybrid and wild sunflowers at three different sites.
What do these data demonstrate?
a. Hybrid plants experience reduced fecundity, but similar viability to wild plants.
b. Hybrid plants and wild plants experience no difference in fitness.
c. The fitness of hybrid plants is consistently higher than wild plants across all three sites.
d. Survival and seed production do not affect the fitness of these plants.
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: 7.3
OBJ: 7.3.d. Describe how viability and fecundity combine to influence fitness.
MSC: Analyzing
23. Consider a locus with two alleles, A and a. If the rate of mutation from A to a is twice the rate from a
to A, what will be the equilibrium frequency of the A allele? (Assume that there are no other
evolutionary forces acting on these alleles. Recall that the equilibrium allele frequency under mutation
is p v v, where p is the equilibrium frequency of the A allele, is the rate of mutation from
A to a, and v is the rate of mutation from a to A.)
a. 1.0 c. 1/3
b. 1/2 d. 0
ANS: D DIF: Difficult REF: 7.4
OBJ: 7.4.a. Outline how mutation changes allele frequencies. MSC: Applying
24. Consider a locus with two alleles, A and a. If the rate of mutation of A to a is 0.0000025 and the rate
of mutation of a to A is 0.0000010, what will be the equilibrium frequency of the A allele? (Recall that
the equilibrium allele frequency under mutation is p v v, where p is the equilibrium
frequency of the A allele, is the rate of mutation from A to a, and v is the rate of mutation from a to
A.)
a. 0.0407 c. 0.2857
b. 0.1298 d. 0.3869
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: 7.4
OBJ: 7.4.a. Outline how mutation changes allele frequencies. MSC: Applying
25. Five percent of quarter horses in the United States are heterozygous for the recessive lethal allele that
causes glycogen branching enzyme deficiency (GBED). Assuming that quarter horses are randomly
mated, this means that the frequency of this allele is q 0.025. If the GBED allele is maintained in the
population by mutation-selection balance, what is the mutation rate to the disease allele? (Recall that
the equilibrium frequency for a recessive allele under mutation-selection balance is q = s, where
is the rate of mutation to the disease allele and s is the selection coefficient against that allele. In the
case of a lethal allele, s 1.)
a. 0.025 c. 0.00475
b. 0.95 d. 0.000625
ANS: D DIF: Difficult REF: 7.4
OBJ: 7.4.b. Summarize how mutation and selection can interact to maintain deleterious alleles in a
population. MSC: Applying
26. The rate of mutation to a recessive lethal allele is 0.000001. What is the equilibrium frequency this
allele? (Recall that the equilibrium frequency for a recessive allele under mutation-selection balance is
q = s, where is the rate of mutation to the disease allele and s is the selection coefficient against
that allele. In the case of a lethal allele, s 1.)
a. 0.001 c. 0.1
b. 0.000001 d. 1.0
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: 7.4
OBJ: 7.4.b. Summarize how mutation and selection can interact to maintain deleterious alleles in a
population. MSC: Applying
27. Under ________ individuals tend to mate with others of the same genotype. Under ________
individuals tend to mate with others of different genotypes.
a. natural selection; Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium
b. directional selection; balancing selection
c. assortative mating; disassortative mating
d. outbreeding; inbreeding
ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: 7.5
OBJ: 7.5.a. Differentiate between assortative and disassortative mating.
MSC: Remembering
29. Which of the following processes will result in more heterozygotes than expected under
Hardy–Weinberg?
a. disassortative mating c. frequency-dependent selection
b. directional selection d. mutation
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: 7.5
OBJ: 7.5.b. Explain how nonrandom mating can produce deviations from expected Hardy– Weinberg
genotype frequencies. MSC: Understanding
31. Under which scenario will the presence of rare recessive deleterious alleles cause the greatest decline
in fitness in a population?
a. when the deleterious allele affects viability but not fecundity
b. when there is a high rate of migration from neighboring populations
c. when the rate of forward and back mutation are nearly equal
d. when mating occurs mostly among close genetic relatives
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: 7.5
OBJ: 7.5.c. Define “inbreeding,” “inbreeding depression,” and “identical by descent.”
MSC: Understanding
32. The graph shows the relationship between the number of surviving gray wolf pups in a litter and the
inbreeding coefficient of those pups. What do these data reveal about the types of alleles present in this
population?
a. There are recessive deleterious alleles present.
b. The population is in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium.
c. The rate of mutation is very high.
d. Mating is nonrandom with respect to genotype.
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: 7.5
OBJ: 7.5.c. Define “inbreeding,” “inbreeding depression,” and “identical by descent.”
MSC: Analyzing
33. In the scenario depicted in the figure, what will happen to the allele frequencies on the island? Assume
there is no selection or mutation, mating is random, and the population sizes are large.
34. Consider a locus with two alleles in an island population, where all assumptions of the
Hardy–Weinberg model are met except “no migration.” The figure shows the change in the frequency
of the A1 allele over several generations. What can you say about the population that is the source of
migrants to the island?
a. The rate of migration in the source population is higher than in the island population.
b. The source population has a higher frequency of the A1 allele at generation zero than the
island population.
c. Selection on the A1 allele is stronger in the island population than it is in the source
population.
d. The A1 allele is under balancing selection in the source population.
ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: 7.6
OBJ: 7.6.b. Interpret outcomes of the mainland-island model of migration.
MSC: Applying
35. Which of the following processes can increase genetic variation in a population?
a. mutation and migration
b. directional selection and positive frequency-dependent selection
c. assortative and disassortative mating
d. Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: 7.7
OBJ: 7.7.a. Compare and contrast the effects of selection, mutation, migration, and nonrandom
mating on variation within and between populations. MSC: Understanding
SHORT ANSWER
1. What is the main difference between transmission genetics and population genetics?
ANS:
Transmission genetics deal with the way in which the genotype of an individual offspring is related to
the genotypes of its parents. Population genetics deal with how genotype frequencies in an offspring
population are related to the genotype frequencies in a parental population.
2. What type of equilibrium does the figure shown represent? If the marble is moved from its current
location by a small amount, what will happen to it?
ANS:
This figure represents a stable equilibrium. If the marble is moved, it will return to its original position.
The bottom of the cup is a stable equilibrium for the marble, because a marble at rest at this point does
not move further, and if perturbed with a small push it will return to the equilibrium point at the
bottom of the cup.
3. Considering any field of science, why is it useful to have a null model, and how is a null model
applied?
ANS:
A null model provides a baseline for comparison. Null models are generally based on a simplifying set
of assumptions to predict the outcome of events if those assumptions are met. If the outcome of events
is different than those predicted by the null model, then we can conclude that one or more of the
assumptions of the model has/have not been met in the given situation.
4. The Hardy–Weinberg model assumes that none of the five important evolutionary processes are
operating. What are those processes?
ANS:
These processes are natural selection, nonrandom mating, mutation, migration, and genetic drift. *To
make the question more difficult, you can have students describe how each of the processes affects
population allele/genotype frequencies.
ANS:
A mixed equilibrium is stable with respect to perturbations in one direction but neutral with respect to
perturbations in another direction. At Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, allele frequencies can take any
value, meaning that allele frequencies are at a neutral equilibrium. But for any given allele frequency,
there is a single stable equilibrium genotype frequency.
ANS:
Count the number of individuals of each genotype in a sample from the population. Use the genotype
frequencies to calculate the allele frequencies. Use these allele frequencies to calculate the number of
individuals of each genotype that you would expect to find if the population were in Hardy–Weinberg
equilibrium. Compare the observed and expected number of each genotype. If the numbers differ,
perform a statistical test to determine whether the difference is significant.
7. Imagine a colorful population of insects. Out of 600 individuals in the population, 13% are red, 45%
are purple, and the remaining are blue. Red coloration is caused by homozygosity of the R allele at a
single locus; blue coloration is caused by homozygosity of the B allele at that locus; heterozygotes are
purple. Is this population in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium at this locus? Show all work.
ANS:
Yes.
This value is less than the critical value of with 1 degree of freedom at p 0.05, therefore we
cannot reject the hypothesis that this population is in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium at this locus.
8. Pea aphids are found in two colors, pink and green. Imagine that these colors are determined by two
alleles at a single locus, where green is dominant to pink. Consider a population where there are 328
pink aphids out of at total of 750 aphids. If the population is in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, how
many of the green aphids do you expect to be homozygotes?
ANS:
86.2
The frequency of the pink genotype is 328750 0.437 q2.
If the population is in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, then the frequency of the pink allele q is equal
to the square root of the frequency of the pink genotype 0.661.
The frequency of the green allele p is 1 0.661 0.339, because we know that p q 1.
The frequency of green homozygotes p2 is the square of the frequency of the green allele 0.3392
0.115.
The number of green homozygotes is the genotype frequency times the population size 0.115 750
86.2.
ANS:
In the case of underdominance, there is a threshold frequency for each allele, above which that allele
will be fixed, and below which it will be lost. Because of this, polymorphisms responsible for
underdominance are quickly lost as one allele or another goes to fixation. Underdominance leads to
unstable equilibria; thus, any perturbation away from the equilibrium will result in loss of an allele.
10. Consider a beneficial allele in a population at a frequency of 0.9. Will that allele go to fixation more
quickly if it is recessive or dominant? Explain why.
ANS:
It will go to fixation more quickly if it is recessive. When a beneficial allele is dominant and common,
most copies of the recessive deleterious allele are in heterozygotes that have the same fitness as the
beneficial homozygote and are therefore slowly removed by selection. If the beneficial allele is
recessive and common, selection efficiently eliminates the deleterious allele in heterozygotes, resulting
in a rapid increase in frequency of the beneficial allele.
DIF: Difficult REF: 7.3
OBJ: 7.3.c. Explain how allelic dominance influences the rate of fixation under directional selection.
MSC: Analyzing
11. Does mutation change genotype frequencies from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium? Why or why not?
ANS:
No. Mutation changes allele frequencies, but as long as the population is mating randomly, and no
other evolutionary forces are acting, genotype frequencies will remain in Hardy–Weinberg
proportions.
12. Under mutation-selection balance, even if an allele has a selective advantage it will never be fixed in a
population. Explain why this is true.
ANS:
Mutation-selection balance describes a situation where the increase in frequency of an allele that is
favored by natural selection is countered by mutations that increase the frequency of the alternate
allele. Thus, both alleles are maintained in the population.
13. Consider a population where individuals preferentially mate with other individuals of the same
genotype. If the population starts in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, will this mating strategy result in
changes in allele frequencies? Why or why not?
ANS:
No. Nonrandom mating can move genotype frequencies away from Hardy–Weinberg frequencies, but
if there are no other evolutionary forces acting, allele frequencies will not change. This type of mating
is called assortative mating and it leads to an excess of homozygotes relative to Hardy–Weinberg
expectations.
ANS:
Identical by descent means that alleles are identical in two or more individuals because the alleles were
inherited from a recent common ancestor. When close relatives mate, the offspring tend to carry alleles
at many loci that are identical by descent.
15. What are the effects of natural selection, mutation, and migration on the amount of genetic variation
within and between populations?
ANS:
Within a population, mutation and migration increase variation and natural selection (except balancing
selection) decreases variation. Between populations, mutation increases variation and migration
decreases variation. Natural selection can either increase or decrease variation between populations,
depending on the selective conditions.