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Chapter 6 Billing and Payment Systems
CHAPTER 6
Billing and Payment Systems
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you complete this chapter you should be able to:
1. Describe the characteristics of payment systems that have been used on the
internet.
2. Describe how billing and payment techniques relate to corporate strategy.
3. Identify and describe the emerging electronic bill presentment and payment
systems.
4. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of these systems.
5. Evaluate the suitability of billing and payment methods for various ebusiness
scenarios.
6. Discuss the trends most likely to prevail in the future.
KEY TERMS
near-field communication (NFC) (p. 129)
radio frequency identification (RFID) (p. 128)
Secure Electronic Transaction (SET) protocol (p. 121)
SSL/HTTPS protocols (p. 121)
value-added network (VAN) (p. 115)
TEACHING OVERVIEW
Billing and Payment Systems is an informative chapter that links the security concept
with issues around technological integration as well as business models and strategy. It is
important to stress that electronic payment systems really are the issue upon which
ebusiness succeeds or fails. Without business and consumer confidence in secured,
trustworthy, and private payments systems, there is no web-based commerce.
At present, no one form of payment system is optimal or universal, but credit cards
continue to be prominent because they meet many important criteria for electronic
payment. Card enhancements like build in security chips are great for in-person
purchases, but do little for on-line purchases. Encryption techniques continue to be
strengthened, and financial institutions offer Verified by Visa and its MasterCard and
American Express counterparts as ways to combat on-line fraud, and to help allay
consumer fears over on-line credit card purchases.
The theft of credit card numbers is often raised as an important issue in the development
of ecommerce payment systems, and students are aware of the concerns. However, credit
card companies have made many changes that improve the usefulness of credit cards for
Copyright © 2013 Pearson Canada Inc. 1

online payments. For example, cardholders of many credit cards have little or no liability
for fraudulent charges on their cards, and many cards offer guarantees of receiving what
was paid for.
Still, other methods of on-line payments, including Ebay’s Paypal, FSTC’s eCheck,
reloadable debit cards like Apple’s iTunes card, and mobile payment systems are
discussed in detail in the text. These methods represent alternatives to credit cards, and
really are payment system created in response to an electronic market.
The class can discuss or explore other payment types that have been tried, such as
Mondex, and others that have failed. Thinking of why these payment forms are no longer
around can give insight into what requirements need to be met for success. Some of the
billing and payment systems offered by such organizations as Canada Post’s ePost can
also be considered from a strategic and operational perspective. We always emphasize
the importance of the bank payments systems, through the internet banking facilities,
which are growing in importance. Such systems can be used as an example, using the
demos on the sites, such as those on the Royal Bank and CIBC websites.
MEDIA GUIDE
Internet Exercises
The Internet exercises and answers are also available in the Companion Website at
www.pearsoncanada.ca/trites.
1. Credit Cards
Credit cards are one of the most popular methods of payment on the internet. Visa
has implemented a credit card service that is specifically designed for use on the
internet. Go to www.visa.ca and search for Verified by VISA. Review the
features of this option that is specifically designed for internet-based purchases.
Questions:
1. How does Verified by VISA differ from other payment processes?
Customers create a password to use with their credit card number when making
an online purchase.
The merchant’s online sales-system design integrates the Visa payment procedure
so that the customer is connected directly with their Visa provider, where
payment takes place. The merchant receives confirmation of payment processing
but does not collect or view the data (some simpler systems allow the vendor to
collect this data). From a fraud or charge-back perspective, the vendor has
greater assurance that the customer who is purchasing is the authorized user of
the credit card. Online transactions are referred to as card-not-present
transactions and these, historically, have had greater fraud risk.

As credit cards have incorporated smart card (chip) technologies, the payment
procedure for face-to-face sales is evolving to be similar to the online system.
Customers now enter a numeric code into a payment device rather than manually
signing a sales slip.
2. Stored Value Cards

The Mondex card is unlike any other card when used on the internet for online
purchases. Visit the Mondex site at www.mondex.com and find out what their key
difference is. Here’s a clue: Europeans are much more concerned about it than
North Americans.
3. Electronic Bill Presentment and Payment

All the big banks in Canada have enabled customers to accept and pay their bills
electronically, and Canada Post (www.epost.ca) has done the same. Visit the
epost site and compare epost with the services offered by banks.
4. Mobile Payments
An interesting use of new technologies arises when a business wishes to have its
employees accept payments from customers when they are in the field. Mobile
credit card processing is undergoing an update and can involve the use of
smartphones. Read more about this at www.merchantseek.com under
“Informative Articles.” A good example is “Mobile credit card processing: The
Swipe of the Future.” Note the setup requirements identified in the article.
This short article is a good summary of the organizational structures that must be
in place to begin accepting credit card payments:
1. Registration of the business
2. A merchant account or outsourced equivalent
3. Payment gateway
After these steps, the decision becomes how to capture the point-of-sale data.
Businesses have moved from paper-based systems to card readers, and now, to
the use of smartphones.
Weblinks
Speedpass
Safaricom Kenya www.speedpass.com
www.safaricom.co.ke
PayPass
Mondex www.paypass.com
www.mondex.com
Canada Post’s epost
PayPal www.epost.ca
www.paypal.com
Acxsys Corporation
Fair Isaac www.acxsys.ca
www.fico.com

SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
IN-CHAPTER BOXES
Ebusiness in Global Perspective— M-Pesa
1. What potential is there for further development of M-Pesa in the future?
- There should be great potential. Africa is developing quickly and it seems clear
that the M-Pesa has so far only scratched the surface. As the system develops and
is able to reach into more areas, and as the international transfers become more
known, and perhaps linked with transfer mechanizms such as Interac used in the
Western world, M-Pesa should have a bright future.
2. What other cash transactions could M-PESA be used for?
- It could be used for a variety of transfers in business and in the not for profit
world. Banks are scarce in many areas of Africa, and land transportation difficult,
Yet cash needs to be stored and moved about. For example, churches receive cash
from their people and then need to transport it to banks. This is often done by
keeping the money in safes and transported when possible. M-Pesa could be used
to transfer these funds to a central safer location.
- Also many businesses need to pay their suppliers and M-Pesa would be a good
way to do that.
- Banks could use it to transfer funds to and from more remote areas where their
services are limited.
- The potential uses of M-Pesa are almost limitless.
New Business Models—Transferring Cash with Visa
1. Is this new service likely to be more successful than previous attempts to develop
online payment systems?
It has a lot of potential. Visa is already backed by a number of banks and is extremely
widely used.
It isn’t really a payment service though, Rather it is a money transfer service, and so it
wouldn’t substitute for an online payment service.
It could supplement any online payments though, since it enhances the purchasing power
of the Visa credit cards.
The mobility aspect is a great feature. Being on the move, and being able to accept
money into your credit card would be very helpful, convenient and practical.

2. Who would be interested in buying this service?
Travellers would find this service of tremendous help when travelling away from home
and running short on cash. The service would enable them to refresh their credit cards
through the internet without exposing their bank accounts to hacking. Many travelers are
reluctant to use the internet for banking when travelling, and this service would reduce
the risk. ATMs are often used by travelers, but they don’t offer much flexibility in service
for travelers.
Shoppers, students away from home, and people away from home and depending on their
credit cards would find this service useful
Estrategy— Layered Security for Credit Cards
1. How effective do you think Verified by Visa and CVV2 are in preventing fraud?
What more can be done?"
- The addition of additional security layers undoubtedly adds protection simply

bceaue it make use of the credit card more difficult. Thieves need to obtain more
information
- The next logical step would be to make use of biometrics. This could include
fingerprint scans and retina scans. This could be done online as most computers
and smart phones can accommodate scanners that could be used to transmit to the
destination.
2. View the webcast at

http://www.visa.ca/en/merchant/VbVwebcast2009/index.html. Do you think the idea of
layered security is heading in the right direction, as a response to credit card fraud? Why?
- Yes, it would seem to be a logical step. It makes the security more rigorous. Also, it
enables more customized security with the additional passwords.
- It will not eliminate fraud, but will make it a lot more difficult for the perpetrators.
- The issue with them is that it also adds steps for the legitimate user, which adds
inconvenience. It would be good to devise a method which is not more inconvenient.
- A method that does not use passwords at all, such as biometrics might meet this
approach.
- Also, unique password developers that set passwords every minute or so can be
effective.
Canadian Snapshots – Telpay Inc
1. What other services could TelPay to utilize current technology?

- It could expand its payment service to a variety of mobile platforms which it
doesn’t likely offer now because mobility is expanding so fast.
- It could expand into systems oriented solutions
- It could move into the cloud

2. How do you think TelPay has changed since its founding in 1985?
- It would have changed along with technology. And technology has changed
radically since then.
- The last 25 years have seen the introduction of the internet, So telpay would have
moved into internet usage.
- Tech has gone from large centralized systems to client server systems and
beyond. Telpay would have had to track all those changes.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
The Review questions and answers are also available in the Companion Website at
1. What are the main characteristics of traditional cash? Why did the ecash online
payment systems fail?
Characteristics of cash:
 portability
 acceptability
 anonymity
 instant transfer of value
Ecash was an encrypted, anonymous electronic cash payment system that used blind
signatures so that, as with physical cash payments, no record of the purchaser could be
tracked. Ecash met the last two characteristics of cash—anonymity and instant transfer of
value—but failed in portability and acceptability.
2. What is RFID technology and how can it be used for payments?
RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification. We’ve all seen it in retail—in clothing
stores where the buzzer goes off when we leave because the tag hasn’t been removed, or
hidden in books at bookstores, or glued to DVD covers. Walmart was one of the first
vendors to demand RFID compliance from its suppliers. Now RFID is branching its way
into several payment systems. The system works by holding an RFID payment card close
to a reader, which then “reads out” the information stored on the card. The distance
necessary between the card and the reader varies. Some systems (for example, highway
toll collection systems) are designed to read out payment cards in a moving vehicle.
Other systems, like Imperial Oil’s SpeedPass key tag, require a distance of no more than
a few inches. The future of RFID payment technologies lies in its link to mobile payment
systems. As businesses are working to develop combined, secure large and micropayment
systems, mobile devices (cellphones) are the platform with the greatest promise. They
offer the closest match yet to the above four characteristics of cash.
3. The dominant payment systems on the internet are still traditional systems such as
credit cards. Explain why so many of the new and often innovative internet-based
systems have failed.
New internet-based payment systems fail for many reasons. The main reason is that none
of them ever achieved a critical mass, either in the number of merchants accepting the
system or in the number of internet surfers using the system. Often this was due to the
added expense a merchant must incur to offer the alternative systems, but another reason
was a lack of trust by the consumer. When a consumer has been making purchases safely
by credit card for years, why should she change? What benefit does she receive,
especially when credit card companies offer redeemable point systems to their customers
for continued use?

Small start-up companies that could not offer a level of trust and a sense of security
comparable to banks started many of the early payment systems on the internet. Users
were simply too afraid to entrust the systems with their money. The lack of
interoperability between systems also hurt internet payment systems. Since most online
merchants are unwilling to support a large number of online payment systems, they often
accept the “common denominator”: traditional credit cards.
4. What are the main advantages of the PayPal system?
Advantages:
 PayPal has reached a critical mass of users and participating merchants.

 The system enjoys the trust of its users and is backed by a reputable company
(eBay).
 Users can use PayPal to transfer funds to other users of the system.
 Payments can be sent to non-members.
 The system is global and supports multiple currencies.
 Where earlier currency exchange companies like e-Gold failed, PayPal has
succeeded and is endorsed worldwide. PayPal knows who its customers are.
5. What role does the Financial Services Technology Consortium (FSTC) play in
payment systems?
The Financial Services Technology Consortium (FSTC) is a powerful organization that

comprises several banks and other key financial technology players. By having these
influential backers, the FSTC has gained substantial influence in the development of new
payment systems and related standards. The role of the FSTC is to initiate projects that
are then funded and supported by its members. Affiliate organizations in the electronic
business world include Microsoft, PayPal, Intuit, and VeriSign, and member companies
such as Visa, MasterCard Worldwide, and Citigroup Inc.
6. How can 900 numbers be used to process online payments? What are the
disadvantages of using such a system?
900 numbers can be used to process online payments through the use of a 900 dialler or
by prompting the user to manually call a 900 telephone number to add a charge to the
telephone bill. 900 numbers have often been abused for fraud, especially through 900
diallers that are installed without the user’s consent. It should therefore be no surprise
that 900 numbers have a very poor reputation as a means of processing online payments,
and for this reason are rarely used today.
7. What are m-payments?
M-payment (or mobile payment) systems use mobile devices to process payments.
Personal Digital Assistants (PDA) and mobile telephones are very attractive as payment

alternatives since most people already have one or both of these devices and carry them
most of the time. M-payments can take various forms, with the most prevalent being
mobile phones that connect to a central payment clearing system to transfer funds. M-
payment systems are still in their infancy. Which technology will become the
predominant system remains to be seen. RFID (radio frequency identification)
technology can also be considered to be an m-payment technology. With RFID, the
payment information is “read out” of an RFID device through a wireless connection. Mall
based retailers are experimenting with “push” systems that can detect the GPS presence
of a mobile phone and push money saving coupons to near vicinity clients. Although not
a payment system, it is an enticement to pull users into stores to make immediate
purchases.
8. Explain the Verified by VISA system. What are its advantages and disadvantages?
The Verified by VISA system adds an additional layer of security to online payments by
adding financial institution verification to form a three-tiered client–financial institution–
merchant exchange. Users of the system register an online password with Visa. When
making an online purchase, the system prompts them for the password and sends the
password directly to Visa, not the merchant. This additional tier makes it harder for cyber
criminals to use stolen credit card numbers and their expiry date. The system also
prevents fraudulent merchants from abusing credit card information, as every transaction
must be directly confirmed with Visa.
Advantages:
 An additional layer of protection is added.

 Protection against fraudulent merchants is increased.
 A credit card number that is stolen in the bricks-and-mortar world cannot be used
in the online world.
Disadvantages:
 Not all online merchants use the system; the information can still be used with
merchants that do not participate in the system.
 The system can only be used for online payments.
 The system still does not check if the physical card is present. Knowledge of the
card number, the expiry date, and the password is enough to make a fraudulent
purchase.
9. What role does public/private key cryptography play in payment systems?
The main role of public/private key cryptography or encryption is the security of internet
connections, which carry payment and transaction information. Key cryptography also
can be used as non-repudiation in the event of disputed purchases. This is necessary to
ensure the validity and finality of a transaction.

10. How are ATM/debit cards used in web-based payment systems?
Customers of financial institutions can use their debit card to log into the website of the
institution in their banking system and examine their bank accounts, transfer funds, and
pay bills. Generally, the system works by having the customer identify the bills to be paid
over the internet. If the billing organization is a participant, the payments can be made
online, and the financial institution will forward the payment to the payee to the credit of
the individual making the payment. This system of paying bills has become extremely
popular, both directly through the hosting bank or financial institution, and through third
party payment aggregators like Canada Post’s ePost.
PROBLEMS
Outline of chapter problems:
Problem Topic Companies

Number
1 Financial institutions/B2B payment

2 Electronic procurement solutions Edy Japan
3 Person-to-person payments Citigroup/C2it
4 Online bill payment Saks
5 Security breaches, credit cards First Virginia Banks
6 Outsourcing payment services CheckFree
SHORT DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

As an alternative to the longer, more involved Discussion Problems below, we have
made available Short Discussion Questions in the Companion Website
(www.pearsoncanada.ca/trites). These questions can be used for self-study or in class
to facilitate classroom discussion.
PROBLEMS FOR DISCUSSION

The problems (without answers) are also available in the Companion Website at
Problem 1
A report by a research firm found that many financial institutions still provide inadequate
internet-based B2B payment-processing capabilities to their business customers and
suppliers. At present, some businesses still use EDI to process payments and other
transactions (purchase orders, customer orders, receivables, etc.), which is a costly and
inefficient method—but one which has been entrenched in certain industries for decades.
One of the purposes of technology is to reduce costs, and payment processing is a prime
area for such cost-cutting activity. However, shifting from EDI to web-based payments is

one of the most difficult elements of automation and many businesses have been putting
it off. Many organizations made large initial investments in EDI and have since
experienced little difficulty with EDI payments. The system paid for itself years ago, so
there must be a compelling reason (cost savings, market share, customer service, etc.) to
switch.
There is much to gain from moving EDI-based payments to the internet. For the
companies adopting it for the first time, there is the chance to process payments fast
without high IT infrastructure costs. For the financial institutions, an internet-based EDI
service should increase the financial institution’s involvement in the procurement process
and inspire higher transaction volumes along with an increase in fee-based revenues.
Moreover, B2B payments can help everyone get a clearer picture of the receivables,
thereby allowing better credit decisions.
Internet-based B2B payments would be a logical next step for financial institutions that
want to support ebusiness. They already have a payment-related relationship with many
clients, but if they don’t make the investment in web technologies soon, they could lose
those clients to an internet-literate competitor. Software vendors such as HighJump, Web
Edi, and Covalentworks all offer web-based EDI solutions for business.
Questions:
a. Discuss the infrastructure changes that would be required to move EDI payment
systems to the internet.
Several changes in infrastructure are required. First, companies have to change the
existing interfaces between their internal systems and EDI to web interfaces. There are
also additional requirements for security. Since most EDI transactions were handled
through value-added networks (VANs), security was less of a concern. But with the
public internet, security measures such as firewalls, encryption, and virtual private
networks (VPNs) must be taken to ensure the integrity and confidentiality of the data.
Major issues:
 The role of banks in the process will increase.

 Using the internet poses additional security concerns that need to be addressed.
 It is not enough for a company to simply switch to web-based payments. The
company’s customers, suppliers, and banks must also be included in the process.
 Existing information systems must be changed to accommodate web-based
payments.
b. What are the major issues of such a move? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of moving EDI to the internet?

Advantages:
 lower costs
 wider reach in operations
 no dependency on VAN providers
Disadvantages:
 implementation can be a challenge

 security concerns
 once banks dominate the web-based payments market, they may use their position
to command higher fees
c. Where does XML fit into the EDI picture?
XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is a web-based scripting language and file format
that defines data elements with user defined tags. A customer could agree on tag names
with its suppliers, and use XML and the internet, transfer data between systems without
an EDI requirement. Where EDI uses predefined file formats such as X12 and
UN/EDIFACT, XML does not. For this reason an EDI transmission may be shorter in
length because it is less verbose and design to be machine readable, as opposed to an
XML format where data is more user defined. Many EDI vendors propose that EDI and
XML co-exist, but some believe XML represents a newer format for B2B exchanges,
whereas EDI is more of a system for B2B exchange.
Problem 2
Launched in 2004, Edy (Euro Dollar Yen) is a prepaid rechargeable contactless smart
card in Japan, based on Sony’s wireless smart card technology. Currently, Edy only
works with yen, but major Japanese cellphone carriers (DOCOMO, Softbank) provide
their customers phones that can be used like an Edy card for purchases and for recharging
Edy accounts.
As of 2010, Edy was accepted in more than 200 000 stores, including 7-Eleven,
McDonald’s Japan, and FamilyMart.
Edy is an ecash system which is used as an add-on to credit cards. Partnerships with
restaurants, convenience stores and other merchants have strengthened Edy’s position as
an ecash payment system in Japan.
A benefit to Edy is its ability to handle both online and offline payments. Digital cash can
be stored in the phone itself, so that if a customer cannot get a wireless carrier
connection, purchases can still be made with the stored cash. In this way, Edy’s ecash
payment systems are a part of DOCOMO’s wallet phone concept.

Edy is operated by bitWallet Inc., a consortium of banks, telecommunications companies,

and technology vendors.
Questions:
a. Discuss the major advantages and disadvantages of the Edy ecash system.
Advantages:
 No new device is required; most people already have a cellphone.

 The system can be used to pay for purchases at nationwide vendors.
 The system can be used for both online and offline wireless transactions.
Disadvantages:
 The only supported currency is the yen.
 Edy is not (yet) available for global transactions with different currencies.
b. Do you think the Edy system could become competition for credit card companies?
The system can also be used for offline transactions such as purchases in a store. A
customer would simply use the ecash wallet stored on his or her mobile telephone to pay
for the purchase. No credit card is necessary to complete the purchase since the user is
effectively paying with cash. In this sense, it could compete with credit card companies,
but Japanese shoppers tend to pay cash for everyday purchases anyway, unlike their
North American counterparts.
c. What are the advantages of the online payments option for customers as well as
merchants?
Advantages for merchants:
 The payment can be processed immediately.

 Assuming that the user of the phone is also the owner, the service can be used to
authenticate users.
Advantages for users:
 No sensitive information is sent over the internet.

 It is a cashless system that can be used only up to the maximum amount charged
to the Edy card system.
Problem 3
The Bank of Montreal offers a service for ebusinesses, called Procure2Pay, that is run by
the bank’s electronic banking services division. Procure2Pay is a web-based service that

allows orders and payments to be processed online, reconciled, and integrated into a
customer’s enterprise resource planning (ERP) system.
Procure2Pay gives BMO’s clients a way to connect a catalogue of items that they
purchase from a variety of vendors to a payment system. With the system, companies are
able to eliminate paper ordering, to electronically settle payments, and to assume greater
control over the list of approved vendors. In addition, BMO promotes it as being easier to
use because companies can get correct prices on specific items using a standard interface.
The common interface offers a significant advantage over each supplier operating their
own procurement and payment system.
Before Procure2Pay was available, each customer had to use a paper-based purchasing
manual for the ordering process. When the bank introduced Procure2Pay, customers no
longer needed to worry about such piles of paper. Companies gained better control over
their vendors and were able to link Procure2Pay data directly into their finance systems.
The Procure2Pay system integrates with ERP applications such as PeopleSoft, SAP, and
Commerce One. BMO has a special unit to help customers implement the linkage.
Companies typically customize their general ledger applications, and when a company
develops an EDI file, it isn’t standardized to anything else. The challenge for BMO’s
integration unit is to send files to different leasing, finance, and banking companies,
while linking with the bank’s own payment-clearing system. In addition, the bank says
that under the new system, suppliers that have traditionally waited 30 days for payment
can now be paid for orders as soon as they are shipped.
As of 2011, BMO has extended their B2B procurement offerings with the announcement
of BMO FlexPort. This new platform enables buyers and suppliers to electronically
process purchase orders and then settle payments in the formats of their choice, while
fitting seamlessly with enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems. BMO FlexPort
combines electronic purchase and payment instructions such as order delivery,
acknowledgement and shipping notification, multiple payment methods, and advanced
reporting.
FlexPort complements BMO ePurchasing’s suite of web-based components, which

includes Procure2Pay. With FlexPort, users can now take advantage of another BMO
web-based component delivered from a single end-to-end procurement source. This helps
achieve an automated and integrated corporate purchasing environment.
Questions:
a. What are the advantages of having a bank payment system that integrates with an
ERP system?
 There is no need for double data entry into the bank payment system and into the
ERP system.

 ERP systems are so powerful because they provide up-to-date information. By

integrating an ERP system with a bank payment system, the ERP system will be
even more useful and current.
 The integration of the system allows a company to (eventually) make all of its
payments electronically. This substantially reduces the effort required and the cost
associated with processing payments the old-fashioned way.
 By processing payments electronically through the ERP system, there may be the
opportunity to reduce working capital, since payments can be made just in time.
b. What challenges would be expected in implementing such a system?
There are many challenges associated with implementing such a system. ERP systems are
very complex and it is quite difficult to interface with them. Since there are many parties
involved in such a system (banks, customers, suppliers), everyone needs to be on the
same page and compatibility must be ensured. There are also non-technical challenges.
The new system allows companies to pay for purchases as soon as they are received. This
may not be such an attractive feature after all, since many companies consider the time
between the receipt of a good and the payment as an interest-free loan. Another issue is
whether companies are willing to join the Bank of Montreal system, which is not an open
system. A supplier that deals with a different bank might not be willing to join the Bank
of Montreal system.
c. What real-world problems does BMO FlexPort actually solve?
The Walmart supply chain is famous for its success. But that success comes with
enforcing format standards on all its suppliers. The conversion to different formats for
different customers can be costly and time consuming for suppliers, but it limits their
ability to properly service their customers. FlexPort acts as a gateway that translates file
formats, allowing both buyers and sellers to use their preferred format. The suppliers
concentrate on filling the orders rather than on how they are going to customize their data
for the buyers.
Problem 4
In 2001, First Virginia Banks Inc. (now a part of BB&T) had to notify 500 of its
customers that files containing their card numbers and expiration dates, phone numbers,
and addresses had been compromised by a hacker attack. Several other banks in the area
had to do the same thing with their customers. Riggs Bank of Washington, D.C., had to
send letters to 3000 of their customers informing them that a local online merchant’s
customer database containing their Visa debit card numbers had been hacked and
compromised.
All of the customers had made purchases from an online merchant in the Washington
area. It was not clear whether the data was taken directly from the merchant’s system or
from one of the many companies that process electronic payments between online

retailers and Visa. Visa itself took the position that it was a potential compromise of
cardholder data stored on a third party’s computer.
First Virginia said they had no way of knowing which merchant had their database
hacked. A Riggs official said the incident could have been the result of security holes at
one of several third-party companies that process Visa transactions.
Visa payments work by going through a third-party payment vendor who then submits
the purchase from the merchant to the Visa system over the internet. Between 50 and 100
companies in the United States provide payment services. Because the information goes
over the internet, there is a higher than normal potential for that information to be
accessed by someone on the internet.
Questions:
a. What steps should be taken to prevent such hacker attacks?
 Special attention must be paid to systems that contain sensitive information, such
as credit card numbers, and are connected to the internet. Firewalls are one
example of increasing security for these systems, as is storing the data on an
encrypted server.
 Connections to companies that process credit card transactions over the internet
and connections between these companies and the credit card organizations
should be secured by using VPNs via digital certificates, or secure networks other
than the internet.
b. Which party to the transactions should bear responsibility for any losses arising from
the hacker attacks?
The company that operates the compromised system should hold the responsibility for
losses arising from a hacker attack. If, as it appears in this case, the online merchant is at
fault, then he should be held responsible. It is, however, difficult to determine guilt in
many of these cases. If the communications link between the merchant and the third-party
payment vendor is compromised, it is hard to assign guilt, since the breach was basically
in the middle.
c. Do you think the Verified by VISA system can make credit card data more secure?
Since Verified by VISA requires users to authenticate a transaction by entering a

password, which is sent directly to Visa, there would have been no harm done. Although
the credit card information was compromised on the server of a merchant, the Verified by
VISA password is only submitted directly to Visa and can therefore not be compromised.
If every merchant required the password, a security breach such as that of the First
Virginia Bank would not pose a big threat. However, since many online merchants still
accept non-verified transactions, it would still be possible to abuse the stolen credit card
numbers.

Problem 5
Dexit (www.dexit.com) was a Canadian epayment system introduced in 2003 and

available in the Toronto area. The innovative new system was a prepaid solution that
aimed to replace cash for making small purchases, similar in scope and use to Edy in
Japan. When a customer signed up for the Dexit service, he or she was issued a small
Dexit tag that worked with wireless RFID technology. To make a payment at
participating stores, all the user had to do was wave the Dexit tag over the wireless tag
reader. No PIN was needed to approve the transaction. The system authenticated the user
and automatically deducted the purchase amount from the prepaid balance of the user.
The Dexit system did not try to compete with credit cards. Instead, it was meant to
replace cash and debit cards for small purchases. The card could be recharged over the
phone or online. The service also offered an automated top-up service that automatically
transferred a certain amount from the customer’s chequing account to the Dexit account
once the Dexit balance fell below a certain level.
Customers had the option of paying $25 a year for unlimited refills or $1.50 for each
refill. To prevent fraud, each Dexit tag was limited to $100 worth of transactions per day.
If the tag got lost or stolen, it could be deactivated.
Dexit, which had partnerships with chartered banks TD Canada Trust and National Bank
of Canada, promoted itself as a “debit express” service. To expand its service, the
company forged partnerships with a number of merchants. Customers could pay with
their Dexit tags at 245 merchants in the downtown Toronto area. This included most
major fast food chains like McDonald’s, Dairy Queen, Burger King, Pizza Hut, and Taco
Bell.
In addition to its partnerships with banks, Dexit also signed partnership agreements with
Telus Mobility and Bell.
Many companies, especially gas stations, already offered their own wireless tags for
payments. Dexit is different as it is the first company that has attempted to offer its
customers the ability to pay at a wide variety of merchants with one single tag. By 2004,
225 merchants and over 25 000 customers had signed on.
Given its partnerships with banks and the leading Canadian telecommunications
providers, Dexit appeared to be in a good position to establish itself as a new force in the
competitive payments market.
In 2006, Dexit announced a restructuring, and with it came the removal of its payment
terminals from most stores and a rebranding of the company into HDX, a point-of-sale
company. Users were offered refunds for any funds still stored on their Dexit tags.

Questions:
a. Why did Dexit fail?
Dexit had the potential too succeed, since it was rolled quickly to a large number of
stores in an area. This makes the system more attractive to residents of the area, and they
are more likely to embrace the system. The key to success is to quickly reach a critical
mass of users and participating merchants. This is where Dexit failed.
Four critical things that Dexit failed to achieve:
 Needed an easier consumer/merchant payment system. The Dexit POS was a

separate device that sat at the merchant’s checkout. The merchant keyed into the
POS and the Dexit terminal to get that transaction processed, so by the time you
were charged, you’re not seeing that throughput. It was a longer process for the
merchant in addition to the rental charge for the terminal.
 They couldn’t scale up to the merchant/bank demands fast enough. Dexit believed
they could both participate with the banks and competing against them. Usually a
third party handles the merchant relationship and operates the terminals, which
Dexit tried to do itself.
 Dexit never understood what consumers use cash for. It was touted as a
replacement for cash, but with cash, you can borrow it, you can give it, but Dexit
didn’t seem that convenient in comparison.
 The lack of a Dexit only payment line for customers. There was no timesaving for
customers making purchases with Dexit. Why carry around another device if it
does not get you through lines faster than paying with other established options?
b. Why were the partnerships with chartered banks and telecommunications companies
so important for Dexit?
The banks were important for Dexit because they gave the company credibility with
customers. Customers were less hesitant to sign up for the service and to load up their
tags when they knew that the venture was backed by banks such as TD Canada Trust and
the National Bank of Canada. Their branch networks also helped to promote the service
and to sign up new customers. The partnerships with telecommunications companies such
as Telus Mobility and Bell were also important as they give the company access to the
extensive marketing network of these two companies. In addition, Telus and Bell could
provide the (wireless) infrastructure to reload the Dexit tag through a mobile phone.
c. If it had been successful, do you think Dexit would have replaced today’s debit
cards? Why or why not?
Dexit would not have been able to replace debit card systems such as the Interac system,
because Dexit is modelled after cash. The tag needed to be reloaded with funds every
time it is empty. To compete with debit cards, Dexit would have needed to offer an online
option that would let users access funds in their bank accounts. But Dexit is specifically

designed as a cash replacement for small payments without the need for an online
authorization or a PIN number.
d. Do you think the lack of a PIN made the system unsafe?
The lack of a PIN did not automatically make the system unsafe. Since it was designed
to be a replacement for cash, losing a tag meant that the money loaded onto the tag was
lost. And, unlike money, a user could cancel a tag once the loss was reported to Dexit.
Funds left on the tag after it is cancelled could be recovered. The lack of a PIN did not
make the system unsafe, since the Dexit system did not access the bank accounts of its
customers.

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Fig. 488.—Saxifraga granulata. Longitudinal section
of flower.
The following genera are allied to the Saxifragaceæ:—
1. Parnassia (about 14 species; P. palustris, Grass of Parnassus).
The flower is slightly perigynous, and has S5, P5, 5 fertile sepal-
stamens, and 5 petal-stamens, which are developed as barren
staminodes, palmately-lobed, and (3–) 4 carpels united in a 1-locular
ovary with (3–) 4 parietal placentæ. Capsule.—Protandrous. The flower
has a slightly oblique plane of symmetry, which is especially shown during its
development and in the order of sequence in which the anthers dehisce: originally
they lie closely round the gynœceum; the anthers dehisce extrorsely, first the one
which is placed opposite the most external sepal (the 2/5 arrangement is very
distinct in the calyx), the filament elongating so that the anther lies over the ovary,
and this is followed successively by the 4 others in a zig-zag line; the filaments
bend backwards after the pollen is shed and the anthers drop off, and the stigmas
are not developed until this is completed. The barren stamens are palmately
divided into an uneven number (7, 9, 11) of lobes, tapering from the centre towards
the edge, and bearing apparently glandular tips; their gland-like appearance is
supposed to allure flies to visit the flower, or they may act as a kind of fence which
compels the insects to enter the flower in a certain way, and thus effect pollination;
the honey is secreted on their inner side, and not by the gland-like tips.
Fig. 489.—Portion of Cephalotus follicularis: k
pitcher-like leaf with thick corrugated edge (m) and lid
(l); b foliage-leaf of the ordinary form.]
2. Adoxa moschatellina (Moschatel). This is a perennial, creeping
herb; the horizontal rhizome has an unlimited growth, and bears, in a
scattered arrangement, both foliage-leaves, and white, fleshy scale-
leaves. The aerial stem bears 2 opposite foliage-leaves and a
capitate inflorescence of 5 flowers, 4 placed laterally (in opposite
pairs) and 1 terminally. The flower is semi-epigynous, the calyx
gamosepalous, corolla absent. The stamens are divided to the base,
so that each filament bears a bilocular anther. The style is free,
deeply cleft. The terminal flower has 2 bracteoles, 4 sepals, 4
stamens, cleft to the base, and a 4-locular ovary. The bracts of the
lateral flowers are displaced on the flower-stalk, as in
Chrysosplenium, and united with the 2 bracteoles into a kind of 3-
leaved involucre; these flowers have 5 sepals, 5 split stamens with
2-locular anthers, and a 5-locular ovary. 1 pendulous ovule in each
loculus. Fruit a drupe, green-coloured, with 1–5 stones.—This plant,
which would perhaps be best placed in a special order, has also
been classed with the Araliaceæ and Caprifoliaceæ.
The following are also allied to this order: Escalloniaceæ (arborescent plants
with simple, scattered, leathery leaves), Cunoniaceæ (arborescent with opposite
leaves), Cephalotaceæ (with pitcher-like, insect-catching leaves; Australia; Fig.
489) and Francoaceæ. These have respectively 85, 107, 1 and 3 species.
Figs. 490–492.—Ribes rubrum.
Fig. 490.—Floral diagram.
Fig. 491.—Flower in longitudinal section.

Fig. 492.—Seeds in
longitudinal section.
Order 3. Ribesiaceæ (Currants). 5-stamened Saxifragaceæ with
epigynous flowers.—Moderately sized shrubs with scattered, stalked
and palminerved, and generally palmilobed leaves, with a large leaf-
sheath. The flowers (Figs. 490, 491), most frequently borne in
racemes, are regular, epigynous, and have often, above the ovary, a
cup- or bell-shaped, or tubular prolongation of the receptacle, on
which the sepals, petals and stamens are situated; they have 5
sepals (often large, coloured), 5 small, free petals, only 5 stamens
(opposite the sepals) and a 2-carpellate gynœceum with a unilocular
ovary and 2 parietal placentæ bearing many ovules. The fruit is a
berry, whose seeds have a fleshy and juicy outer covering (Fig. 492).
In some species, for example Ribes grossularia, there is found an unbranched, or
a 3–5-branched spine, very closely resembling the spiny leaves of the Berberis,
but which, however, are emergences springing from the base of the petiole. Ribes
has two kinds of branches: long-branches and dwarf-branches, the latter alone
bearing the flowers.—Ribes (Figs. 490–492). The blades of the leaf are
folded or rolled together in vernation. R. alpinum is diœcious.
75 species; especially from the N. Temp. regions (especially N. Am.).—The
receptacle secretes honey on its inner surface. The Gooseberry-flower is slightly
protandrous, others are homogamous; insect-and self-pollination are found. The
following are fruit bushes: R. nigrum (Black Currant), R. rubrum (Red Currant),
R. grossularia (Gooseberry), originating in Northern Europe and Asia.
Ornamental bushes: the North American R. aureum (Golden Currant) and R.
sanguineum (Blood-red Currant), etc.
Fig. 493.—Deutzia crenata.

Longitudinal section of flower.
Order 4. Hydrangeaceæ. Shrubs, with simple, opposite leaves, without
stipules; flowers generally epigynous, 4–5-merous (Fig. 493).—Hydrangea (H.
hortensia, etc.). Shrubs from N. Am. and E. Asia; corolla often valvate. The
inflorescence, as in the case of the inflorescence of Viburnum opulus (Guelder
Rose), has often irregular, large, but barren flowers at the circumference, whilst the
others are much smaller, regular and ☿; the barren flowers are mostly 4-merous; in
these cases it is the calyx which is large and petaloid, while the other parts of the
flower are more or less suppressed. The branches of the inflorescence appear to
be partially devoid of floral-leaves, since they are displaced upon the main axis.—
Philadelphus; racemes (with terminal flower), sepals 4 (valvate), petals 4 (twisted),
stamens many, and carpels 4 (opposite the petals), forming a 4-locular ovary. The
numerous stamens (20–30) occur by the splitting of the sepal-stamens and are
often therefore placed in distinct bundles. Fruit a capsule. Ph. coronaria (Syringa,
Mock Orange-blossom), from S. Eur., is a common ornamental shrub, as also is
Deutzia (Fig. 493) from N. Am. and E. Asia. The latter has S5, P5, A5 + 5, G3.—
About 70 species.
Order 5 (?). Pittosporaceæ. This order has its home especially in Australia (90
species). The flower has S5, P5, A5 (episepalous), G2 (3–5), most frequently a
unilocular ovary with many ovules in 2 rows, borne on 2 parietal placentæ, or a
bilocular ovary. Some have berries, others capsules. Pittosporum, Citriobatus,
Sollya, Billardiera.
Order 6. Hamamelidaceæ. Flowers more or less epigynous, with S4, P0 or 4, 4
fertile sepal-stamens, and 4 barren petal-stamens, bilocular ovary with 1–2 ovules
in each loculus. Fruit a capsule. Hamamelis: one species in Japan and one in N.
Am. Fothergilla. Liquidambar: monœcious; flowers in capitula or spikes; ♂-flowers
without perianth, stamens indefinite; ♀-flower: slight perianth, 2-locular ovary with
many ovules. Officinal: “Styrax-balsam,” which is obtained by boiling the bark of
Liq. orientalis, from Asia Minor. Liquidambar and Parrotia are found as fossils in
the Upper Oligocene; Hamamelis perhaps in the Chalk.
Finally two orders with very reduced flowers are included in this family.
Order 7. Platanaceæ. Trees, with large, scattered, palminerved and lobed
leaves, and ochreate stipules; the buds are concealed in a hollow at the base of
the petiole. The bark falls off in large scales. ♂ -and ♀ -flowers (monœcious) in
crowded, spherical inflorescences which are placed at wide intervals on a terminal,
thin, and pendulous axis. The flowers have an insignificant calyx and corolla; the
♂-flower has few stamens; ♀-flower, perigynous, with 4 free carpels, 1 pendulous,
orthotropous ovule in each. Fruit a nut; endosperm absent. 5 species; frequently
grown in avenues and parks. P. occidentalis (N. Am.); P. orientalis (W. Asia.).
Order 8. Podostemaceæ. Aquatic plants, especially in swiftly running water,
with somewhat of an Alga-like, Moss-like, or thalloid appearance; they show
themselves in many ways to be adapted to their mode of life and situations (having
a dorsiventral creeping stem, the flowers sunk in hollows, a formation of haptera
upon the roots, and thalloid assimilating roots and thalloid stems, etc.). Tropical;
100 species.
Family 20. Rosifloræ.

The leaves are scattered, stipulate, or have at least a well
developed sheath, which is generally prolonged on each side into a
free portion (“adnate stipules”). The flowers are regular, perigynous
or epigynous. Calyx and corolla 5 (-4)-merous with the usual
position. The corolla is always polypetalous. The stamens are
present in very varying numbers (5–∞) and position, but always
placed in 5-or 10-merous whorls; they are frequently 20 in 3 whorls
(10 + 5 + 5; see Figs. 494, 502, 505); the nearer they are placed to
the circumference, the longer they are; they are generally incurved in
the bud, or even rolled up. The number of the carpels is from 1–∞; in
most cases all are individually free (syncarp), and when they are
united it is in every case with the ovaries only, whilst the styles
remain more or less free (Pomaceæ, species of Spiræa). The seeds
have a straight embryo, and usually no endosperm.
The perianth and stamens are most frequently perigynous on the edge of the
widened receptacle; its form varies between a flat cupule and a long tube or a cup
(Figs. 495, 496, 498, 499, 500); the carpels are situated on its base or inner
surface, in some instances on a central conical elongation of the floral axis (Fig.
496). The carpels in Pomaceæ also unite more or less with the hollow receptacle,
or this grows in and fills up the space between the carpels, so that a more or less
epigynous flower is formed (Fig. 504).—The following numbers of stamens occur:
5, 10 (in 1 whorl), 15 (10 + 5), 20 (10 + 5 + 5), 25 (10 + 10 + 5), 30-50 (in 10-
merous whorls)—compare the diagrams. The theoretical explanation of this
relation of the 10-merous whorls and their alternation with the 5-merous whorls is
not definitely determined; a splitting of the members of the 5-merous whorls may
be supposed, but the development shows no indication of this, and it is not
supported in any other way. Several genera have “gynobasic” styles, that is, the
style springs from the base of the ovary (Fig. 497 A, B).
The Rosifloræ are on one side closely related to the Saxifragaceæ (especially
through Spiræa) from which it is difficult to separate them, and to the Myrtifloræ;
on the other side they are allied, through the Mimosaceæ with the large number of
stamens, and through the Amygdalaceæ with its single carpel, to the Leguminosæ.
The family begins with forms which have many-seeded follicles, and passes on the
one side to forms with nuts and drupes in perigynous flowers, and on the other
side to the Pomaceæ.
Order 1. Rosaceæ. Herbs or shrubs, generally with compound

leaves and persistent (adnate) stipules, flower perigynous,
gynœceum formed of many free (therefore oblique) carpels,
syncarps with fruitlets of various kinds. The exceptions are noted
under the genera.
Fig. 494.—Diagram of Comarum

palustre.
Fig. 495.—Flower of Spiræa lanceolata.
1. Spiræeæ (Fig. 495) has 2–many ovules in each ovary, while in
the other groups there is generally only 1, and never more than 2
ovules in each loculus. There are generally 5 cyclic carpels and the
fruit is 5 follicles, which are not enclosed by the receptacle. The
majority are shrubs. Stipules are often wanting.—Spiræa (Meadow-
Sweet). The flowers are generally borne in richly flowered
inflorescences of various forms. The carpels, in some species, unite
together and form a simple gynœceum with free styles (an approach
to the Pomaceæ).—Closely allied to Spiræa are the East Asiatic shrubs: Kerria
japonica, which has solitary flowers, in this country nearly always double (the fruit
a nut), and Rhodotypos kerrioides which has opposite leaves, a remarkable
feature among the Rosifloræ; it has a 4-merous flower, a well developed disc
inside the andrœcium, and a drupe. Closely allied also is Gillenia (N. Am.) differing
chiefly in the ascending ovules, Spiræa having pendulous ovules, and a more
tubular receptacle.
The groups Quillajeæ and Neuradeæ form a transition from Spiræa to
Pomaceæ. In the first group, which contains only trees or shrubs with generally
simple leaves, the carpels are either free or united (into a capsule); in the second
the receptacle unites with the carpels, which are themselves often united together;
in this case, too, the fruit is a capsule. Quillaja (S. Am.); Exochorda (China).
2. Potentilleæ (Figs. 494, 496, 497). The flower has an
“epicalyx” (Fig. 494 C) alternating with the sepals and formed by
their stipules which are united in pairs, and hence its leaves are
often more or less deeply bifid. The receptacle is cupular and often
quite insignificant. The sepals are valvate in the bud. The large
number of fruitlets are achenes, borne on a well-developed convex
portion of the receptacle (the Ranunculeæ resemble the Potentilleæ, but
have no epicalyx, no enlarged receptacle, and spirally-placed stamens). Most of
the species are herbs with dichasial inflorescences, often arranged
in racemes.—Potentilla (Cinquefoil). The achenes are borne on a
dry, hairy receptacle; the style is situated towards the apex of the
ovary, and is not prolonged after flowering. Herbs with digitate, in
some, however, pinnate leaves, and generally yellow flowers.—
Comarum (Fig. 494) (Marsh Cinquefoil) forms, by its fleshy-spongy
receptacle, a transition to the next genus.—Fragaria (Strawberry)
(Fig. 496). The receptacle becomes finally fleshy, coloured, and falls
off (biologically it is a berry); the numerous fruitlets (drupes with thin
pericarp) have basal styles (Fig. 497); leaves trifoliate; long, creeping
runners.—Geum (Avens) has a terminal style which after flowering
elongates into a long beak, with the apex (after the uppermost part
has been thrown off) bent back into a hook, thus furnishing a means
of distribution for the fruits. Leaves pinnate.—Dryas comprises 3 Arctic or
Alpine species with simple leaves and solitary flowers, the calyx and corolla 8–9-
merous, the fruit resembles that of Geum, but the styles become still longer and
feather-like (a flying apparatus).
Figs. 496, 497.—Fragaria vesca.
Fig. 496.—Longitudinal section of flower.
Fig. 497.—A carpel, entire,

and in longitudinal section.
3. Rubeæ. Rubus (Bramble) has the same form of receptacle as

the Potentilleæ, but no epicalyx; the fruitlets are drupes, not
enclosed by the persistent calyx. Most frequently shrubs or
undershrubs with prickles (emergences), glandular bristles and
compound leaves. In the Raspberry (R. idæus) the fruitlets unite
together and detach themselves from the receptacle.
4. Roseæ. Rosa; the receptacle is hollow, ovoid and contracted
beneath the insertion of the calyx (Fig. 498), ultimately fleshy and
coloured; it encloses a large number of fruitlets which are achenes
as hard as stones (“hip,” biologically a berry).—Shrubs with
imparipinnate leaves and adnate stipules. The sepals show clearly the
order of their development (a divergence of 2/5), the two outer ones on both sides
are lobed, the third one on one side only, and the two last, whose edges are
covered by the others, are not lobed at all. Prickles (emergences) are generally
present and in some species are placed in regular order, being found immediately
below each leaf (usually two) although at somewhat varying heights.
Fig. 498.—Longitudinal section of flower of Rosa.

Figs. 499, 500.—Agrimonia eupatoria.
Fig. 499.—Flower in longitudinal section.
Fig. 500.—Fruit and receptacle in

longitudinal section.
5. Agrimonieæ. The receptacle is more or less cup- or bell-
shaped, and almost closed at the mouth; it is persistent and
envelopes the nut-like fruitlets, but is dry, and in some species hard,
the fruitlets being firmly attached to it. In biological connection with
this the number of the carpels is generally only 1 or 2, and the whole
becomes a false nut (Fig. 500). Herbs.—Agrimonia (Agrimony; Figs.
499, 500); the perianth is 5-merous, stamens 5–20. The receptacle
bears externally, on the upper surface, a number of hooked bristles
which serve as a means of distribution for the 1–2 achenes which
are enclosed in it, and hence the entire flower finally falls off. The
inflorescence is a long upright raceme. These bristles are arranged in
whorls of 5 and 10, of which the uppermost alternate with the sepals.—
Alchemilla (Ladies-mantle; Fig. 501) has 8 green perianth-leaves in
two whorls (some authorities consider the four outer as an epicalyx,
and the flower therefore apetalous), and 4 stamens alternating with
the innermost whorl. There is only one carpel with a basal style and
capitate stigma. The flowers are small and greenish, the filaments
jointed. The anthers open by one extrorse cleft. The leaf-sheath
entirely envelops the stem; the leaves are palminerved. A. aphanes
has often only 1–2 stamens. The following genera, with 4-merous flowers
borne in short spikes or capitula, are allied to this group. Sanguisorba has
entomophilous, ☿-flowers with 4(-20) stamens, 1 carpel; stigma papillose.—
Poterium; spike or capitulum, the uppermost flowers are ♀, the lowermost ♂, and
some intermediate ones ☿ (the order of opening is not always centripetal); S4, P0,
A20–30, G2, the long styles having brush-like stigmas (wind-pollination). Leaves
imparipinnate.
Fig. 501.—Flower of Alchemilla in longitudinal section.
Pollination. A yellow ring on the inner side of the receptacle, inside the
stamens, serves as a nectary when any honey is formed; this, for instance, is not
the case in Rosa, Agrimonia, Spiræa ulmaria, S. filipendula, S. aruncus, etc., to
which the insects (especially flies and bees) are allured by the quantity of pollen.
Homogamy and slight protogyny are frequent, in many instances self-pollination
also is finally possible. Poterium, with the long-haired stigma, is wind-pollinated.—
About 550 (1100?) species, especially in northern temperate regions.—Uses.
Officinal: the petals of Rosa centifolia and gallica, the fruits of the Raspberry
(Rubus idæus), the rhizome of Geum urbanum, the flowers of the Koso-tree
(Hagenia abyssinica or Brayera anthelmintica).—The bark of Quillaja saponaria
(Chili) is used as soap and contains saponin. “Attar of Roses” from Rosa
damascena, centifolia and other species, especially from the southern slopes of
the Balkans. Many species and varieties of Roses are ornamental plants: from S.
Europe, Rosa lutea (the Yellow Rose), R. gallica (the French Rose) and R.
rubrifolia; from W. Asia, R. centifolia, of which the Moss Roses (R. muscosa and
cristata) are varieties, and R. damascena; from India and N. Africa, R. moschata
(the Musk Rose); from China, R. indica (Tea Rose) etc., besides the native species
and the varieties which have been derived from them. In addition, Kerria japonica,
species of Potentilla, Rubus odoratus from N. Am., and many species of Spiræa
from South-eastern Europe and N. Am. Esculent: the “hips” of R. mollissima, R.
pomifera, etc.; the fruits of Rubus-species: Raspberry (R. idæus), Cloudberry (R.
chamæmorus), Blackberry (R. fruticosus), etc.; of Fragaria-species (F. vesca,
collina, grandiflora, etc).
Order 2. Amygdalaceæ. Trees or shrubs with rosaceous flowers;
leaves simple with caducous stipules; a regular, perigynous flower,
the receptacle being partly thrown off by a circular slit; sepals 5,
petals 5, stamens 20–30; gynœceum simple, formed of 1 carpel
(hence oblique, Fig. 502), with terminal style and 2 pendulous
ovules, ripening into a drupe (Fig. 503).—The leaves are
penninerved and frequently have glands on the stalks and edges;
thorns (modified branches) often occur, i.e. dwarf-branches, which,
after producing a few leaves, terminate their growth in a thorn (e.g.
Prunus spinosa). The vernation of the foliage-leaves varies in the different
genera; in the Almond, Peach, Cherry, and Bird-Cherry they are folded; in the
Apricot, Plum, Sloe and Bullace, rolled together. In some the flowers unfold before
the leaves (Amygdalus, Armeniaca). That the gynœceum is formed of 1 carpel is
evident in this as in other instances (e.g. in the Leguminosæ, which are closely
related to this order), from the fact that the carpel is oblique, and has only one
plane of symmetry, and similarly in the fruit there is a longitudinal groove on one
side which indicates the ventral suture. It is only exceptionally that both ovules are
developed. In abnormal instances more than 1 carpel is developed.
Fig. 502.—Diagram of Prunus

virginiana.
A. Fruit hairy: Amygdalus (A. communis, Almond-tree) has a dry
pulp which is detached irregularly, when ripe, from the wrinkled,
grooved, ovoid and somewhat compressed stone.—Persica (P.
vulgaris, Peach-tree) differs from the Almond in having a juicy pulp,
not detachable from the stone, which is deeply grooved and has pits
in the grooves (Fig. 503). (The name of the genus is derived from Persia,
though it is a native of China.).—Armeniaca (A. vulgaris, Apricot) has a
hairy, velvety fruit, but the stone is smooth and has two ribs along
one of the edges; the pulp is juicy. (The generic name has been given on
the incorrect assumption that it was a native of Armenia; its home is China.)
Fig. 503.—Fruit of the Peach. The pulp is

cut through so that the stone is visible.
B. Fruit glabrous (i.e. without hairs): Prunus (Plum) has a
glabrous fruit with bluish bloom; the stone is compressed, smooth or
wrinkled. The flowers are borne solitarily or in couples, and open
before or at the same time as the leaves; they are borne on shoots
without foliage-leaves.—Cerasus (Cherry) has a glabrous, spherical
fruit, without bloom, and a spherical stone. The flowers are situated
in 2–many-flowered umbels or racemes, and open at the same time
as the leaves or a little before them. Long-stalked flowers in umbels are
found in C. avium (Wild Cherry), C. vulgaris (the cultivated Cherry, from Western
Asia); racemes at the apex of leaf-bearing branches and small spherical fruits are
found in C. padus (Bird Cherry), C. virginiana, C. laurocerasus (Cherry-laurel), C.
mahaleb.
Pollination. Prunus spinosa (Sloe, Blackthorn) is protogynous, but the
stamens are developed before the stigma withers. Honey is secreted by the
receptacle. Cerasus padus (Bird-Cherry) agrees in some measure with P. spinosa.
In the flowers of the Plum and Cherry the stamens and stigma are developed
simultaneously and self pollination seems general; the stigma, however, overtops
the inner stamens and thus promotes cross-pollination.—Distribution. 114
species in the N. Temp, zone; few in the warmer regions; the majority from W.
Asia. C. vulgaris, from the regions of the Caspian; Prunus spinosa, insititia
(Bullace), domestica (Plum, from the Caucasus, Persia).—Uses, principally as
fruit-trees: Cherry, Plum, Apricot, etc.; “Almonds” are the seeds of Amygdalus
communis (W. Mediterranean), “bitter,” “sweet,” and “shell” almonds are from
different varieties, the latter being remarkable for the thin, brittle stone. In the
majority of species and in almost all parts of the plant (especially the bark, seed
and leaves) is found the glycoside, amygdalin, which forms prussic acid. Many
form gum, and the seeds have fatty oils (“Almond oil”). Officinal: the seeds and
oil of Amygdalus communis, and the fruit of the Cherry; in other countries also the
leaves of C. laurocerasus.—The stems of Cerasus mahaleb are used for pipes.
Ornamental Shrubs: Amygdalus nana, Cerasus laurocerasus.
Order 3. Chrysobalanaceæ. Tropical Amygdalaceæ with zygomorphic flower
and gynobasic style. 200 species; especially Am. and Asia. Chrysobalanus icaco
(Cocoa-plum) is cultivated on account of its fruit (Am.)
Order 4. Pomaceæ. Trees and shrubs, most frequently with
simple leaves and caducous stipules. The flowers (Fig. 505) have 5
sepals, 5 petals and generally 20 stamens (10 + 5 + 5, or 10 + 10 +
5). There are from 1–5 carpels, which unite entirely or to some
extent with each other, and with the hollow, fleshy receptacle (the
flower becoming epigynous), (Figs. 505, 506, 507). The carpels are
nearly always free on the ventral sutures, rarely free at the sides
also. The whole outer portion of the fruit becomes fleshy, but the
portions of the pericarp surrounding the loculi (endocarp) are most
frequently formed of sclerenchymatous cells, and are more or less
firm (the “core”). The nature of the fruit varies, according to the
thickness and hardness of the endocarp, being either a “berry” or a
“drupe” (see A and B). When the endocarp is thin and parchment-
like, the fruit has the characteristics of a berry, each of the 5 loculi
generally present containing several seeds; but when this is hard the
fruit resembles a drupe, only one seed is developed in each loculus,
and the number of the loculi is reduced to one or two. There are
nearly always 2 ovules in the loculi of the ovary, but in Cydonia there
are a large number in 2 rows. In the genera which have stones, only
one seed is developed in each stone. The genera are distinguished
mainly in accordance with the kind of fruit and the number of ovules
and seeds.
Fig. 504.—Longitudinal and transverse section through the flowers of

A, B Cotoneaster; C Cydonia; D Malus communis; E Raphiolepis; F
Cydonia; G Mespilus.
Fig. 505.—Floral diagram of Mespilus
germanica.
A. Sorbeæ. The endocarp is parchment-like or papery
(drupe, with thin stone or berry).
1. Pyrus and Cydonia; carpels completely embedded in the cup-
like receptacle, styles always free.—Pyrus: the fruit is glabrous, and
has only a small calyx, withering or deciduous, and a 5-locular ovary
with at most 2 ascending ovules in each loculus (Fig. 504 D). The
large flowers are situated in few-flowered umbels or corymbs. P.
communis (Pear; free styles, Fig. 507; it has the well-known pear-shaped fruit; the
core is reduced to several groups of sclerenchymatous cells embedded in the
pulp, the leaf-stalk is as long as the blade).—Cydonia (Quince) has a hairy
fruit with many seeds in 2 rows in each loculus of the endocarp
(Figs. 504 C, F; 506); the testa of these seeds is mucilaginous. C.
vulgaris, large, terminal flowers on lateral branches, and large leaf-
like, persistent sepals.

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When you complete this chapter you should be able to:

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2. Stored Value Cards

3. Electronic Bill Presentment and Payment

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Ebusiness in Global Perspective— M-Pesa

1. What potential is there for further development of M-Pesa in the future?

2. What other cash transactions could M-PESA be used for?

New Business Models—Transferring Cash with Visa

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2. Who would be interested in buying this service?

Estrategy— Layered Security for Credit Cards

- The addition of additional security layers undoubtedly adds protection simply

2. View the webcast at

Canadian Snapshots – Telpay Inc

1. What other services could TelPay to utilize current technology?

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2. What is RFID technology and how can it be used for payments?

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4. What are the main advantages of the PayPal system?

 PayPal has reached a critical mass of users and participating merchants.

The Financial Services Technology Consortium (FSTC) is a powerful organization that

7. What are m-payments?

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 An additional layer of protection is added.

9. What role does public/private key cryptography play in payment systems?

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10. How are ATM/debit cards used in web-based payment systems?

Outline of chapter problems:

Problem Topic Companies

1 Financial institutions/B2B payment

SHORT DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

PROBLEMS FOR DISCUSSION

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 The role of banks in the process will increase.

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 implementation can be a challenge

c. Where does XML fit into the EDI picture?

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Edy is operated by bitWallet Inc., a consortium of banks, telecommunications companies,

 No new device is required; most people already have a cellphone.

Advantages for merchants:

 The payment can be processed immediately.

Advantages for users:

 No sensitive information is sent over the internet.

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FlexPort complements BMO ePurchasing’s suite of web-based components, which

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 ERP systems are so powerful because they provide up-to-date information. By

b. What challenges would be expected in implementing such a system?

c. What real-world problems does BMO FlexPort actually solve?

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