HOT CRACKING PHENOMENA

IN STAINLESS STEEL WELDMENT

FATKHY BARIDWAN

FZB2023
HOT CRACKING PHENOMENA

• Formation of shrinkage cracks during the solidification of weld metal

• Can appear in several locations, and orientations
• Most commonly are longitudinal centerline cracks (coincident with the
intersection of grains growing from opposite sides of the weld), or 'flare'
cracks, again longitudinal, but at an angle to the through-thickness direction
• The cracks in all locations can be buried or surface-breaking
MECHANISM

• Cracking occurs when the available supply of liquid weld metal is insufficient
to fill the spaces between solidifying weld metal, which are opened by
shrinkage strains.
• Thus, the principal causes of cracking are:
• Strain on the weld pool is too high
• Liquid cannot reach the regions where it is needed due to inadequate supply or
blockage/ narrow channels between solidifying grains
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS

• To control solidification cracking, three principal factors need to be

manipulated: weld metal composition; weld solidification pattern; strain on the
solidifying weld metal.
WELD METAL COMPOSITION

• Weld metals are invariably alloys with a range of freezing temperatures. Low
melting point constituents are rejected by the solidifying dendrites, and result in a thin
film of liquid, persisting to low temperatures, and thus some distance from the main
pool of liquid metal. This film cannot withstand the contraction strain, and if it cannot
be fed successfully from the weld pool, then a crack is formed.
• Several elements which increase the risk of solidification cracking have been
identified (such as Sulphur and Phosphor). Generally, these are ones which form a
second phase, so that small additions can increase the freezing range of the alloy.
WELD SOLIDIFICATION PATTERN

• Weld bead shape dictates the weld metal solidification pattern and, in turn, is
influenced largely by welding parameters. Wide and shallow weld beads will be
less prone to cracking, while narrow and deep weld will be more prone to
solidification cracking. Too wide a bead will also increase the risk of cracking.
Generally, a weld bead shape where the width is half that of the depth will result in
the best condition to avoid solidification cracking.
• Travel speed is a critical welding parameter: lower travel speed is prefelable as
high travel speed results in a long weld pool, with a tail which is difficult to feed
from the front of the pool.
STRAIN OF THE SOLIDIFYING WELD METAL

• Strain on the weld pool is often difficult to quantify but is influenced by joint restraint,
material thickness and strength and the preheat temperature used. Certain
fabrication details can result in earlier parts of the weld imposing additional
shrinkage strains on the solidifying regions, such as welding around a boss or small
nozzle.
• Generally, a highly restrained joint will be more prone to solidification cracking.
Additional factors such as yield/tensile strength of the base metal, the base material
thickness (thinner plates are generally better), and the amount of preheat applied
can all play major roles in the strain on a solidifying weld
STAINLESS STEEL COMPOSITION
UNS Type C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Mo N
S304 304 0.07 2.00 0.045 0.03 0.75 17.5-19.5 8.0-10.5 0.1
S30403 304L 0.03 2.00 0.045 0.03 0.75 17.5-19.5 8.0-12.0 0.1
S316 316 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.03 0.75 16.0-18.0 10.0-14.0 2.0-3.0 0.1
S31603 316L 0.03 2.00 0.045 0.03 0.75 16.0-18.0 10.0-14.0 2.0-3.0 0.1
S41000 410 0.08-0.15 1.00 0.040 0.03 1.00 11.5-13.5 0.75
S43000 430 0.12 1.00 0.040 0.03 1.00 16.0-18.0 0.75
ELEMENT PROPERTIES
Element Melting Point (°C) Thermal Expansion Coefficient x 10-6 (in /in °C)
C >3527 -
Mn 650 21.7
P 44.2 -
S 112.8 -
Si 1414 2.6
Cr 1907 4.9
Ni 1453 13.4
Mo 2623 4.8
N -210 -
Fe 1538 11.8

Thermal Expansion Steel : 10.1 – 11.3

Thermal Expansion Stainless Steel : 17.1 - 17.3
HOT CRACKING IN STAINLESS STEEL

• Hot cracking in stainless steel welds is caused by low-melting eutectics

containing impurities such as S, P and alloy elements such as Ti, Nb
• In stabilized stainless steels, Ti and Nb react with S, N and C to form low-
melting eutectics. Nitrogen picked up during welding significantly enhances
cracking, which is reduced by minimizing the ratio of Ti or Nb to that of C and
N present
Eutectic temperature : The lowest possible melting point over all of the mixing ratios of the
constituents
Stabilized Stainless Steel : Stainless steels with addition of Carbide former (such as Ti and Nb) to prevent
formation of Chromium Carbide (Sensitization) and furthermore to prevent
inter-granullar corrosion / cracking
HOT CRACKING IN FERRITIC STAINLESS STEEL

• Hot cracking in ferritic stainless steels is not as common as with austenitic stainless
steels due to the lower coefficient of thermal expansion of the ferritic stainless steels
and the greater solubility of sulphur and phosphorus in ferrite.
• However, excessive amounts of stabilising elements such as Nb and Ti can encourage
hot cracking and also reduce hot ductility.
• Other elements exhibiting a detrimental influence on hot cracking susceptibility are
the non-metallics C, N, S, P and Mn. S is three times as detrimental as C and 48 times
as detrimental as Mn. It is suggested that the S and P should be maintained at levels
similar to those in austenitic stainless steels, to avoid the risk of hot cracking
HOT CRACKING IN AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL

• Hot cracking occurring during welding of stainless steels is known to be of

three types:
• Cracking or microfissuring in the solidifying weld metal and termed solidification cracking.
• Cracking in the HAZ due to partial melting of Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) boundaries,
known generally as liquation cracking.
• Cracking in the grain boundaries of the HAZ occurring without melting a few grains away
from the fusion line, known as ductility dip cracking.
SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING
• Borland’t theory of solidification cracking:
• Stage I: (Primary dendrite formation) Free growth of
dendrites into a continuous liquid takes place, and no
cracking can occur.
• Stage II: (Dendrite interlocking) In this stage,
impingement of growing dendrites causes interlocking.
The liquid remains continuous in the interdendritic
regions and healing occurs if any cracks form.
• Stage III: (Critical solidification range) Grain
boundaries start to form when very little liquid remains.
At this stage, cracks cannot be healed if the strains
exceed the strain tolerance of the material.
• Stage IV: (Completion of solidification) After complete
solidification, no liquid remains and no cracking occurs.
SOLIDIFICATION CRACKING

• according to this theory, when the accommodation strain is exceeded in the

critical solidification range, cracking occurs
• The critical strain imposed on the solidifying weld is a function of the
mechanical restraint during welding. The mechanical factors such as joint
design and section thickness, determine the weld metal volume and its
shrinkage on the one hand and the total amount of metal to undergo
expansion and contraction on the other.
LIQUATION CRACKING

• liquation cracking occurs intergranularly due to localized melting of the base metal
grain boundaries adjacent to the fusion line where temperatures are close to the
weld metal solidus.
• The liquation is associated with the formation of low melting eutectic phases caused
by segregation of elements such as niobium and titanium along with impurities such as
phosphorous and silicon.
• Dissolution of carbides of the metallic carbide was primarily found responsible for
grain boundary migration and liquation in the stabilized grades of stainless steel.
LIQUATION CRACKING

Lippold theory for Liquation Cracking:

1. Rapid heating at the fusion line results in melting of the MC and Mp,Cfi carbides, unpinning the grain
boundaries and causing grain growth.
2. During grain growth the grain boundaries sweeo up titanium and other solutes and the solute drag
retards further grain growth.

3. Solute enrichment lowers the melting point at the grain boundary drastically and localised melting
occurs when the temperature exceeds the liquation paint.
4. When strain is imposed on the liquated boundary, cracking results.
5. Liquation cracks from the HAZ may extend into the fusion zone or may be backfilled by capillary
action from liquid remaining in the weld.
DUCTILITY DIP CRACKING

• 'Ductility dip cracking' occurs at grain boundaries without liquation at

temperatures much below the lowest solidus and is ascribed to a variety of
factors including creep and precipitation phenomena not involving the liquid
phase
PREVENTION
• Chemical Composition
In the fully austenitic compositions, the following maximum limits have been proposed in the
literature for good hot cracking resistance:
S P Si B Nb Ti
0.005 0.006 0.5 0.005 10x%C 5x%C
• Ensure presence of delta-ferrite to at least 5% (expected 5-10%). As the presence of 5-10%
ferrite in the microstructure is extremely beneficial, the choice of filler material composition is
crucial in suppressing the risk of cracking. An indication of the ferrite-austenite balance for
different compositions is provided by the Schaeffler or WRC diagram
• Use of suitable weld geometry. a width-to-depth ratio of 0.5 is usually best for resistance to
solidification cracking.
• Use of low heat input but avoid excessive travel speed as high travel speed results in a long
weld pool, with a tail which is difficult to feed from the front of the pool
WHY FERRITE STRUCTURE IS LESS SENSITIVE TO HOT
CRACKING?
• Ferrite Structures have larger capacity to dissolve harmful impurities which
would otherwise form low melting point segregates and interdendritic cracks
• Coordination number of ferritic structure :8
Coordination number of austenitic structure : 12