ALUMINIUM (Correct)

Introduction>>
• Aluminum is the second most plentiful metallic element on earth

• Aluminum and its alloys have unique qualities that made them suitable for three
important industrial developments: the first internal-combustion-engine-powered
vehicles, electrification, and aviation.

PROPERTIES>>

• Aluminum is a versatile and widely used metal with various properties and
applications.
• Aluminum can be refined and alloyed to achieve different physical and mechanical
properties, such as appearance, light weight, fabricability, conductivity, strength, and
corrosion resistance.
• Aluminum has a lower density and higher conductivity than steel, copper, or brass,
and can resist corrosion in most environments.
• Aluminum surfaces can be reflective or absorbent, and aluminum is
nonferromagnetic, nonpyrophoric, and nontoxic.

PRODUCTION>>

• Aluminum production is based on the Hall-Heroult process, which involves dissolving

alumina in a cryolite bath and passing an electric current to separate aluminum from
oxygen.
• The aluminum metal is then removed and cast into ingots, which can be further
processed into various products.
• The purity of aluminum depends on the impurities of iron, silicon, and other metals,
which can be reduced by different refining methods.

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS>>

• Aluminum alloys can be divided into two major categories: casting compositions and
wrought compositions, depending on the method of production and the primary
mechanism of property development.
• Casting compositions are alloys that are cast into molds, while wrought compositions
are alloys that are shaped by mechanical processes such as rolling, forging, or
extrusion.
• Many alloys are heat treatable, meaning they can be thermally treated to enhance
their strength, hardness, and other properties. Some alloys are work hardening,
meaning they can be strengthened by mechanical deformation. Some casting alloys
are not heat treatable and are used in as-cast or thermally modified conditions.
• Aluminum alloys are identified by a numerical system that indicates their
composition and family. The Aluminum Association system is the most widely
recognized in the United States. It uses a four-digit system for wrought alloys and a
three-digit system for casting alloys, followed by a decimal value.
 · 1xxx Controlled unalloyed (pure) compositions
· 2xxx Alloys in which copper is the principal alloying element, though other elements,
notably
magnesium, may be specified
· 3xxx Alloys in which manganese is the principal alloying element
· 4xxx Alloys in which silicon is the principal alloying element
· 5xxx Alloys in which magnesium is the principal alloying element
· 6xxx Alloys in which magnesium and silicon are principal alloying elements
· 7xxx Alloys in which zinc is the principal alloying element, but other elements such as
copper,
magnesium, chromium, and zirconium may be specified
· 8xxx Alloys including tin and some lithium compositions characterizing miscellaneous
compositions
· 9xxx Reserved for future use
The first digit indicates the major alloying element, while the following digits indicate the
specific alloy or its limits. The decimal value indicates the type of product or the ingot
composition.
1xx.x Controlled unalloyed (pure) compositions, especially for rotor manufacture
· 2xx.x Alloys in which copper is the principal alloying element, but other alloying elements
may be
specified
· 3xx.x Alloys in which silicon is the principal alloying element, but other alloying elements
such as
copper and magnesium are specified
· 4xx.x Alloys in which silicon is the principal alloying element
· 5xx.x Alloys in which magnesium is the principal alloying element
· 6xx.x Unused
· 7xx.x Alloys in which zinc is the principal alloying element, but other alloying elements such
as copper
and magnesium may be specified
· 8xx.x Alloys in which tin is the principal alloying element
· 9xx.x Unused

MANUFACTURED FORM>>

• Aluminum and its alloys can be cast or formed by many processes. They can be
divided into two groups: standardized products and engineered products.
• Standardized products are common forms of aluminum, such as sheet, plate, foil,
rod, bar, wire, tube, pipe, and structural forms.
• Engineered products are custom-made for specific applications, such as extruded
shapes, forgings, impacts, castings, stampings, powder metallurgy parts, machined
parts, and metal-matrix composites.
Engineered Products
Aluminum alloy castings

• Aluminum alloy castings are made using various processes: pressure-die, permanent-
mold, sand (green/dry), investment, and plaster casting.
• Additional process variations include: vacuum, low-pressure, centrifugal, and lost
foam.
• Castings allow intricate shapes, hollow areas, and complex design features that
would be difficult to machine from wrought forms.
• Premium engineered castings offer: extreme integrity, close tolerances, and high-
strength properties.

Extrusions

• Made by forcing metal through a die to create shapes.

• Ideal for symmetrical designs, but complex/asymmetrical extrusions are also
possible.
• Offer great dimensional control and surface finish.
• Often require minimal machining for finalization.

Forgings

• Made by applying force to shape metal, using either open or closed dies.
• Hand forgings: Simple shapes for small quantities or prototypes.
• Closed-die forgings: Excellent surface finish, dimensions, and properties.
• Precision forgings: Emphasize close tolerances and near-net shape.

Impacts

• Formed in a die by a single punch stroke, causing metal to flow around the punch.
• Combines advantages of extrusion and forging.
• High production rates and precision.
• Three types:
o Reverse impacting: Creates shells with extruded sidewalls
o Forward impacting: Similar to extrusion, metal flows in the direction of the
punch
o Combination: Uses both reverse and forward metal flow

Powder Metallurgy (P/M) Parts

• Formed by compressing metal powder in a die, followed by sintering (heating to

bond particles).
• Simpler method: Creates parts with >80% density, repressing can reach 90%+ density
• Advanced methods (hot pressing, etc.): Used for high-demand parts, achieving near
100% density and specialized alloys
• P/M parts can be a good alternative to traditional forgings, castings, machined
parts, etc.
 • Unique applications: controlled porosity parts (filters, bearings) and oxide-dispersion
strengthened alloys

Metal-Matrix Composites (MMCs)

• Combine a nonmetallic reinforcement within a metal matrix (often aluminum).

• Aluminum is ideal for MMCs due to:
o Light weight
o Corrosion resistance
o Decent strength/temperature range
o Ease of processing with various reinforcements
• Reinforcements: continuous/discontinuous fibers, particles, whiskers (common ones
include: boron, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, graphite)

Fabrication Characteristics

Machinability

• Aluminum alloys generally machine very well.

• Hardness and yield strength are indicators of machinability.
• Specific tooling or techniques may be needed depending on the alloy and temper
(see related article for details).

Chemical Milling

• Chemical etching to reduce thickness uniformly.

• Ideal for complex shapes on large surfaces.
• Common in aerospace parts to optimize strength-to-weight ratio.

Formability

• Aluminum offers good formability for shaping.

• Formability varies by alloy and temper, consider:
o Strength
o Ductility
o Work hardening
• Annealed temper is the most formable for severe operations.
• Heat-treatable alloys offer flexibility:
o Form in annealed state (most workable), then heat treat
o Form in the W temper, store cold to delay aging, then heat treat

Forgeability

• Aluminum forgings are possible in various shapes.

• Forgeability depends on alloy, process, temperature, and other factors.
• Generally, aluminum is harder to forge than steel, but easier than nickel/cobalt or
titanium alloys.
Joining

• Aluminum can be joined by:

o Welding (fusion and resistance)
o Brazing
o Soldering
o Adhesive bonding
o Mechanical fasteners (rivets, bolts)
• Welding Considerations:
o Aluminum oxide complicates process
o High thermal conductivity and expansion
o Specific melting characteristics
o Electrical conductivity affects methods

Aluminum Oxide

• Forms instantly on exposed aluminum.

• Must be removed before welding for good results (mechanical or chemical cleaning).
• Shield weld area with gas (argon, helium, etc.) or use flux to prevent re-formation.

Thermal Conductivity

• Aluminum is highly conductive compared to steel.

• Requires faster heat input during welding.
• Helps solidify the weld pool quickly, aiding in out-of-position welding.

Thermal Expansion

• Aluminum expands significantly more than steel when heated.

• Requires careful management of joint spacing during welding to prevent distortion.
• Tack welding may be helpful to maintain the joint before the final weld.

Melting Characteristics

• Aluminum melts at a lower temperature than steel or copper.

• Less heat input is needed for welding.

Electrical Conductivity

• Aluminum's high conductivity impacts resistance welding.

• Much higher currents are needed for resistance welding aluminum compared to
steel.

Building & Construction

• Why aluminum?
o Weight-saving
o Corrosion resistance
 o Design flexibility
o Engineering advantages (shock loads, minor misalignment)
• Design note: Account for lower modulus of elasticity compared to steel.
• Applications:
o Industrial buildings (roofing, siding, etc.)
o Homes & other structures (roofing, interior elements, etc.)
o Bridges (long-span, movable, and portable)
o Utilities (scaffolding, structures)
o Water tanks

Containers & Packaging

• Aluminum's advantages:
o Non-toxic, doesn't interact with contents
o Resists corrosion, bacterial growth
o Easy to clean
o Safe in environments with fire/explosion risk
• Applications:
o Shipping containers for chemicals
o Food & drug packaging (flexible wraps, containers)
o Household foil
o Beverage cans (huge market!)
o Collapsible tubes (toothpaste, etc.)

Transportation (Automotive)

• Aluminum use is increasing to meet fuel efficiency and recycling goals.

• Castings: Engine blocks, pistons, cylinder heads, transmission parts, brake
components, wheels
• Sheet: Hoods, trim, bumpers
• Extrusions/Forgings: Growing range of uses, including premium wheels

Wrought Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Designation System

• Four-digit numerical code.

• First digit indicates the major alloying element:
o 1xxx: Unalloyed aluminum (with controlled impurities)
o 2xxx: Copper
o 3xxx: Manganese
o 4xxx: Silicon
o 5xxx: Magnesium
o 6xxx: Magnesium and Silicon
o 7xxx: Zinc
o 8xxx: Other elements

Details on Each Digit

 • 1xxx (unalloyed aluminum):
o Last two digits match the minimum aluminum percentage (e.g., 1100 =
99.00% min. aluminum)
o Second digit (if not zero) indicates special impurity controls
• 2xxx-8xxx (alloys):
o Second digit shows alloy modification (0 = original, 1-9 = variations)
o Last two digits are just for unique identification within the series

Key Points

• The system helps categorize aluminum alloys based on their primary alloying
element.
• It provides a consistent way to
track and distinguish different
compositions.

Cast Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Designation System

• Four-digit code plus a decimal point (e.g., 356.0)

• First digit: Identifies the major alloying element (same system as wrought alloys)
• Second & third digits:
o 1xx.x: Denote minimum aluminum percentage
o 2xx.x - 9xx.x: Unique alloy identifier within the group
• Last digit (after the decimal):
 o 0 = casting
o 1 = ingot

Additional Notes

• Serial letters BEFORE the code (e.g., A356.0) indicate modifications to an existing
alloy.
• Ingot forms (xxx.1) typically have the same alloying element limits as castings with a
few exceptions (see Table 1, likely provided in your source material).

PHYSICAL METALLURGY

Main Goals

• Increase aluminum's strength, as pure aluminum is too weak for many uses.
• Two main methods are used:
o Non-heat-treatable alloys: Introduce second-phase elements or use cold
working to strengthen the material.
o Heat-treatable alloys: Dissolve alloying elements and cause them to
precipitate, creating a stronger structure.

Important Alloying Elements

• Copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, and zinc are the most common.
 • These elements have significant solubility in aluminum, which increases with
temperature.

Solubility and Temperature

• Maximum solubility often occurs at the eutectic temperature.

• Solubility DECREASES as temperature decreases.
• This temperature-dependent solubility is the basis of heat treatment for
strengthening.
• No element has complete miscibility (ability to form a perfect solid solution) with
aluminum.

Second-Phase Constituents

• Form when an alloying element exceeds its solubility limit in aluminum.

• May be:
o The pure alloying element (e.g., silicon, tin)
o An intermetallic compound phase (combination of aluminum and other
element(s))
• Manganese and chromium often act as second-phase formers due to low solubility.

Intermetallic Phases

• Aluminum readily forms intermetallic compounds with many elements due to its
chemistry.
• These phases are complex, with even simple binary alloys (aluminum with one other
element) showing a variety.
• In multi-component alloys:
o Phases from simpler systems may combine or form new complex phases
o Metastable conditions (caused by rapid cooling) can lead to phases not
predicted by equilibrium diagrams

Predicting Intermetallic Phases

• Traditionally, phase diagrams were consulted, but these can be complex.

• Computer modeling (CALPHAD) is increasingly used:
o Can predict phases for multi-component systems
o Has limitations, especially with unexpected ternary phases

STRENTHENING MECHANISM

Overall Goal: Increase strength, hardness, resistance to wear/creep/fatigue, etc.

Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys

• Strengthening comes from:

o Solid-solution hardening: Alloying elements dissolved in aluminum create
lattice strain, increasing strength.
 ▪ More effective with greater difference in atomic size between
aluminum and the alloying element.
o Second-phase constituents: Hard particles within the aluminum matrix
impede deformation.
o Dispersoid precipitates: Similar to second-phase, but on a finer scale.
o Strain hardening (cold working): Deformation changes material
structure, increasing strength.

Heat-Treatable Alloys

• Main mechanism: Precipitation hardening. Steps involve:

1. Solution heat treatment: Alloy heated to dissolve alloying elements into
aluminum.
2. Quenching: Rapid cooling traps alloying elements within the aluminum
matrix.
3. Aging (natural or artificial): Alloying elements precipitate as tiny
strengthening particles.

Additional Notes

• Strengthening effects of multiple alloying elements are complex.

• Elevated temperature performance depends on alloying elements in solution, as the
precipitates that provide strength will coarsen and soften at high temperatures.

Strenthening from second-phase constituents

Grain refinement with dispersed precipitates

Strain hardening

Precipitation hardening

Specific Alloying Elements and Impurities

Key Alloying Elements

• Beryllium (Be):
o Reduces oxidation in aluminum-magnesium alloys
o Improves adhesion of aluminum coatings to steel
o Important Note: Beryllium is toxic and controlled to very low levels for safety
• Bismuth (Bi):
o Added for free-machining (easy cutting) qualities, often with lead
• Boron (B):
o Grain refiner
o Improves electrical conductivity
o Used in nuclear applications due to neutron absorption properties
 • Chromium (Cr):
o Common in Al-Mg, Al-Mg-Si, Al-Mg-Zn alloys
o Controls grain structure, prevents recrystallization
o Improves stress corrosion and toughness
o Caveat: Can make heat-treatable alloys quench sensitive
• Copper (Cu):
o Major element in 2xxx series alloys
o Enables precipitation hardening for strength increases
o Improves strength, but also decreases elongation

Impurities

• Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Calcium (Ca):

o Generally present in trace amounts.
o Specific effects vary by alloy, but include potential for corrosion issues or hot
cracking (especially arsenic is very toxic)
• Carbon (C):
o May form carbides, problematic if they decompose in the presence of
moisture
• Cerium (Ce):
o Experimental use in castings to improve fluidity
• Cobalt (Co):
o Not common, but can improve properties of certain cast alloys

Chromium

• Present as an impurity in commercial aluminum.

• Common additive to control grain structure and prevent recrystallization.
• Fine dispersions of chromium improve strength, stress corrosion resistance, and
toughness.
• Can increase quench sensitivity in heat-treatable alloys.

Cobalt

• Not commonly used in aluminum alloys.

• In some cases, modifies iron-containing phases in aluminum-silicon alloys to improve
strength and ductility.

Copper

• Key element in the 2xxx series – enables precipitation hardening.

• Strengthens aluminum, with peak effectiveness at 4-6% Cu.

Copper-Magnesium

• Adding magnesium to aluminum-copper alloys further increases their strength

potential after heat-treatment.
• Room temperature aging can boost strength and ductility in some wrought alloys.
 • Artificial aging increases yield strength mainly, but reduces ductility.
• Effect of magnesium on corrosion resistance varies depending on the specific alloy
and its heat treatment.

Aluminum Foundry Products

Why Aluminum is Great for Casting

• High fluidity for complex shapes

• Lower melting point = easier processing
• Rapid heat transfer = shorter casting cycles
• Manageable hydrogen solubility
• Low hot-short cracking risk
• Good surface finish

Casting Processes

• Aluminum alloys are used in die casting, permanent mold, sand casting, investment
casting, centrifugal casting, and many others.

Alloying Systems

• Similar to wrought alloys: heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable

• Key difference: Casting alloys often have much higher silicon content than wrought
alloys.

Why Silicon is Key

• Forms a eutectic (~12% Si) with aluminum, offering:

o Increased fluidity
o Reduced hot cracking
o Improved shrinkage feeding (minimizes porosity)
• Alloy composition affects how much eutectic is beneficial (sand casting vs. metal
molds)

Alloy Designations

• No single international standard, but these systems are common:

o The Aluminum Association registration (North America)
o Government and technical society specifications (ASTM, SAE, etc.)
o Grouping by quality level or end-use

Alloy Systems
 • Based on the same systems as wrought aluminum, with key differences:
o Much higher silicon content is common for cast alloys
o Strength comes from heat treatment or added elements just like wrought
alloys

Alloy Designations

• The Aluminum Association system (North America) is widely used, others exist:
o 1xx.x: Unalloyed aluminum
o 2xx.x: Copper is the main alloying element
o 3xx.x: Silicon + magnesium and/or copper
o 4xx.x: Silicon only
o 5xx.x: Magnesium is the main alloying element
o 7xx.x: Zinc is the main alloying element
• 8xx.x Aluminum alloys containing tin as the major alloying element
o · 9xx.x Currently unused

Major Alloy Groups

• Aluminum-copper: Some are heat-treatable, challenges include poor castability.

• Aluminum-copper-silicon: Strength from copper, castability from silicon. Very
common.
• Aluminum-silicon: Good castability, corrosion resistance
• Aluminum-magnesium: High corrosion resistance (especially in seawater), but
difficult to cast well.
• Aluminum-zinc-magnesium: Naturally age to full strength, complex casting needs
careful technique.
• Aluminum-tin: Primarily for bearings due to lubricity
• Other: Aluminum-lithium, Aluminum-base metal-matrix composites (MMCs) exist
but have specialized uses

How to Choose the Right Alloy

Consider these factors:

• Casting Process:
o Fluidity, hot tearing resistance, solidification range matter
• Design:
o Complex shapes need good fluidity, hot tearing resistance
• Properties:
o Strength, ductility, heat treatability, etc.
• Service needs:
o Corrosion resistance, pressure tightness, etc.
• Cost: Alloy cost, machining, welding, heat treatment, etc.

Selection of Casting Alloys

(a) Ability of alloy to withstand stresses from contraction while cooling through hot short or
brittle temperature range.
(b) Ability of liquid alloy to flow readily in mold and to fill thin sections.
(c) Decrease in volume accompanying freezing of alloy and a measure of amount of
compensating feed metal required in form of risers.
(d) Based on resistance of alloy in standard salt spray test.
(e) Composite rating based on ease of cutting, chip characteristics, quality of finish, and tool
life.
(f) Based on ability of material to be fusion welded with filler rod of same alloy

important aluminum casting alloy categories, focused on their strengths and applications:

Rotor Alloys

• Used for electric motor rotors

• Alloys 100.0, 150.0, 170.0: Prioritize electrical conductivity (lower numbers = higher
conductivity)
• Iron and other impurities controlled to maximize conductivity

Commercial Duralumin Alloys

• "Duralumin" is an old name, highlights aluminum-copper as the main alloying

element
• Single-phase alloys offering good strength and toughness
• Usage has decreased due to:
o Improved castability of other alloys
o Challenges in getting good quality in production

Premium Casting Alloys

• A specific category focused on achieving superior properties:

o High strength
o Excellent ductility
o Fine microstructure
• Alloys like A201, 224, A356, A357 are common
• Strict impurity control and sometimes special processes (hot isostatic pressing) are
used

Piston and High-Temp Alloys

• Designed for pistons in gasoline engines (low weight, good heat transfer)
• Alloy 332.0-T5 is widely used
 • Heavy-duty pistons and air-cooled engine parts use 336.0, 242 for better high-temp
performance

Standard General-Purpose Alloys

• Aluminum-silicon is the dominant type:

o Excellent castability
o Good corrosion resistance
• Alloys with both Si and Cu exist (e.g., 319.0)
o Improved strength and machinability
o Slightly lowered corrosion resistance
• 356.0 is a very versatile alloy, can be heat treated

Die Casting Alloys

• Largest use of aluminum cast alloys by volume

• 380.0 and variations are the most common
o Good castability, strength, corrosion resistance
• Hypereutectic Al-Si (like 390.0): Excellent wear resistance for demanding parts

Selection and Application of Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys

Why Use Magnesium Alloys?

• Primary advantage: Light weight. Magnesium is the lightest commercially used

structural metal.
• Specific strength and stiffness: Makes these alloys good for
aerospace, automotive, and other applications where minimizing weight is
important.
• Other applications:
o Nonstructural uses like alloying with other metals (aluminum, zinc, etc.)
o Desulfurizing steel, creating special chemicals, batteries

Alloying Elements & Their Effects

• Aluminum & Zinc: Common additions, increase strength but also decrease corrosion
resistance.
• Manganese: Critical for managing iron content and improving corrosion resistance.
• Zirconium: Useful for grain refinement and strength.
• Thorium: Improves elevated temperature properties.

Magnesium Alloy Designations

Here's how the system works:

 • First two letters: Indicate the major alloying elements
o AZ = Aluminum and Zinc
o AM = Aluminum and Manganese
o ZE = Zinc and Rare Earths
• Next two numbers: Rounded-off percentage of the major elements
o AZ91 = approx. 9% Aluminum, 1% Zinc
• Letter after the numbers: Alphabetical, distinguishes variations of similar
compositions.
• Temper Designation (ex: T6): indicates heat treatment
o T4 = Solution Heat Treated
o T6 = Solution Heat Treated and Artificially Aged

Example: AZ91E-T6

• Aluminum and zinc are primary elements

• Approx. 9% Aluminum, 1% Zinc
• Fifth standardized alloy with this base composition
• Solution heat treated and artificially aged

Introduction to Titanium

Titanium's Appeal

• Lightweight: About half the density of steel, making it ideal for weight-sensitive
applications.
• Excellent Strength: Especially in relation to its weight (high specific strength)
• Corrosion Resistance: Forms a stable, protective oxide layer, making it suitable for
harsh environments

Types of Titanium Alloys

• Alpha Alloys (example: Commercially pure Ti):

o Contain aluminum, tin to increase the temperature at which the alpha phase
is stable.
o Superior creep resistance, good for high temperatures.
o Not heat-treatable, often used annealed.
• Beta Alloys (example: Ti-15V-3Cr-3Al-3Sn)
o Vanadium, molybdenum, etc., lower the temperature at which the beta
phase is stable
o Excellent forgeability and hardenability
o Can be heat-treated to form fine alpha particles in beta matrix, increasing
strength.
• Alpha + Beta Alloys (example: Ti-6Al-4V ):
 o Mixture of both phases, balance is key
o Versatile, good formability
o Heat treatable to tailor properties

Applications

• Aerospace: Airframes, jet engine components (strength-to-weight ratio is critical)

• Corrosion Resistance: Chemical processing, marine, energy (desalinization, power
plants)
• Biomedical: Implants, prosthetics due to compatibility with the human body
• Emerging: Automotive (valves, springs), architecture, consumer goods (sports
gear, jewelry)

Exciting New Developments

• Sponge Production: New, more efficient methods beyond the Kroll process
• Melting Improvements: Electron beam, plasma melting for purer ingots
• Powder Metallurgy Alloys: Unique compositions using rare-earth elements, etc.
• Titanium Intermetallics (like Ti3Al): Lighter, stronger, better oxidation
resistance, great for high-temp in jet engines
• Titanium-Matrix Composites (TMCs): Even better strength-to-weight at elevated
temp
• Superplastic Forming/Diffusion Bonding: Complex aerospace parts with fewer
pieces
• Increased Recycling: Makes titanium even more cost-effective