Engineering Science & Technology Journal, Volume 5, Issue 4, April 2024

OPEN ACCESS
Engineering Science & Technology Journal
P-ISSN: 2708-8944, E-ISSN: 2708-8952
Volume 5, Issue 4, P.No. 1173-1183, April 2024
DOI: 10.51594/estj/v5i4.994
Fair East Publishers
Journal Homepage: www.fepbl.com/index.php/estj

SUBSURFACE CARBON SEQUESTRATION POTENTIAL IN

OFFSHORE ENVIRONMENTS: A GEOSCIENTIFIC
PERSPECTIVE
Obobi Ume Onwuka1 & Akinsola Adu2

1&2
Shell Petroleum Development Company, Nigeria
___________________________________________________________________________
*Corresponding Author: Obobi Ume Onwuka
Corresponding Author Email: obobi.onwuka@gmail.com
Article Received: 08-01-24 Accepted: 15-03-24 Published: 08-04-24

Licensing Details: Author retains the right of this article. The article is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License
(http://www.creativecommons.org/licences/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use,
reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is
attributed as specified on the Journal open access page.
___________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
As the global community intensifies efforts to combat climate change, subsurface carbon
sequestration emerges as a promising avenue for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. This
paper delves into the geoscientific perspective on the potential for subsurface carbon
sequestration in offshore environments. The introduction provides a backdrop on the
significance of carbon sequestration and outlines the objectives of exploring the feasibility and
challenges associated with offshore subsurface storage. The overview section explores the
mechanisms and comparative advantages of offshore carbon sequestration. Geoscientific
factors influencing carbon sequestration, including geological characteristics, reservoir
assessment, and seismic imaging, are examined in detail. Challenges and risks, both geological
and technological, are scrutinized to provide a comprehensive understanding of the
complexities involved. Real-world case studies and ongoing research initiatives shed light on
successful projects and emerging trends in offshore carbon sequestration. The economic and
environmental implications are discussed, emphasizing the need for a thorough cost-benefit
analysis and environmental impact assessment. The regulatory framework and compliance
standards, both current and future, are explored to ensure responsible implementation. The
paper concludes with insights into the future prospects of subsurface carbon sequestration,

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emphasizing emerging technologies, research priorities, and the imperative for responsible
practices. This geoscientific exploration seeks to contribute to the growing body of knowledge
guiding sustainable solutions for carbon reduction in offshore environments.
Keywords: Subsurface, Carbon, Sequestration Potential, Offshore, Environments,
Geoscientific.
___________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Carbon sequestration, a pivotal strategy in mitigating global climate change, involves the
capture and long-term storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) to prevent its release into the atmosphere
(Ussiri and Lal, 2017). In this context, offshore environments offer a unique and potentially
impactful setting for subsurface carbon sequestration. This introduction aims to provide a
comprehensive background on carbon sequestration, emphasize the significance of offshore
environments in this endeavor, and outline the objectives of exploring the subsurface potential
with a geoscientific perspective. Carbon sequestration is a critical approach to addressing the
escalating levels of atmospheric CO2, a major contributor to the greenhouse effect (Prasad et
al., 2021). By capturing and storing carbon emissions, this process mitigates the impacts of
climate change. The methods employed range from terrestrial solutions like afforestation to
subsurface storage, with the latter gaining prominence for its potential scalability and long-term
effectiveness. Offshore environments, encompassing the vast expanses of the world's oceans
and their underlying geological formations, emerge as strategic locations for carbon
sequestration. The significance lies in the expansive and often underutilized storage capacity
beneath the seabed, offering a promising avenue for large-scale and enduring carbon storage.
The dynamic nature of these environments presents unique challenges but also immense
opportunities for sustainable carbon mitigation (Arakawa et al., 2001). The primary objective
of this exploration is to delve into the largely untapped subsurface potential for carbon
sequestration in offshore environments. By investigating the geological characteristics and
storage capacity beneath the ocean floor, this paper seeks to uncover the viability and limitations
of offshore subsurface storage. This exploration extends beyond surface-level considerations,
delving into the depths where subsurface geological formations may hold the key to secure and
long-term carbon storage. The second objective is to offer a geoscientific perspective,
grounding the discussion in the principles of geology, seismic imaging, reservoir, and seal
assessment. The focus is on understanding the geological factors influencing the feasibility of
subsurface carbon sequestration in offshore locations. By providing a geoscientific lens, the
paper aims to unravel the intricacies of subsurface storage, addressing both the potential benefits
and challenges inherent in this dynamic environment (Mogk and Goodwin, 2012).
Offshore Carbon Sequestration: An Overview
Offshore carbon sequestration represents a transformative strategy in the battle against climate
change, utilizing the vast and often unexplored subsurface realms beneath the world's oceans
for the secure storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) (McLaughlin et al., 2023). Subsurface carbon
sequestration involves the injection and storage of CO2 beneath the Earth's surface, preventing
its release into the atmosphere. This process leverages geological formations as secure
repositories for long-term carbon storage. In the offshore context, subsurface storage occurs
beneath the seabed, utilizing porous and permeable geological strata like depleted oil and gas
reservoirs or deep saline aquifers. Offshore carbon sequestration employs various mechanisms

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to securely store carbon below the seabed. These mechanisms include Geological formations,
such as anticlines or faulted structures beneath the ocean floor, create natural traps that can
securely contain CO2 (Gunter et al., 2004). The impermeable nature of the overlying rock and
the sealing fault structures prevents upward migration of stored carbon. Deep saline aquifers,
located below the seabed, provide extensive storage capacity for CO2. Injecting CO2 into these
aquifers dissolves the gas in the brine, reducing the risk of leakage and enhancing long-term
storage security. Repurposing depleted oil and gas reservoirs as storage sites capitalizes on
existing infrastructure. The residual hydrocarbons in these reservoirs can enhance the trapping
capacity for injected CO2 (Saini, 2017).
Offshore environments offer distinct advantages for carbon sequestration when compared to
onshore alternatives: The seabed provides expansive and largely untapped storage potential,
offering ample capacity for large-scale carbon sequestration projects (Jones et al., 2022). Unlike
onshore sites, offshore locations mitigate potential conflicts with land use, preserving terrestrial
ecosystems and minimizing societal concerns related to surface activities. Many industrial
facilities and power plants are situated near coastlines, facilitating the efficient transport of CO2
to offshore storage sites. Preservation of terrestrial ecosystems, offshore carbon sequestration
reduces the need for extensive land use, safeguarding terrestrial ecosystems, biodiversity, and
valuable habitats (Epple et al., 2016). By securely storing CO2 beneath the seabed, offshore
sequestration directly contributes to mitigating the impacts of climate change, helping achieve
global emission reduction targets. Offshore carbon sequestration complements existing
renewable energy technologies, forming a holistic approach towards achieving carbon
neutrality. Offshore carbon sequestration presents a promising frontier in the fight against
climate change, utilizing the subsurface of the world's oceans to securely store carbon (Luo et
al., 2023).
Geoscientific Factors Influencing Carbon Sequestration
Carbon sequestration in offshore environments is intricately tied to a multitude of geoscientific
factors that dictate the feasibility, security, and efficiency of subsurface storage (Yang et al.,
2023). Offshore subsurface geological formations vary widely, and their suitability for carbon
storage depends on several factors. Common offshore geological formations include Salt
Domes, these are underground impermeable salt formations that can act as natural seals,
preventing the upward migration of stored carbon. Salt domes are often found beneath the
seabed and offer secure trapping mechanisms. Offshore sandstone formations, especially those
with high porosity and permeability, are potential reservoirs for storing CO2 (Aminu, 2018).
The intergranular pore spaces in sandstone allow for the injection and containment of carbon
by an overlying impermeable layer. Repurposing exhausted oil and gas reservoirs can be
advantageous due to existing infrastructure and proven geological stability (Adelekan et al.,
2024). The suitability of offshore geological formations for carbon storage is determined by
factors such as permeability, caprock integrity, and containment capacity. Ideal formations
should possess characteristics that prevent CO2 leakage and ensure long-term storage security.
Assessing the subsurface geology is fundamental to identifying formations with the potential
for effective carbon sequestration.
The process of identifying suitable reservoirs involves a detailed analysis of geological
formations, considering factors like rock type, depth, and structural integrity (Kiran et al.,
2017). The presence of impermeable caprocks and the absence of non-sealing faults or fractures

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that could compromise containment are crucial criteria in reservoir selection. Porosity and
permeability are key parameters in assessing reservoir suitability. High porosity allows for the
storage of larger volumes of CO2, while permeability influences the rate at which CO2 can be
injected and stored (Bachu, 2008). Evaluating these characteristics ensures efficient injection
and containment within the chosen geological reservoirs. Seismic technology plays a central
role in subsurface mapping, providing detailed images of the geological structures beneath the
seabed. This technology involves the generation of seismic waves and the analysis of their
reflections to create comprehensive images of subsurface layers. In offshore carbon
sequestration, seismic mapping helps identify reservoirs that could act as potential storage sites,
assess geological structures, and plan injection strategies. Seismic imaging allows geoscientists
to analyze the subsurface for suitable geological structures. This includes identifying structural
traps, faults, and impermeable caprocks that contribute to effective carbon containment. The
precision of seismic data aids in decision-making regarding injection points, reservoir capacity,
and overall feasibility. The geoscientific factors influencing carbon sequestration in offshore
environments are vast and intricate. Understanding the types of geological formations,
conducting thorough reservoir assessments, and leveraging seismic technology are imperative
steps in ensuring the success and sustainability of subsurface carbon storage (Laronga et al.,
2023).
Challenges and Risks
The pursuit of offshore carbon sequestration, while promising in its potential, is not without
formidable challenges and inherent risks. Offshore geological formations introduce a level of
uncertainty that poses challenges to the predictability and reliability of subsurface carbon
storage (Xiao et al., 2024). Factors such as the heterogeneous nature of seabed structures,
varying rock compositions, and the presence of complex fault systems contribute to geological
uncertainties. These uncertainties can affect the identification of suitable reservoirs and increase
the risk of unintended CO2 migration. Ensuring the long-term integrity of carbon storage is
paramount for the effectiveness of sequestration efforts (Klass and Wilson, 2008). Geological
challenges, such as the potential for seismic events, subsurface shifts, or alterations in rock
permeability over time, pose threats to the secure containment of stored CO2. Understanding
and mitigating these challenges are critical to prevent leakage and maintain the integrity of
subsurface storage. Offshore carbon sequestration demands continuous technological
innovation to address the complexities of subsurface storage beneath the ocean floor.
Advancements are needed in injection and monitoring technologies, reservoir characterization,
and adaptive management strategies. Developing novel tools and methodologies is crucial to
enhance the efficiency and reliability of offshore carbon sequestration projects (Eide et al.,
2019). The effective monitoring of subsurface storage sites is essential for early detection of
potential issues and ensuring the continued containment of CO2. However, offshore
environments present technical challenges in terms of remote monitoring, data acquisition, and
real-time assessment of geological structures. Innovations in subsurface monitoring
technologies, including enhanced seismic imaging, satellite-based observations, and
autonomous underwater vehicles, are imperative to overcome these limitations. Addressing
technological challenges also involves developing reliable methodologies for leakage detection
and implementing adaptive management practices that can respond dynamically to changes in
subsurface conditions. The challenges and risks associated with offshore carbon sequestration

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underscore the need for a comprehensive and adaptive approach (Ram, 2011). Mitigating
geological uncertainties, ensuring long-term storage integrity, and advancing technological
solutions are integral components of a successful strategy for offshore subsurface carbon
storage.
Case Studies and Demonstrations
The real-world application of offshore carbon sequestration projects provides invaluable
insights into the feasibility, challenges, and benefits of subsurface storage beneath the world's
oceans. Since 1996, the carbon capture and storage (CCS) project has captured and injected
CO2 from natural gas production into a deep saline aquifer, preventing approximately (Dickel
et al., 2022) one million tons of CO2 from entering the atmosphere annually. The Sleipner
project showcases the potential for repurposing offshore reservoirs for secure and long-term
carbon storage (Rycroft et al., 2024). Snøhvit Project located in the Barents Sea, focuses on
carbon sequestration in a depleted gas reservoir. This initiative, led by Equinor, involves
injecting CO2 extracted from natural gas into the reservoir, reducing emissions and contributing
to the responsible management of hydrocarbon resources.
Offshore carbon sequestration has proven effective in significantly reducing greenhouse gas
emissions, demonstrating the feasibility of large-scale carbon capture and storage (CCS)
initiatives (Eide et al., 2019). The longevity and stability of these projects highlight the potential
for secure storage within offshore geological formations, emphasizing the importance of
reservoir selection and rigorous geological assessments. Successful projects often result from
collaboration between industry stakeholders, governments, and research institutions.
Establishing effective partnerships is a crucial lesson for future offshore carbon sequestration
endeavors.
Ongoing Research and Pilot Programs, Otway Project (Australia), the Otway project in
Australia focuses on subsurface storage of CO2 in a depleted gas reservoir (Boreham et al.,
2011). Ongoing geoscientific studies assess the reservoir's response to injected CO2, providing
valuable insights into the behavior of offshore geological formations. TOMORROW Project
(North Sea), the TOMORROW project, located in the North Sea, explores the potential for
offshore carbon sequestration through the injection of CO2 into a depleted oil reservoir (Quirk
et al., 2022). Geoscientific studies within this project aim to enhance understanding of storage
capacity and potential risks associated with long-term containment. Ongoing research initiatives
contribute to the continuous refinement of geoscientific methodologies and technological
innovations. The lessons learned from pilot programs inform the development of best practices
and guidelines for future large-scale offshore carbon sequestration projects. These programs lay
the groundwork for expanding the understanding of subsurface storage potential, optimizing
injection strategies, and ensuring the long-term success of offshore carbon sequestration. The
examination of successful offshore carbon sequestration projects, along with ongoing research
and pilot programs, provides a nuanced perspective on the current state and future potential of
subsurface storage in offshore environments (Wallmann et al., 2015).
Economic and Environmental Implications
The economic and environmental dimensions of offshore carbon sequestration play pivotal
roles in shaping the feasibility, acceptance, and long-term success of this climate mitigation
strategy (McLaughlin et al., 2023). Offshore carbon sequestration involves various economic
considerations that influence project feasibility and implementation. Key factors include: The

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upfront costs associated with infrastructure development, injection facilities, and reservoir
assessments constitute a significant portion of the economic considerations. Capital investments
are crucial for initiating and sustaining offshore carbon sequestration projects. Ongoing
operational expenses cover activities such as monitoring, maintenance, and adapting to
changing geological conditions (Prowse et al., 2009). Assessing the economic viability involves
optimizing operational efficiency to ensure cost-effectiveness throughout the project's lifecycle.
Offshore carbon sequestration projects may generate revenue through mechanisms such as
carbon offset sales or government incentives. The long-term financial viability hinges on the
ability to secure revenue streams that offset both initial investments and ongoing operational
costs. Assessing the Return on Investment (ROI) involves evaluating the financial returns over
the project's lifespan. A positive ROI indicates the economic success of the project, reinforcing
its contribution to both climate mitigation and economic sustainability (Secinaro et al., 2020).
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Ensuring the secure containment of injected CO2 is
paramount to prevent environmental risks (Reguera et al., 2009). Implementing advanced
monitoring technologies and regularly assessing geological structures contribute to early
detection and prevention of potential leakage. Offshore carbon sequestration projects must
minimize ecological disturbance to marine ecosystems. Strategic site selection, impact
assessments, and adherence to environmental regulations are crucial for preserving biodiversity
and minimizing disruption to marine life. Offshore environments harbor diverse ecosystems,
and any carbon sequestration project must strike a balance between reducing emissions and
preserving these ecosystems. Designing projects that prioritize minimal impact on marine life
and ecosystems is essential for environmental sustainability (Airoldi et al., 2005). Collaborative
efforts between industry stakeholders, environmental organizations, and regulatory bodies are
vital for effective monitoring and management of environmental impacts. Implementing
adaptive management strategies allows for continuous improvement and minimizes the
ecological footprint of offshore carbon sequestration. The economic and environmental
implications of offshore carbon sequestration are intertwined, demanding a holistic approach
that aligns financial considerations with ecological preservation. A robust cost-benefit analysis
and a comprehensive environmental impact assessment are pivotal steps in ensuring the
responsible and sustainable implementation of offshore subsurface carbon storage (Alkan et al.,
2023).
Regulatory Framework and Compliance
The success and sustainability of offshore carbon sequestration rely heavily on robust
regulatory frameworks that addresses environmental protection, safety, and adherence to ethical
standards. Offshore carbon sequestration projects operate within a framework of international
regulations that guide their implementation (El-Kady et al., 2024). Key aspects of these
regulations include: The Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement set overarching international
goals for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, providing a broad context for carbon sequestration
efforts. Nations committed to these agreements often design their regulatory frameworks to
align with the collective goals of mitigating climate change. The London Protocol and the
OSPAR Convention specifically address the protection of the marine environment and regulate
the disposal of waste at sea (Clarke et al., 2022). Offshore carbon sequestration projects must
comply with these protocols to ensure responsible and environmentally sustainable practices.
Regulatory bodies often require rigorous monitoring and reporting of offshore carbon

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sequestration activities. This includes continuous assessment of storage site integrity, leakage
prevention measures, and comprehensive reporting on injected CO2 volumes and project
outcomes. Compliance with safety standards is paramount to protect both the environment and
human safety. Regulations may outline specific safety measures, emergency response plans,
and regular safety audits to ensure offshore carbon sequestration projects adhere to established
safety protocols.
As offshore carbon sequestration becomes more prevalent, international bodies may develop
specific standards and guidelines tailored to subsurface storage (Flohr et al., 2021). Anticipating
and adapting to these emerging standards will be crucial for industry stakeholders to maintain
compliance. Nations may incorporate offshore carbon sequestration into their national climate
policies, aligning regulatory frameworks with evolving technological advancements and
international agreements. Proactive collaboration between governments and industry players
will be essential to navigate changing regulatory landscapes. Industry players must adopt a
proactive approach to compliance, involving continuous monitoring, assessment, and
adaptation to regulatory changes (Berry and Rondinelli, 1998). Regular audits and assessments
can ensure that projects remain in line with evolving international and national standards.
Engaging in transparent and collaborative communication with regulatory bodies fosters a
cooperative regulatory environment. Industry players should actively contribute to the
development of regulations, providing valuable insights based on practical experience and
technological advancements. The regulatory framework and compliance standards are pivotal
components of offshore carbon sequestration, ensuring responsible practices and environmental
stewardship (Gerard and Wilson, 2009).
Future Prospects and Recommendations
The future of offshore carbon sequestration holds great promise, driven by continuous
technological advancements, ongoing research, and collaborative efforts to enhance the efficacy
and sustainability of subsurface carbon storage. Future subsurface monitoring will benefit from
advancements in seismic imaging technologies, offering higher resolution and real-time data
acquisition (Neal and Krohn, 2012). Enhanced seismic tools will enable more accurate
assessment of geological structures, improving the reliability of site selection and injection
strategies. Utilizing satellite-based observations will revolutionize the monitoring of offshore
carbon sequestration projects. Satellite technologies can provide comprehensive, wide-scale
monitoring of subsurface activities, offering a holistic view of project performance and potential
environmental impacts. The integration of AI in subsurface monitoring and reservoir
management will enhance predictive capabilities and optimize injection strategies (Kuang et
al., 2021). Machine learning algorithms can analyze vast datasets, contributing to more
informed decision-making and adaptive project management. Future innovations in injection
technologies will focus on optimizing injection rates, ensuring efficient and secure storage of
CO2. Research into novel injection materials, methods, and adaptive control systems will
contribute to the development of more effective and environmentally sustainable subsurface
carbon storage.
Deeper exploration into the behavior of deep saline aquifers as potential storage reservoirs is
essential. Understanding the interactions between injected CO2 and brine, as well as the long-
term stability of these formations, will inform better decision-making in site selection (Gholami
et al., 2021). Research should focus on the geological characterization of novel storage

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formations, such as salt domes and basalt formations. Investigating the suitability, stability, and
containment capacities of these formations will expand the repertoire of viable storage options.
Establishing global knowledge-sharing platforms and collaborative networks will facilitate the
exchange of best practices, lessons learned, and research findings. Encouraging open
collaboration among industry stakeholders, research institutions, and regulatory bodies will
accelerate advancements in offshore carbon sequestration. Forming international research
consortia dedicated to offshore carbon sequestration will pool resources and expertise. Joint
research initiatives can address common challenges, share technological developments, and
foster a collective understanding of subsurface storage potential. The future prospects of
offshore carbon sequestration are closely tied to technological innovations, research
advancements, and collaborative initiatives. Embracing emerging technologies and prioritizing
geoscientific exploration will contribute to the continued evolution of subsurface carbon
storage, paving the way for a more sustainable and effective climate mitigation strategy
(Marina, 2023).
Conclusion
Throughout this exploration, we have delved into the intricate interplay of geoscientific factors
shaping offshore carbon sequestration. From the geological characteristics of offshore
subsurface formations to the assessment of reservoirs, seismic imaging, and the challenges
associated with balancing environmental concerns, each facet contributes to our understanding
of the complex landscape of subsurface carbon storage. The insights gained can be distilled into
a comprehensive understanding of the geological prerequisites, technical challenges, and
environmental considerations that dictate the success of offshore carbon sequestration projects.
The journey through the geoscientific landscape of offshore carbon sequestration emphasizes
the pivotal role that research and responsible practices play in ensuring the success and
sustainability of these endeavors. As we stand on the cusp of a future where carbon
sequestration becomes an increasingly integral component of climate mitigation, the following
actions are imperative: Geoscientific research should persistently explore novel storage
formations, refine monitoring technologies, and contribute to the evolving understanding of
subsurface dynamics. This continuous pursuit of knowledge is essential for overcoming
challenges and optimizing the efficacy of offshore carbon sequestration. Stakeholders,
including industry players, research institutions, regulatory bodies, and environmental
organizations, must engage collaboratively. This collaborative spirit fosters a holistic approach
to offshore carbon sequestration, incorporating diverse perspectives and expertise to address
challenges and seize opportunities. The call to action extends to the responsible implementation
of offshore carbon sequestration projects. Rigorous adherence to regulatory frameworks, ethical
practices, and environmental stewardship is paramount. Industry players are urged to adopt a
proactive approach in mitigating risks, ensuring long-term storage integrity, and minimizing
environmental impact. Public awareness and education initiatives are instrumental in fostering
understanding and support for offshore carbon sequestration. Transparent communication about
the geoscientific foundations, benefits, and risks associated with these projects is crucial for
gaining social acceptance and building trust within communities. The geoscientific journey
through offshore carbon sequestration not only unveils the complexities of subsurface storage
but also highlights the immense potential for mitigating climate change. The call to action

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resonates with the shared responsibility of all stakeholders to advance geoscientific research,
champion responsible practices, and collectively contribute to a sustainable and resilient future.

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