PRASHANT KIRAD

CLASS 10TH
JOSH METER
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CHAPTERS TO BE COVERED:

Chemical Reactions and Equations

Light

Life Processes
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TOPPER
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RULES:
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CLASS 10TH
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TYPES OF CHANGES

Chemical change :
Physical change :
one or more new substances
change in colour or state
with change in Chemical
occurs, but no new
composition along with a
substance is formed. e.g.
change in shape/size/state
boiling of water
changes e.g. Rusting of Iron
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Chemical Reactions:
A chemical reaction is a process in which substances undergo a transformation,
resulting in the formation of new substances with different chemical properties.

The substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants.
The new substances produced as a result of a chemical reaction are called
products.

Reactants
Products

Chemical Equation:
A chemical equation is a symbolic representation of a chemical reaction, using
chemical formulas and symbols to show the reactants and products involved.
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NCERT ACTIVITY
Aim : To observe and study the burning of magnesium ribbon.
Procedure : 1. Clean a magnesium ribbon about 2 cm long by rubbing
it with sandpaper.
2. Using tongs, hold a piece of magnesium ribbon at one end.
3. Light a Bunsen Burner or a candle.
4. Hold one end of magnesium ribbon in the flame of the burner or
candle. Make sure that the flame touches the magnesium ribbon.
Observation:
1. Magnesium ribbon burns with a white dazzling flame and changes into white ash. The white powder (ash)
is magnesium oxide.
2. The ash may fall onto the watch glass.
Conclusion : It is clear that Mg burns and changes into a new substance of a new state, which is magnesium
oxide (MgO).
Combustion: When the magnesium ribbon is heated in the flame, it undergoes combustion, combining with
oxygen from the air to form magnesium oxide (MgO). The chemical equation for this reaction is:
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NCERT ACTIVITY

Aim : To observe and compare the reactions of zinc with hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.

Procedure :
1. Take two clean and dry test tubes, label one as “HCl” for the
hydrochloric acid reaction and the other as “H₂SO₄” for the
sulphuric acid reaction.
2. Place a small amount of zinc granules in each test tube.
3. Add hydrochloric acid to the HCl test tube and sulphuric acid
to the H₂SO₄ test tube, ensuring that the zinc is completely
immersed in the acid.
4. Stopper each test tube with a stopper that has a delivery tube
attached.
5. Connect the delivery tube from the “HCl” test tube to a rubber tubing and place the other end of the tubing
in a glass beaker filled with water.
6. Connect the delivery tube from the H₂SO₄ test tube in the same way.
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Observations:
In both the test tube, upon adding the dilute acid to the zinc granules, we will notice bubbles forming
around the zinc granules.
The bubbles are formed due to the release of hydrogen gas during the reaction between zinc and the
dilute acid.
On touching the test tube, we will observe a change in temperature, with the container becoming warm.
We verified that it is Hydrogen gas forming around the zinc metal when passed through soap solution.

Conclusion :
● In both case, the Zn granules react with acid, releasing H2 gas as bubbles.
● Acid react with metals to form salt and hydrogen gas.
● The increase in temperature indicates that the reaction is highly exothermic
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Characteristics of a Chemical reaction:

1. Change in Colour: Fe + CuSO₄ (Blue) → FeSO₄ (Blue-green) + Cu

2. Change in Temperature: CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + Heat
3. Change in State: H₂(g) + O₂(g) → H₂O (from gas to liquid)
4. Evolution of gas: Zn(s) + H₂SO₄(aq) → ZnSO₄(aq) + H₂(g)
5. Formation of precipitate: Pb(NO₃)₂(aq) + KI(aq) → PbI₂(s) + KNO₃(aq)
6. Endothermic reaction (energy is absorbed):
CaCO₃ + Heat → CaO + CO₂ (photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction)
7. Exothermic reaction (energy is released):
CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + Heat (digestion and respiration are exothermic reactions)
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Representing a Chemical reaction:

A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in the

form of symbols and formulae, wherein the reactant entities are given on the left-
hand side and the product entities on the right-hand side.

Reactants(s) -> Substances that undergo a chemical change/chemical reaction.

Products(s) -> Substances formed as a result of chemical change.
Word reaction: Magnesium + Oxygen -> Magnesium oxide
Chemical Equation:
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Balanced Chemical reaction

A balanced chemical equation has the number of atoms of each element equal on
both sides.

Step 1: Write the unbalanced equation.

Step 2: Count the atoms of each element on both sides.
Step 3: Balance the most complex molecules first by adding coefficients.
Step 4: Adjust coefficients to balance the atoms.
Step 5: Recheck the atom count after each adjustment.
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TOPPER
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TOPPER
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TOPPER

[CBSE 2023]

Q. To balance the following chemical equation the values of x and y should respectively be:

1,4 2,4

1,2 2,3
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Removal of Limitations
Mention the physical state of reactants when denoting a chemical reaction.
Use common notations like (s) for solids, (l) for liquids, (g) for gases and (aq) for
aqueous medium. These denote the phases of the reaction.

Apart from this, the temperature, pressure and catalyst information is

mentioned on the arrow that directs towards the product.

If the reaction is reversible and can proceed in both directions, then two half
arrowheads (⇌) are used, whereas if the reaction is irreversible and proceeds
only in one direction, i.e., forward direction, then a single arrow (→) directing
towards the product is used.

A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any
permanent chemical change is called a catalyst.
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Combination Reaction and its types:

In a combination reaction, two elements or one element and one
compound or two compounds combine to give one single product.
The general chemical equation for a combination reaction is:

A + B → AB
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(i) Calcium oxide (Quick lime) reacts with water vigorously to

produce Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) releasing a large amount
of heat (exothermic):

CaO (s) + H 2O (l) → Ca(OH) 2 (aq) + Heat

(ii) Formation of water: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2 O (l)

(iii) Burning of Coal: C (s) + O 2(g) → CO2 (g)

(iv) Whitwash
slaked lime shiny finish
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Decomposition Reaction and its types:

Reactions in which one compound decomposes in two or more
compounds or elements are known as Decomposition Reaction.
A general decomposition reaction can be represented as follows :

AB → A + B

Types:
Thermal Decomposition : In a thermal decomposition reaction, a
compound breaks down into simpler substances when heated. For
example,
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a. The decomposition of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) into calcium oxide (CaO)

and carbon dioxide (CO2) when heated is a thermal decomposition reaction

heat
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NCERT ACTIVITY

Aim : Decomposition of Ferrous sulphate.

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NCERT ACTIVITY

Aim : Decomposition of Lead Nitrate:

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Electrolytic Decomposition or Electrolysis :

Electrolysis is a chemical process in which an electric current is used to decompose
or break down compounds into their constituent elements or ions.
a. Electrolysis of water : When an electric current is passed through water, it breaks
down into hydrogen gas (H₂) at the cathode and oxygen gas (O₂) at the anode
Electricity

2H₂O(l) → 2H₂(g) + O₂(g)

b. Electrolysis of sodium chloride : When an aqueous solution of sodium chloride

(table salt) is subjected to electrolysis, it decomposes into chlorine gas (Cl₂) at the
anode and hydrogen gas (H₂) at the cathode

Electricity

2NaCl(aq) → 2Na(s) + Cl₂(g)

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Photolytic Decomposition :
Photo decomposition reactions are initiated by exposure to light.
a. Decomposition of silver chloride (AgCl) into silver (Ag) and chlorine (Cl2 ) when
exposed to sunlight.

b. Decomposition of silver bromide (AgBr) into silver (Ag) and bromine (Br2 ) when
exposed to sunlight
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NCERT ACTIVITY
Aim : Decomposition of silver chloride in the presence of sunlight

Observation: When silver chloride is placed in sunlight. The white colour of silver chloride
changes. Conclusion : On the decomposition of silver chloride which is white in colour, it
changes to grey (due to the formation of silver metal.

Silver chloride decomposes into silver and chlorine. so, the decomposition reaction takes
place in the presence of sunlight, it is called Photolysis.
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. Which of the following reaction (s) is/are an endothermic reaction(s) where

decomposition also happens?
CBSE SQP 2020-21

Respiration Decomposition of
organic matter

Electrolysis of
Heating of lead nitrate
acidified water
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Displacement Reaction and its types:

The chemical reactions in which a more reactive element displaces a less reactive
element from a compound is known as Displacement Reactions.
A general displacement reaction can be represented by using a chemical
equation as follows :

A + BC → AC + B

Examples: Zn(s) + CuSO₄(aq) → ZnSO₄(aq) + Cu(s)

Displacement Reaction are of 2 types:
1. Single Displacement Reaction
2. Double Displacement Reaction
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On the basis of this reactivity series,

more reactive element will displace
the less reactive element from its salt
solution in a displacement reaction.
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1. Single Displacement Reaction:

A single-displacement reaction is a specific type of chemical reaction in which a

single element is replaced by another element that is part of a compound.

Analogy : A + BC → AC + B ,

for example: a. When iron is added to a copper sulphate solution, it displaces

copper metal as iron is more reactive than copper.

b. When lead is added to a copper chloride solution, it displaces the copper

metal as lead is more reactive than chlorine
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NCERT ACTIVITY
Aim : The displacement of copper from copper sulphate by iron

Observation: After 20 minutes we take out both the nails from test tube B.
Now we compare both nails with the nail kept aside, and we find the iron nail that
remained suspended has a brownish coating on its surface.
We also find that the blue colour of the copper sulphate solution fades and changes to
light green colour which is different from the colour of the copper sulphate solution in
test tube A
Fe(s) + CuSO₄(aq) → FeSO₄(aq) + Cu(s)
Conclusion : Iron displaces copper from the copper sulphate solution.
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2. Double Displacement Reaction:

A double-displacement reaction is a kind of reaction which involves the exchange of

ions between two reactants to create two new molecules. Also, called precipitation
reduction as a precipitate is produced in such reactions

Analogy : AB + CD → AD + CB

Double Displacement Reaction are of 3 types:

1. Precipitation Reactions
2. Neutralisation Reactions
3. Gas-forming Reactions
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NCERT ACTIVITY
Aim : Decomposition of silver chloride in the presence of sunlight

Observation:
If sulphate ions are present in the sodium sulphate solution, a white precipitate of barium
sulphate (BaSO₄) will form. This is a chemical reaction represented by the following equation:
Na₂SO₄(aq) + BaCl₂(aq) → BaSO₄(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
The white precipitate of barium sulphate is insoluble in water and will settle at the bottom of
the test tube. The appearance of this white precipitate confirms the presence of sulphate ions
in the original solution.

Conclusion : Sodium sulphate and barium chloride undergo double-displacement reaction

and form insoluble white barium sulphate precipitate.
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Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation: Addition of oxygen or non-metallic element or removal of hydrogen or
metallic element from a compound is known as Oxidation.
The substance which gives oxygen for oxidation is called an Oxidizing agent.
The substance which removes hydrogen is also called an Oxidizing agent.

Reduction: Addition of hydrogen or metallic element or removal of oxygen or non-

metallic element from a compound is called Reduction.
The substance which gives hydrogen for reduction is called a Reducing agent.
The substance which removes oxygen is also called a Reducing agent.
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Redox Reaction:
The reaction in which oxidation and reduction both take place simultaneously is called
Redox reaction.
In a redox reaction substance getting oxidised is called a Reducing agent.
And the substance getting reduced is called an Oxidising agent.

Effects of Oxidation:
Corrosion: The process of slow conversion of metals into their undesirable
compounds due to their reaction with oxygen, water, acids, gases etc. present in the
atmosphere is called Corrosion. Example: Rusting of iron.
Rusting: Iron when reacts with oxygen and moisture forms red substance which is
called Rust.
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Tarnishing: The surface of silver metal gets tarnished (becomes dull) on exposure to
air, due to the formation of a coating of black silver sulphide(Ag 2S) on its surface by
the action of H 2 S gas present in the air.

Rancidity: The taste and odour of food materials containing fat and oil changes when
they are left exposed to air for a long time. This is called Rancidity. It is caused due to
the oxidation of fat and oil present in food materials. Methods to prevent rancidity:
By adding anti-oxidant, Vacuum packing., Replacing air by nitrogen. ,Refrigeration of
foodstuff.
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. Which of the following reaction (s) is/are an endothermic reaction(s) where

decomposition also happens?
CBSE SQP 2020-21

Respiration Decomposition of
organic matter

Electrolysis of
Heating of lead nitrate
acidified water
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. A shining metal ‘M’ on burning gives a dazzling white flame & changes to a white
powder ‘N’. (CBSE 2020, 2022)
A. Identify ‘M’ & ‘N’.
B. Represent the above reaction in the form of a balanced chemical equation.
C. Does ‘M’ undergo oxidation or reduction in this reaction? Justify.
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. Name the salt that is used in black and white photography. Give equation for the
reaction when it is exposed to sunlight. [CBSE 2016,2018]
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. In the electrolysis of water, (CBSE 2020, 2013, SP-2018)

A. Name of the gases liberated at anode & cathode.
B. Why is it that the volume of gas collected on one electrode is two times that on
the other electrode?
C. What would happen if dilute H2S04 is not added to water?
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CLASS 10TH

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

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Reflection of Light:
The phenomenon of bouncing back of light into the same medium by
the smooth surface is called reflection.
Incident Ray: The incoming ray of light
that strikes the surface is called the
incident ray.
Reflected Ray: The ray that bounces off
the surface is called the reflected ray.
Normal: The imaginary line
perpendicular to the surface at the point
of incidence is called the normal.
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Laws of Reflection:
The laws of reflection describe how light behaves when it encounters a
surface and reflects.

Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection

Incident ray, normal at the point of

incidence and the reflected ray all lie in
the same plane.

These laws are collectively known as

the laws of reflection.
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Characteristics of an image formed by a Plane mirror:

1.The image obtained is virtual.

2.The image is laterally inverted.

3.The image is erect.

4.The size of the image is the same as the

size of the object. The distance between the image obtained from the mirror is
the same as the distance between the object from the mirror.

5. Uses : Solar cookers, periscope used in submarine, and kaleidoscope.

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Spherical Mirror:

Spherical mirrors are mirrors whose reflecting surfaces are part of a sphere.
These mirrors can be either concave or convex, depending on the shape of the
reflecting surface.

Types of Spherical Mirrors: Spherical Mirror :

Concave Mirror (converging mirror): The reflecting surface of a concave

mirror is curved inward, like the inner surface of a sphere.

Convex mirror (diverging mirror) : The reflecting surface of a convex mirror

is curved outward, like the outer surface of a sphere
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Important Terms:

Principal Axis: The imaginary line passing through the center of the mirror, the
focal point, and the object.
Aperture: An aperture of a mirror or lens is a point from which the reflection of
light actually happens.
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Pole (P): The point of intersection of the aperture of the mirror and the principal axis is
called as the pole of the mirror.

Center of Curvature (C): The center of the imaginary sphere of which the mirror is a
part.

Radius of curvature (R) : The distance between the center of curvature and pole of the
mirror, is called as the radius of the curvature.

Focal Point (F): The point where parallel rays of light either converge (concave mirror) or
appear to diverge from (convex mirror).

Focal Length (f): The distance between the mirror's surface and its focal point OR half of
the radius of curvature distance.
focal length = Radius of curvature
2
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RULES TO OBTAIN AN IMAGE IN SPHERICAL MIRROR :

A ray passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror or

directed in the direction of the centre of curvature of a convex mirror,
after reflection, is reflected back along the same path
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A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards a point P (pole of the
mirror), on the concave mirror or a convex mirror, is reflected obliquely. The
incident and reflected rays follow the laws of reflection at the point of incidence
(point P), making equal angles with the principal axis.
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IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE MIRROR

1.Position : At Infinity 2. Position : Beyond C

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3. Position : At C 4. Position : between C and F

5. Position : At F 6. Position : between F and P

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Concave Mirror : The reflecting surface of a concave mirror is curved inward, like the
inner surface of a sphere.
Uses: Shaving mirror, torch, search-lights, in solar furnace and dentists, etc
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IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX MIRROR

1. Position : Between infinity and 2. Position : Between infinity

the pole of the mirror and the pole of the mirror
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Convex mirror : The reflecting surface of a convex mirror is curved outward, like the
outer surface of a sphere.
Uses: Rear-view mirror, torch, as security mirror, etc. Convex mirror gives wider
field of view
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q.An optical device forms an erect image of an object placed in front of it. If the size of the
image is one half that of the object, the optical device is a :
(PYQ)

Concave mirror Plane mirror

Convex mirror Convex lens

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SIGN CONVENTION:
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Sign Convention Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

Positive (focal point on the same Negative (focal point on the opposite
Focal length (f)
side as incident light) side of incident light)

Positive for real images

Positive for virtual images
Negative if on the opposite side
Image distance (v) Negative for images on the opposite
of the incident light (usually
side of the incident light
right side)

Positive if on the same side as

Positive if on the same side as
incident light (usually left side)
incident light (usually left side)
Object distance (u) Negative for images on the
Negative if on the opposite side of
opposite side of the incident
the incident light (usually right side)
light.
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MIRROR FORMULA:
The mirror formula is a formula used to calculate the focal length of a spherical mirror.

f = focal length of the mirror

v = image distance (distance from the mirror to the image)
u = object distance (distance from the mirror to the object)

MAGNIFICATION FORMULA:
It is the ratio of the height of the image produced by the mirror to the height of the object
produced by the mirror.
m>1: Image size > Object size
m<1m : Image size < Object size
m<0: Image is real and inverted
m>0: Image is virtual and erect
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q.The linear magnification produced by a spherical mirror is 1/3​. Analyzing this

value, state the:
(i) Type of mirror
(ii) Position of the object with respect to the pole of the mirror. Draw a ray diagram
to justify your answer.
(CBSE 2014, 2013, 2017, 2018)
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REFRACTION OF LIGHT:
The phenomenon of bending of ray of light when it enters from one medium to another.

Incident Ray: The incoming ray of light in the first medium is called the incident ray.
Refracted Ray: The ray that bends as it enters the second medium is called the
refracted ray.
Normal: As with reflection, the normal is an
imaginary line perpendicular to the surface
at the point of incidence.

CAUSE OF REFRACTION:
The cause of the refraction of light is that light
travels at different speeds in different media.
This change in the speed of light when it moves
from one medium to another causes it to bend.
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LAWS OF REFRACTION:
The incident ray refracted ray, and the normal to the interface of two media at the
point of incidence all lie on the same plane.
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is
constant. This is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.

Refractive index: is a measure of how much light is bent or refracted when it enters a
new medium. It is denoted by the symbol "n."
When taken with respect to a vacuum, it’s known as an absolute refractive index.
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q.The absolute refractive indices of glass and water are 1.5 and 1.33 respectively. In
which medium does light travel faster? Calculate the ratio of speeds of light in the
two media.
(CBSE 2013, 2019, 2020)
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REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS SLAB:

Glass is a denser medium while the
surrounding medium usually air is
lighter.
When the light passes through the 1
interface of air-glass it bends towards
the normal.
The angle of refraction for 1 st interface
is equal to the angle of incidence for the
second interface since both sides are
parallel.
Using Snell's law the final angle of
emergence becomes equal to the angle
of incidence. Hence the emergent ray is
parallel to the incident ray.
There is a lateral displacement in the
path of light.
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SPHERICAL LENSES:
Lenses are transparent objects with curved surfaces that refract light, causing
it to converge or diverge. Two types of Spherical Lens are there: Convex lens
and Concave lens.

IMPORTANT TERMS:
Principal Axis: An imaginary line passing through the center of the lens,
perpendicular to its surface.
Aperture: The diameter of the circular outline of a lens is called aperture.
Optical Center (O): The center point of the lens through which the principal
axis passes.
Focus: The point where the rays of light converge or appear to diverge after
passing through the lens
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A lens has two principal foci represented by F1 and F2.

The distance of the optical centre from F1 or F2 represents the focal length
(f) of the lens.
The distance of the optical center from C1 or C2 represents the radius of
curvature (R) of the lens.
The radius of curvature of a spherical lens is twice the focal length of the
lens. That is,

R = 2f
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RULES TO OBTAIN A IMAGE IN SPHERICAL LENS:

For a Convex Lens:

A ray of light parallel to the principal axis, after refraction, passes through the
principal focus on the opposite side of the lens.
A ray of light passing through the principal focus, after refraction, emerges
parallel to the principal axis.
A ray of light passing through the optical center of the lens emerges without any
deviation.
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For a Concave Lens:

A ray of light parallel to the principal axis, after refraction, appears to diverge
from the principal focus located on the same side of the lens.
A ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus, after refraction, emerges
parallel to the principal axis.
A ray of light passing through the optical center of the lens emerges without any
deviation.
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IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX LENS

1. Position : At Infinity 2. Position : Beyond 2F1

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3. Position : At 2F1 4. Position : Between F1 and 2F1

5. Position : : At F1 6. Position : Between F1 and O

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Convex Lens : A convex lens is thicker in the center than at the edges. Convex lenses are
also known as converging lens.
Uses: cameras, eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, projectors, microscopes,
spotlights, flashlights, and laser systems.
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IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE LENS

1. Position :At infinity 2. Position : Between infinity and

optical centre O of the lens
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Concave Lens: A concave lens is thinner in the center than at the edges. Concave
lenses are also known as diverging lens.
Uses: diverging light, correcting nearsightedness in eyeglasses, telescopes
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SIGN CONVENTION:

Distances along the

incident light direction:
Positive
Distances opposite to the
incident light direction:
Negative
Heights measured
upward (in the incident
light direction): Positive
Heights measured
downward: Negative
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Parameter Description Sign Convention

Positive for image on opposite side of

Measured from image
Image distance (v) lens; Negative for image on same side as
to lens
incident light

Positive for object on same side as

Measured from object
Object distance (u) incident light; Negative for object on
to lens
opposite side

Position relative to Positive if above principal axis; Negative

Height of the object (h)
principal axis if below

Position relative to Positive if above principal axis; Negative

Height of the image (h')
principal axis if below
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. A spherical mirror and a thin spherical lens have each a focal length of -15𝑐𝑚. The
mirror and the lens are likely to be
(CBSE SQP)

the mirror is concave

both concave
and the lens is convex

the mirror is convex,

both convex.
but the lens is concave.
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LENS FORMULA:
f = focal length of the mirror
v = image distance (distance from the mirror to the image)
u = object distance (distance from the mirror to the object)

MAGNIFICATION FORMULA: m>1: Image enlarged.

Ratio of image height to object height. 0<m<1: Image diminished.
Interpretation: m=1: Image size equals object size.
Negative m: Real and inverted image.
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POWER:
Ability of a lens to converge or diverge light rays is called power (P).
SI unit: Diopter (D) or

Power of convex lens: Positive (focal length is positive)

Power of concave lens: Negative (focal length is negative)
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. If the power of a lens is - 4.0 D, then it means that the lens is a

(CBSE 2021)

concave lens of focal concave lens of focal

length -50 m length -25 cm

convex lens of focal convex lens of focal

length +50 cm length -25 m
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. A concave lens produces an image 20cm from the lens of an object placed 30cm from
the lens. Calculate the power of the lens.
[SQP]
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CLASS 10TH
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LIFE PROCESSES:
The various basic functions performed by living organisms to maintain their life on
this earth are called life processes.
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NUTRITION:

The process by which a living organism obtains and utilizes food is called Nutrition.

There are two types of autotrophic nutrition:

1. Photosynthetic Autotrophic nutrition

Organisms fulfill their carbon and energy requirements through photosynthesis
using sunlight as an energy source. Ex - green plants

2. Chemosynthesis Autotrophic nutrition

Organisms which utilize chemical energy to synthesize their food. Ex - bacteria.
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AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION IN PLANTS:

Photosynthesis
It is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert sunlight into energy
to make their own food. They use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce
glucose and oxygen.

Events of Photosynthesis:
Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll
Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecule into
hydrogen and oxygen.
Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates
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Stomatal pore:
Function of stomata- Transpiration Exchange of gases during photosynthesis
and respiration.
Opening and closing of stomata :
Stomata opens on swelling (water enters) of guard cells.
Stomata closes on shrinking (water leaves) of guard cells..
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN DESERT PLANTS:

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HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION :
In this mode of nutrition, organisms cannot prepare their food on their own. They
instead obtain from other organisms.

Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition:

1. Holozoic nutrition
Complex food molecules are taken in and then broken down into simpler and soluble
in this type of nutrition. Eg - Amoeba, human beings, herbivores, carnivores, and
omnivores possess this mode of nutrition.
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2. Saprophytic nutrition
Organisms usually feed on dead and decayed organic matter, breaking down complex
material outside body and absorb it. Eg-Fungi, yeast, etc.

3. Parasitic nutrition
Organisms derive nutrition from plants or animals without killing them. They obtain
nutrition by living on or inside the host. e.g. tapeworm, lice, ticks, leech, etc.
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. Provide a diagram to illustrate the amoeba's nutritional process.

(CBSE 2016, 2019).
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Nutrition in Amoeba
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What happens to the food we eat?

Ingestion: The process of taking in food.

Digestion: Breakdown of food into smaller components that
can be absorbed into the bloodstream.
Absorption: The process of absorbing digested food.
Assimilation: Utilization of digested food for energy, growth,
and repair.
Egestion: Removing undigested food from the body.
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NUTRITION IN HUMANS :

Digestion:
It is a catabolic process in which
complex and large components of
food are broken into simpler and
smaller forms with the help of
enzymes. These simpler parts are
taken by different parts of body and
absorbed. Entire system is known as
digestive system.
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Digestion system
Alimentary canal: A long hollow tube that contains organs through which the food
passes (Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, etc.).

Accessory Organs: Organs that help in digestion but no food passes through them
(liver, pancreas, salivary glands, etc.)
Mouth Salivary gland
Mouth:
Saliva Watery fluid
Food is ingested.
Crushed and chewed with the help of teeth.
Food is wetted with saliva to make its passage smooth.
Food is mixed with saliva with the help of muscular
tongue
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Oesophagus
Food is pushed downwards due to rhythmic contraction and
relaxation of muscles and is known as peristaltic (involuntary)
movements.

Stomach:
J-shaped organ Widest part of alimentary canal.

Gastric Juice Composition and Function

Water, Electrolytes
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl): Converts pepsinogen to pepsin, kills bacteria
Pepsin: Protein digestion
Mucus: Protective coating, lubricant, protects gastric mucosa from HCl and pepsin
Imbalance between HCl and Mucus: Can cause hyperacidity
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Liver
Secretes Bile Juice.
Bile juice is stored in the gallbladder.
Bile juice makes food alkaline.
Bile juice helps in emulsification of fats

Emulsification
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Pancreas
Secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like :
1. Trypsin: helps in the digestion of proteins
2. Lipase: helps in breaking down of emulsified fats.
3. Pancreatic amylase: helps in digestion of carbohydrates

Small Intestine
5-7 meters long
Site of final digestion of food Secretes intestinal juice
Enzymes present in intestinal juice
* The walls of the small intestine secrete digestive enzymes to digest food.
* Peptidases to split small peptides into amino acids.
* Maltase acts on maltose and converts it into glucose.
* Sucrase acts on sucrose and converts it into glucose and fructose.
* Lactase acts on lactose and converts it into glucose and galactose.
* Lipases acts on lipids and convert it into fatty acid and glycerol.
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Absorption of food by villi

Villi are finger-like projections.
Increases the surface area for absorption.
Richly supplied with blood vessels that take the absorbed food to every cell of the body.
Food is utilised for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and the repair of old tissues .

Large Intestine
Absorption of water takes place in the large intestine.

Anus
Removal of undigested and unabsorbed food.
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TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. Why do herbivores have longer intestines than carnivores?

(PYQ)
 PRASHANT
PRASHANTKIRAD
KIRAD

TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. Which is the correct sequence of body parts in the human alimentary canal?
(PYQ)

Mouth → stomach → small intestine Mouth → stomach → oesophagus →

→ large intestine → oesophagus small intestine → large intestine

Mouth → oesophagus → stomach → Mouth → oesophagus → stomach →

small intestine → large intestine large intestine → small intestine
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PRASHANTKIRAD
KIRAD

TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. Which of the following events in the mouth cavity will be affected if salivary
amylase is lacking in the saliva?
(PYQ)

Starch breaking down into

Absorption of vitamins.
sugars.

Proteins breaking down into Fats breaking down into

amino acids. fatty acids and glycerol.
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RESPIRATION:

The process by which food is oxidized to release energy. For this oxygen is required
from outside of the body to break down the food. The organic substances undergoing
oxidative breakdown during respiration are called respiratory substances. e.g. glucose
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Types of Respiration:
1. Aerobic respiration
It is described as the process in which a large amount of energy is released in the
presence of oxygen from the breakdown of food substances.

2. Anaerobic respiration
It is described as the respiratory process in which a small amount of
energy is released in the absence of oxygen from the breakdown of
food substances. It takes place in yeast, bacteria and in human
muscles. Only 2 molecules of ATP is released.
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Glucose Breakdown
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Respiration in HUMANS:
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How does the exchange of gases occur in the human body?

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Parts of the human respiratory system

Trachea - Air passes from it. Rings of cartilage keep the trachea open allowing the
passage of air to the lungs and also preventing it from collapsing when there is no air
in it.

Bronchi - Trachea divides into two smaller tubes on entering air into the lungs.
Bronchioles - Bronchi are subdivided into smaller branches called bronchioles, each
bronchioles is finally terminated into many alveoli.

Alveoli - These are balloon-like structures that increase the surface area for gaseous
exchange in the lungs.

Diaphragm - Movement in the diaphragm helps in breathing.

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Alveolus Gas exchange

The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and the
oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by blood in the vessels to be transported to all the cells in
the body.
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Mechanism of gaseous exchange in humans

Inhalation - When we breathe in, air passes through the trachea and ribs move up
and flatten the diaphragm due to which the chest cavity becomes larger. As a
result, air is sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli.

Gaseous exchange - Gaseous exchange - Hemoglobin binds with oxygen and

carries it along in the blood throughout the body. As the blood passes through the
tissue of the body, oxygen from the blood diffuses into the cell, and CO2 which is
produced as waste products during respiration diffuses into the blood and is
carried back to the lungs for expiration.

Expiration (Exhalation) - Ribs move down and the diaphragm becomes dome-
shaped decreasing the chest cavity. Thus, pushing the air out of the lungs.
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Inhalation v/s Exhalation

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RESPIRATION IN AQUATIC ANIMALS:

Gills are the respiratory organs of fishes. Fishes take in oxygen which is dissolved in
water through gills.
Since the availability of oxygen is less in the aquatic environment, the breathing rate
of aquatic organisms is faster.

Insects have a system of spiracles and tracheae which is used for taking in oxygen.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

TRANSPORTATION

Transportation is a life process where substances synthesized or absorbed in one part

of the body are carried to other parts of the body.

Blood is a red-colored fluid connective tissue, which circulates in our body. Its red colour is
due to presence of a pigment called haemoglobin in its red cells. The deficiency of
haemoglobin in our body is referred as anaemia.
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Circulatory system
1.Blood - Fluid connective tissue
2.Blood vessels - Tubes
3.Heart - Pumping organ
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Red blood cells - Circular, biconcave,

and disc- shaped, appear red due to
the presence of Hemoglobin.
White blood cells - Large, nucleated,
and colorless.
Platelets - Cell fragments, that
function in blood clotting.

RED BLOOD CELL:

Haemoglobin (Iron containing protein)
Binds with O2 and helps in O2 transport.
CO2 is transported in dissolved form.
Residual volume: Volume of air remained inside lungs after forceful
exhalation. (1100-1200 ml)
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Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries

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Valves in Veins-
Prevent backflow of the blood.
Blood is under low pressure in veins.
Blood vessels - Tubes in which blood flows
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Largest artery: Aorta

The only artery that carries

deoxygenated blood is the
pulmonary artery.

Largest Vein: Vena cava

Only vein that carries oxygenated

blood: Pulmonary Vein
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Heart
It is a pumping machine that pushes out the blood into the blood vessels and
from these to different parts of the body. It has four chambers separated by a
septum which prevent the mixing of pure and impure blood.

Chambers :
1. Atrium (upper chambers) - there are two atrium separated (dividing
walls).

2. Ventricle (lower chambers) - the two inferior chambers of heart are right
and left ventricle.
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The flow of blood in humans:

Humans have double circulation, which means that blood goes through the heart
twice to supply blood once around the body.
Process -

1. Pulmonary circulation - The movement of blood from the heart to the lungs and
back to the heart constitutes pulmonary circulation.
Step 1 - The right ventricle pushes the blood to the lungs for oxygenation via
pulmonary arteries.
Step 2 - The oxygenated blood comes back to the left atrium of the heart through
pulmonary veins.
Step 3 - The left atrium then pushes blood to left ventricle.

2. Systemic circulation - The movement of blood from the heart to various places of
the body except the lungs and back to the heart.
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Step 1 - As the blood fills in the left ventricle, the blood is pushed out.
Step 2 - The blood is pumped to the whole body via the aorta
Step 3 - The deoxygenated blood enters into the right atrium via the Vena Cava
from lower body.
Double circulation prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

Double
Circulation
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Lymph:
It is another type of fluid found in our body, which is also involved in transportation.
Formation - it is formed when some amount of plasma proteins and blood cells escape
into intracellular spaces through pores present in capillaries.
Functions -
Fluid balance : Drains excess fluid from extracellular space back into the blood. ●
Fat transport : Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and
transport to bloodstream.
Immune System: Transports foreign material (ex-pathogen) to lymph nodes for
disposal
Lymph capillaries - Lymph from intracellular spaces into lymph capillaries which
further join to large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins. They are thin
walled.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Transportation in Plants:
Transportation of water, minerals, and food is necessary to carry out various biological
activities.
The water and minerals are absorbed from the soil by the roots of the plant and
transported to various parts of plants like stems, leaves, and flowers. Food is
transported from leaves to developing parts of plants.
In plants, transportation is done by a specialized vascular system made up of:

1. Xylem
2. Phloem
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Xylem and Phloem:

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Functions of Transpiration:

1. Transpiration helps in the absorption and upward

movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from roots to
the leaves.

2. It also helps in temperature regulation.

3. Transpiration helps to get rid of excess water

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EXCRETION

It is the biological process by which an organism removes harmful metabolic wastes

from the body.

Different types of excretion :

Unicellular organism
They get rid of waste products by diffusing it into the surroundings through the
general body. E.g. Amoeba, paramecium.

Multicellular organism
They get rid of waste products by specialised organs for function of excretion.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Excretion System:
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The main function of the human excretory system is to remove nitrogenous

waste such as urea from the body.
Kidney -
It is the main organ of the excretory system.
It is a reddish brown and bean-shaped structure.
It helps in removing excess water from the body and
nitrogenous waste from the blood in the form of urine.
Maintaining the constant cone.
Regulates pH of blood

Nephron -
It is a basic filtering until found in the kidney.
It is a long coiled tubular whose one end is connected to cup shaped structure called
Bowman’s capsule containing a bundle of blood capillaries called glomerulus that is
followed by tubular part of nephrons and loops at some places.
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Glomerular filtration - Nitrogenous wastes, glucose, water, amino

acid, and excessive salts from the blood are filtered and initial filtrate
enters into capsule of the nephron.

Selective reabsorption - Useful substances like glucose, amino

acids, salts and a major amount of water from the filtrate are
reabsorbed back by capillaries surrounding the nephron.

Tubular secretion - Urea, extra water and salts are

secreted into the tubule which open up into the
collecting duct and then into the ureter.
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Functioning:
The glomerulus filters the blood passing through it.
It also ensures to removal of only harmful
substances from the body including waste
materials.
Useful substances like glucose, amino acids, salts,
and a major amount of water are selectively
reabsorbed by the tubular part of the nephron.
Some substances like K+ are actively secreted into
the urine through the tube.
The collecting dust collects the urine and passed it
to ureter.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

TOPPER TOP QUESTIONS

Q. In the given diagram A,B,C and are

(CBSE 2021, SQP)
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Hemodialysis
(Artificial Kidney)
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Excretion in Plants:
1. Gaseous wastes i.e. CO2 and O2 are removed through stomata in leaves and lenticels
in stems to the air.

2. Plants get rid of excess water by transpiration.

3. Some waste products are stored as resins and gums.

4. Plants also excrete some waste into the soil around them.

5. Waste products are also stored in leaves that fall off.

6. Useful Waste- Essential oils, Gums, O2(during daytime)

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