UNIT-2

ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY SYSTEMS

Syllabus:
Battery Technology
Basic concepts, battery characteristics, classification of batteries, Important applications of
batteries, Classical batteries-dry/Leclanché cell, Modern batteries-zinc air, Lead-acid storage
battery, lithium cells- Lithium-ion cell, Li MnO2 cell. Fuel cells- Introduction - classification
of fuel cells – hydrogen and oxygen fuel cell, propane, and oxygen fuel cell- Merits of fuel
cell.
Renewable energy sources – Types of renewable energy sources. Semiconductors:
Definition,
types of semiconductors: doping- n type and p – type semiconductors and applications. -
Solar cells: Introduction, harnessing solar energy, Photovoltaic cell, solar water heaters.

Learning Outcomes:

Introduction

A battery is a device that converts the chemical energy of its cell components into electrical
energy. It contains two materials that cannot undergo an oxidation-reduction reaction directly
but can do so if electrons travel from one material to the other through an external circuit. In
contrast, ions simultaneously travel within the cell.

A “cell” is one basic electrochemical unit. It has a voltage (or “potential”) defined by the
chemistry. A “battery” consists of one or more cells connected in series or parallel. Other
terms such as potential (voltage), current, power and capacity is used in battery technology.
All batteries contain Anode (negative electrode), Cathode (positive electrode) and Electrolyte
(medium for ion transfer). Note that in most familiar battery types, the anode and the cathode
are solid materials, and the electrolyte is a liquid that does not undergo a reaction as the cell
is discharged.
Battery Characteristics
The following are a few vital characteristics of an electrochemical cell, which define the
nature, ability, and applications of these cells.
Power Capacity- It is the energy stored in a battery, which is measured in Watt-hour.
Power Capability- It means the amount of energy (or current; since the voltage is usually
fixed) that the battery can deliver charged or discharged. It is also known as C-rating or C-
rate.
Nominal Voltage- It is the nominal/ average voltage of the battery between its maximum and
minimum values.
Charging Current- It is the maximum current that can be applied to charge the battery.
Charging Voltage- It is the maximum voltage that should be applied to the battery to
efficiently charge a battery.
Discharging Current- It is the current that can be drawn from the battery and is delivered to
the load. If the current drawn by the load is greater than the rated discharging current, the
battery drains very fast, this causes the battery to heat up quickly and causes the battery to
explode.
Shelf Life- Shelf life defines the time period a battery can be stay powered up and should be
able to use it for a rated time period.
Cut-off Voltage- It is the voltage at which the battery can be considered as fully discharged,
after which if we still try to discharge from it, the battery gets damaged.
Cycle Life- The number of cycles that a battery can charge, and discharge defines the cycle
life. The more the cycle life, the better will be the battery’s quality.
Classification of Batteries
Batteries (electrochemical cells) are three types.
1. Primary cells: These cells have only one cycle (Discharge Cycle)
i. These cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
ii. After some time the cell is discharged
iii. These are not chargeable as the products of electrochemical reactions are
consumed in secondary reactions. Ex. : Leclanche cell, Bichromate cell.
2. Secondary Cells: These cells have two cycles- discharge cycle and charge cycle.
i. In the first cycle the cell acts as a galvanic cell. The chemical energy is converted
into electrical energy and the cell is discharged.
ii. In the second cycle the cell is an electrolytic cell. So, electrical energy is converted
into chemical energy and charging take place.
iii. These cells are recharged because the products of electrode reactions are not
 consumed in the secondary reactions
Ex. Lead storage Battery, Alkaline storage Battery
3. Fuel Cells: These are the cells in which
i. Chemical energy of fuel gases H2, CH4, C2H6 etc., converted into electrical
energy.
ii. These are the primary galvanic cells and have only discharge cycle.
iii. Efficiency of the conversion from a fuel to electrical energy is 70%. In a fuel cell.
It is only 20% in case of conversion of chemical energy into thermal, followed by
mechanical and finally electrical energy.
Important Applications of Batteries
The battery is utilized in applications that need the storage of energy for later use.
i. Batteries are commonly used in portable, emergency, and low-power equipment.
ii. A battery allows you to utilize a portable gadget, such as a mobile laptop, anywhere you
desire.
iii. When there is no electricity, emergency equipment such as an inverter, torch, or other
similar device is employed.
iv. Low-power gadgets, such as watches and oximeters, can run for a long period after the
battery is replaced.
Some Galvanic cells are commonly used as sources of electrical energy on the principle
based on ΔG<0 is capable of doing work. The cells are three types.

1. Primary cells (or) Dry cells (or) Laclanche’s cell 2. Secondary cells 3. Fuel cells
Primary celss: In which the cell reaction is not reversible. Thus when the reactants are
converted into products, no more electricity is produced and the battery become dead.

The dry cell i.e. a cell without fluid component is perhaps the most familiar of all batteries. In
this cell the Zn can acts as anode and a carbon rod serves as the cathode, which is immersed
in the electrolyte (thick paste of (NH4Cl+ZnCl2+MnO2).

Oxidation: The anode half reaction is Zn(s) Zn+2(aq.) + 2e-

The electrode reaction is quite complex. Essentially it involves the reduction of MnO 2 to a
series of compounds having Mn in +3 oxidation state. For example, Mn 2O3.

Reduction:

2MnO2(s) + H2O + 2e- Mn2O3 (s) + 2OH- (aq.)

However, an acid-base reaction between OH- & NH4+ (derived from NH4Cl) evolves NH3
(gas), which disrupts the current flow.

NH4+ (aq.) + OH- (aq.) NH3 (gas) + H2O (liq.)

This is prevented by a reaction of NH3 with Zn2+ (from ZnCl2) to form the complex ion

[Zn (NH3)]Cl2 . Hence the reactions at electrode are

Zn2+ + 2NH3 + 2Cl- [Zn(NH3)]Cl2

The net reaction is

Zn (s) + 2NH4+ (aq.) + 2cl- (aq.) + 2MnO2 (s) Mn2O3 + [Zn(NH3)]cl2 (s) +
2H2O

The dry cell is primary cell, since various reactions involved can’t be reversed by passing
electricity back through the cell.

Dry cell is cheap to make, and a gives voltage of about 1.5v.

Fig. Dry cell

SECONDARY CELSS

1. Lead-acid storage cell 2. Lithium-ion battery

Lead-acid storage cell

1. A storage cell is one that can operate both as a voltaic cell and as an electric cell.
When operating as voltaic cell, it supplies electrical energy and as a result eventually
becomes “rundown” it must be then recharged.
2. The common example of a storage cell is the lead-acid storage cell. One of its
electrodes is made of lead. The other electrode is made of lead dioxide (PbO 2). A few
lead plates are connected in parallel.
3. The lead plates fit in between the lead dioxide plates. Various plates are separated
from wood or glass fiber.
4. The entire combination is then immersed in ~ 20 to 21% dil. H2SO4.
5. Discharging: When the storage cell is operating as a voltaic cell it is said to be
discharging. The lead electrode loses electrons, which flows through the wire. In this
reaction, oxidation of lead takes place at the anode.

Anode: Pb Pb2+ + 2e- ………(1)

The Pb2+ ions then combine with sulphate ion it gives PbSO 4.

Pb2+ + SO42- PbSO4

 The electrons released from the anode flow to the dioxide electrode. Here PbO2 gains
electrons to form Pb2+ ions. In other words, lead undergoes reduction at the cathode from
oxidation state +4 to +2. The Pb2+ ions then combine with SO42- ions.

Cathode: PbO2 + 4H+ 2e- Pb2+ + 2H2O …….(2)

Pb2+ + SO42- PbSO4

From (1) and (2) the net reaction is

Pb + PbO2 + 4H+ 2 SO42- 2PbSO4 + 2H2O + energy

Charging: When both anode and cathode become converted with PbSO4, the cell ceases to
function as a voltaic cell. To recharge a lead storage cell, the reactions take place.

Reaction at the –Ve terminal (cathode)

PbSO4 + 2e- Pb + SO42-

Reaction at +Ve terminal

2PbSO4 + 2H2O – 2e- Pb + PbO2 + 4H+ 2 SO42-

During the process the charging, the electrodes of cell are restored to their original
conditions.

2. Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries)

are a type of secondary (rechargeable) battery commonly used in consumer electronics. Also
included within lithium-ion batteries are lithium polymer batteries. Lithium-ion batteries are
generally found in mobile telephones, laptop computers, etc. “Battery” means two or more
cells which are electrically connected and fitted with devices necessary for use, for example,
case, terminals, marking and protective devices. A single cell lithium battery is considered a
"cell" and must be tested according to the testing requirements for "cells" for the purposes of
these Regulations and the provisions of subsection 38.3 of the UN Manual of Tests and
Criteria (see also the definition for "cell").
Materials: In these batteries, carbon material is used in the anodes and a metal oxide
material containing lithium is used in the cathodes; lithium ions migrate between the two
electrodes via an organic electrolyte. By designing these batteries in accordance with the
reversible capacity of the carbon material, lithium does not exist in the metallic state during
either the charging or discharging processes.

In order to differentiate these batteries from those using metallic lithium or lithium alloy in
the anode, we designated these devices lithium-ion rechargeable batteries.

Charge/discharge mechanism

Battery charging and discharging occur through the migration of lithium ions between the
cathodes and anodes and the exchange of electrons through doping and dedoping. More
specifically, during charging lithium is dedoped from cathodes consisting of a lithium-
containing compound and the interlayers of carbon in anodes are doped with lithium.
Conversely, during discharge lithium is dedoped from between the carbon layers in anodes,
and the compound layers in cathodes are doped with lithium. Reactions occurring in lithium-
ion rechargeable batteries employing (lithium cobaltate) in cathodes and carbon in anodes are
shown in Figure1. By means of the initial charging, which takes place during battery
manufacture, lithium ions migrate from the lithium compound of the cathode to the carbon
material of the anode.
Fig: Lithium-Ion Batteries

Discharge process

Anode: Negative terminal

Li-Graphite Graphite + Li+ + e-

Cathode: Positive terminal

CoO2 + Li+ + e- LiCoO2 (Co oxidation state changes from +4 to +3)

Charge Process

Anode:

LiCoO2 CoO2 + Li+ + e- (non-spontaneous)

Cathode:

Graphite + Li+ + e- LiC6

Modern Batteries

1. Li-MnO2 Primary cell

 2. Zn-Air (O2) cell

Li-MnO2 Primary cell

It belongs to solid cathode lithium battery. In this battery, Li-metal acts a s anode, while
specially prepared heat-treated MnO2 is acts as cathode.

This anode and cathode immersed in electrolytic solution i.e. poly propylene carbonate in
diethyl ether.

Manganese dioxide is reduced from tetravalent state to trivalent state by lithium.

The formation of [MnO2 (Li+)] lithium manganese dioxide signifies that the Li + ion enters the
crystal lattice of MnO2.

Reactions:

Anode Reaction: Li → Li+ + e-

Cathode Reaction: MnO2 + e- → MnO2-

The complete reaction is Li+ + MnO2- → LiMnO2

Applications:

1. The output voltage is 3.5 V.

2. Operating temperature is -20 to 50°C.

3. Used in long-term memory back up device, security device, camera, and many other
electronic devices.
Fig: Li-MnO2 cell

1. Zn-Air (O2) cell

Anode: Granulated Zn powder

Cathode: Air/C

Electrolyte: KOH 6M

The production of electrochemical energy in Zn/Air battery is due to the use of

oxygen from atmospheric.

The diffused oxygen acts as a cathode reactant in the battery

The air cathode catalytically promotes the reaction of oxygen with aq. KOH and
it’s not consumed or changed during the discharge.

When alkaline electrolyte is used in Zn/Air battery, it is necessary to increase

only the amount of Zinc present to increase battery capacity.

Zn/Air battery is represented as

Zn/KOH//Air, C

Chemical reactions of Zn-Air battery

Anode: Zn + OH- ZnO + H2O + 2e-

Cathode: 1/2 O2 + H2O + 2e- 2OH-

Comlete reaction:Zn + 1/2 O2 ZnO

Applications:
 a. Used as power source in hearing aid.

b. Used in electronic pagers.

c. Used in military radio receivers.

d. Used in voice transmitters.

Fig: Zn/Air Battery

Fuel cells
A fuel battery is one in which all the constituents of the battery flow throughout the battery
which converts the chemical energy of fuels directly to electricity and does not store chemical
energy.
Fuel + Oxygen Oxidation products + Electricity
The fuel and oxidizing agent are continuously and separately supplied to the electrodes of the
cell at which they undergo reactions. They are primary cells and are capable of supplying
current as long as reactants are supplied.
Characteristics of fuel cell:
 They are highly efficient.
 Emission levels are below the permissible limits.
 They are modular and hence can be built in a wide range of power requirements.
 Noise levels are low.
 They are free from vibration, heat transfer and thermal pollution.
The following are the most successful fuel cells which are used in various technical
applications.
Hydrogen oxygen fuel cell
Construction:
 A galvanic cell where there is a continuous supply of reactants.
 It consists of two inert porous electrodes made of graphite impregnated with finely divided Pt
or 75/25 alloy of Pd with Ag or Ni and 25% KOH solution as electrolyte.
 Hydrogen gas is bubbled through one inert electrode, which acts as an anode.
 Oxygen gas is bubbled through another electrode, which acts as the cathode.
 The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell produces water as a product and hence is an ideal power
source for zero-emission vehicles. Hence it is called an eco-friendly battery.

Working:
Redox Reaction in a Hydrogen- Oxygen Fuel Cell

Anode: 2 H2(g)+ 2OH−(aq)→2 H2O(l)+ 2e− (Oxidation)

Cathode: O2(g)+ 2 H2O(l)+ 4e−→4OH−(aq) (Reduction)

Net Reaction: 2 H2(g)+ O2(g) →2 H2O(l)
EO =EOOx + EORed =0.83V + 0.40V = 1.23V

In actual practice the emf of the cell is 0.8 to 1.0 V. Generally, a number of such fuel cells are
stacked together in series to make a battery called the fuel cell battery or fuel battery.
The electrode used in fuel cells must be
1. Good conductors
2. Good electron source or sink
3. Should not be consumed or deteriorated by the electrolyte heat or electrode reactions.

Uses:
Auxiliary energy source in space vehicles, submarines and other military vehicles
In case of H2/O2 fuel cells the product water is of portable quality is a source of fresh water
for Astronauts

Propane - Oxygen fuel cell:

Construction:
 It consists of two electrodes made up of platinum in between the electrodes H2SO4 is placed
as an electrolyte. Propane and H2SO4 is supplied at the anode and pure oxygen gas is supplied
at the cathode. The propane is oxidized to CO2& H2O with the liberation of electrical energy.
The cell delivers an emf of 1.20V. The cell reactions are as follows.
Working:
C3H8 (g) + 6H2O (l) 3CO2 (g) + 20H+ + 20e-
5O2 + 20H+ + 20e- 10H2O
C3H8 (g) + 5O2 3CO2 (g) + 4 H2O

Uses:
Used in Military applications and for large scale power production stations

Advantages of fuel cells or important characteristics of fuel cells:

1. Fuel cells have a higher efficiency (75-80%) than diesel or gas engines.
2. 75-85% of energy conversion from chemical energy to electrical energy.
3. Their emission levels are far below the permissible limits.
4. They are modular and hence can be built in a wide range of power requirements.
5. Their noise levels are also low.
6. They are free from vibration, heat transfer and thermal pollution.
7. The reactants and products are environment friendly and only we have to bother about the
disposal of cell material.
8. The fuels and electrolyte materials are available in plenty and inexhaustible unlike fossil
fuels.
9. Unlike solar cells, fuel-cells are compact and transportable.
10. Unlike acid cells used in automotives the fuel cells are far less corrosive.
11. Unlike nuclear energy, fuel cell energy is economical and safe.
12. Fuel cells are operatable to 200o C and so find applications in high temperature systems.
.
Limitations of fuel cells:
 Lifetime of fuel cells is not accurately known.
 Their initial cost is high.
 Pure hydrogen is also costly; liquefaction of hydrogen requires 30% of stored energy.
 There is lack of infrastructure for the distribution of hydrogen.
Fuel cells have various advantages compared to conventional power sources, such as internal
combustion engines or batteries.
Introduction to Renewable Energy sources
Definition:

Renewable energy resources are those which can be generated continuously in nature and are
inexhaustible.

Renewable Energy sources

Tidal Biomass Geotherm

Solar energy Wind energy Hydropower
energy energy al energy

Solar Energy

Sun is the ultimate source of energy either directly or indirectly for all other forms of energy.
The solar energy received by the near-earth space is approximately1.4 kJ/s/m 2 known as solar
constant. Traditionally we have been using solar energy for drying cloths and food grains.
Now we have several techniques or devices to harvest solar energy.

a) Solar heat collectors: These can be passive or active in nature. Passive solar collectors are
those which absorb light during day time and release it during night. Example, stones,
bricks or glass. Active solar collectors pump a heat absorbing medium through a small
collector which is normally placed on the top of the building.
b) Solar cells: They are also known as photovoltaic cells or PV cells. Solar cells are made up
of thin wafer of semiconductor materials like silicon and gallium. When solar radiations fall
on them, a potential difference is produced which causes flow of electrons and produces
electricity. The potential difference produced by a single PV cell of 4 cm 2 size is about 0.4-
0.5 volts and produces a current of 60 mA. A group of solar cells joined together in a definite
pattern form a solar panel which can harness a large amount of solar energy and can produce
electricity enough to run street-light, irrigation water pump etc. other uses are in calculators,
electronic watches, traffic signals etc.
c) Solar cooker: Solar cookers make use of solar heat by reflecting the solar radiations using
a mirror directly onto a glass sheet which covers the black insulated box within which the
raw food is kept. The food cooked in solar cookers is more nutritious die to slow heating. It
cannot be used during night or on cloudy days. Also, the direction of the cooker has to be
adjusted according to the direction of the sun rays.

d) Solar water heaters: It consists of an insulated box painted black from inside and having
a glass lid to receive and store solar heat. Inside the box it has black painted copper coil
through which cold water is made to flow in, which gets heated and flows out into a storage
tank. The hot water from the storage tank fitted on roof top is then supplied through pipes
into building like hotels and hospitals.
e) Solar furnace: Here thousands of small plane mirrors are arranged in concave reflectors,
all of which collect the solar heat and produce as high temperature as 3000°C.

f) Solar power plant: Solar energy is harnessed on a large scale by using concave reflectors
which cause boiling of water to produce steam. The steam turbine drives a generator to
produce electricity. A solar power plant (50 kW capacity) has been installed in Gurgaon,
Haryana.

Hydro-Power energy: Electrical power is generated by hydro-electric projects in which

dams are constructed across the river. The kinetic energy of water is converted into
mechanical energy by means of turbines and in turn, the mechanical energy is transferred into
electrical energy by generators. Hydro power projects lead to several environmental problems
like destruction of animal habitats, deforestation, migration of people etc. The hydropower
potential of India is estimated to be about 4 x1011 kW.

Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy found within rock formations. Inside the earth the
temperature rises with depth. The temperature in earth’s crust is around 4000o C. Geysers (a
natural spring that emits hot water) and hot springs are examples for geothermal energy
where the steam and hot water come to the surface, in areas where the steam is tapped by
drilling. The obtained steam is then used to generate power. Air pollution results in case of
geothermal energy where the gases like H2S, NH3, CO2 present in the steam coming out of
the geothermal sources. The overall efficiency for power production is low (15%) as
compared to fossil fuels (40%).

Wind energy: Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of
atmospheric air. Windmills convert the wind energy into electrical energy. On an average
windmills can convert 30-40 % of available wind energy into electrical energy at a steady
wind speed of 8.5 mts / sec. The efficiency of wind mill is increased with the speed of wind
and length of rotor blade. The minimum wind speed required for operating the wind
generator is 15 km/h. The total wind energy potential in India’s estimate is 25,000 MW of
this about 6000 MW is located in Tamil Nadu; 5000 MW in Gujarat and contribute the states
of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan for balance quantity.

Merits & demerits of wind energy:

1. It is a non – polluting and environment friendly source of energy.
2. It is a renewable energy available at free of cost
3. Power generation is cheaper with nil recurring expenses.
4. Wind mills are suitable to erect at on shore, remote and rural areas where wind blows
with required intensity.
5. Favourable in geographic locations which are away from cities.
6. Wind turbine design, manufacturing, installation is complex due to varying atmospheric
conditions.
7. Wind power doesn’t suitable for large scale generation.
Tidal energy: Tidal waves of the sea can be used to turn turbine and generate electricity.
Asia’s first tidal power plant of 800 - 1000 MW capacity is proposed to be set up at Kandla
in Gulf of Kutch. Ocean tides produced by gravitational forces of sun and moon contain
enormous amounts of energy. The high tide and low tide refer to the rise and fall of water in
the oceans. A difference of several meters is required between the height of high and low tide
to spin the turbines. The tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage.
During high tide, the seawater flows into the reservoir of the barrage and turns the turbine,
which in turn produces electricity by rotating the generators. During low tide, when the sea-
level is low, the sea water stored in the barrage reservoir flows out into the sea and again
turns the turbines.
Biomass energy: Biomass is an organic material from living beings or its residues. It is a
renewable source of energy derived from the waste of various human and natural activities.
The bio-mass energy sources include Wood, animal manure, sugarcane waste, agriculture
crops, household waste, roots of plants, garbage etc. The simplest way of using bio-mass
energy sources is to allow them to dry out in the sun and burn them.
Semiconductors:

What is a semiconductor?
A semiconductor is a material that shows very low conductivity at room temperature but
whose conductivity increases with increase in temperature (intrinsic semiconductor) or with
the addition of small amount of other elements called dopants (extrinsic semiconductor).
Example for elemental semiconductors: Si, Ge etc.
According to band theory, there are three types of energy bands in solids,
 Conduction band- within which electrons must move to conduct electricity.
 Valence band- this is the band in which valence electrons are actually present.
 Forbidden band or forbidden gap- this separates the above two bands.
In semiconductors, the energy gap between, valence band and conduction band is very small.
When a small amount of energy is supplied, the electrons hop from the valence band to the
conduction band and the material starts conducting.

Semiconductors

Elemental Non-Elemental
semiconductors semiconductors

Intrinsic Extrensic Stoichiometric

semiconductors semiconductors semiconductors

Non-stoichiometric
p-type
semiconductors

n-type Controlled valency

semiconductors

For example, in Silicon which has four valence electrons, each atom is bonded to four other
silicon atoms by strong covalent bonds. When the temperature is raised, some of the bonds
are broken and electrons jump to conduction band leaving a vacant site called hole in the
valence band. When connected to an external source of current silicon conducts electricity
due to the movement of these electrons and holes in opposite directions.
Electrons and holes can also be generated in a semiconductor by doping. Based on the type of
doping, there are two types of elemental semiconductors.

 n-type semiconductor and

 p-type semiconductor
When pure silicon is doped with an element such as phosphorous (P) which has five valence
electrons, few silicon atoms are replaced by P atoms. P forms four bonds with four silicon
atoms and the fifth electron is free. This conducts electricity. This type of semiconductors is
called n-type semiconductors. On the other hand when pure silicon is doped with boron (B)
which has three electrons in its valence shell, it forms four bonds with four silicon atoms but
out of four, three are normal covalent bonds and the fourth one has only one electron creating
a vacancy. This vacancy is called a hole. To compensate this electron from the neighbouring
site moves to this site and this process continues. Such type of semiconductors is called p-
type semiconductors.

n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

Solar cells

Definition: “A solar cell is a semiconductor device which when exposed to electromagnetic

radiations like sun light, generates electricity”. It is also called as Photovoltaic cell.
10.1 p-n junction or semiconductor diode
Certain electronic devices require a semi conduction system with a combination of p- and n-
type semiconductors. Solar cell is one such device. Such combinations of semiconductors are
p-n junctions or semiconductor diodes.
When p-n junctions are formed, there is high concentration of holes on the p-side and high
concentration of electrons on the n-side. Since there is concentration gradient across the
junction, the holes will diffuse towards the n-side and electrons towards the p-side. This
results in electron-hole recombination at the vicinity of the junction. This region as a result
has no charge carriers and is called as depleted zone or depleted region. The thickness of this
is of the order of wavelength of light. Before diffusion, the p-side and n-side of the
semiconductor diode were neutral. During diffusion, n-side loses electrons and becomes
progressively positively charged and resists the diffusion of electrons away from it. Similarly
the p-side loses holes and progressively becomes negatively charged and resists the diffusion
of holes away from it. Thus, equilibrium is reached when the diffusion of holes and electrons
across the junction stops. At this equilibrium, the n-region will acquire a positive charge and
p-region acquires a negative charge. However, the depletion zone acts as a barrier for further
diffusion. Only when an energy exceeding this barrier potential is applied, the material starts
conducting.

10.2 Construction and working of solar cell or Photovoltaic cell

Construction: A typical silicon photovoltaic cell is made up of a thin wafer consisting of an
ultra thin layer of phosphorous doped (n-type) silicon on top of boron doped (p-type) silicon.
Hence a p-n junction (A semiconductor diode) is formed between the two. A metallic grid
forms one of the electrical contacts of the diode and allows light to fall on the semiconductor
between the grid lines. This grid like metal contact is made up of fine “fingers” and larger
“bus bars” is screen printed onto the front surface using a silver paste. An antireflective layer
of silicon nitride or titanium dioxide between the grid lines increases the amount of light
transmitted to the semiconductor. The rare metal contact is also formed by screen printing a
metal paste of aluminium. The two ends i. e front metal contact and rare metal contact are
electrically connected externally by a metallic conductor to complete the circuit.

Working: The sun light consists of particles called photons. The energy of these photons is
given by Planks quantum equation, i.e. E = hν = hc/λ, Where h- Planks constant, c- velocity
of light and λ- wavelength of light radiation. When light falls on a semiconductor diode or p-
n junction diode, the semiconductor absorbs the light energy and produces electrons and
holes. A portion of the energy absorbed is also delivered to electrons and holes. The
semiconductor diode separates the electrons and holes and collects then in a particular
direction. The electrons drifted to and collected at the n-type and the holes are drifted to and
collected at the p-type end. When these two ends are electrically connected through a
conductor, there is a flow of current between the two ends through the external circuit. Thus
photoelectric current is produced and available for use.

Solar Water Heating System

A solar thermal device captures and transfers the heat energy available in solar radiation
which can be used for meeting the requirements of heat in different temperature ranges.

Three main temperature ranges used are;

Low temperature Hot water - 60°C to 80°C
Medium temperature Drying - 80°C to 140°C
High temperature Cooking & power generation - >140°C
Configuration
Solar water heating system (SWHS) is a device which supplies hot water at 60°C to 80°C
using only solar thermal energy without any other fuel. It has three main components,
namely,
1. Solar Collector
2. Insulated hot water storage tank and
3. Cold water tank with required insulated hot water pipelines and accessories.
In the case of smaller systems (100 – 2000 litres per day), the hot water reaches the user end,
by natural (thermo – siphon) circulation for which the storage tank is located above the
collectors. In higher capacity systems, a pump may be used for forced circulation of water.

Working Principle
A solar water heater works on Thermo-syphone principle. The principle of thermosyphone is:
In a flat bed collector in cold water flows to the collector, it gets warm by sunshine and flows
upward as it becomes lighter than cold water (density of hot water is less than cold water)
and stored in the tank which can be used directly. In a typical solar water heater, water is
heated by the solar thermal energy absorbed by the collectors. The hot water with lower
density moves upwards and cold water with higher density moves down from the tank due to
gravity head. A bank of collectors can be arranged in a series – parallel combination to get
higher quantity of hot water.
A typical 100 litres insulated tank with a 2 m 2 collector area, will supply water at a
temperature of 60 - 80°C.
11.3 Types of solar water heaters
Based on the collector system, solar water heaters can be of two types.
11.3.1 Flat Plate Collectors (FPC) based Solar Water Heaters
The solar radiation is absorbed by Flat Plate Collectors which consist of an insulated outer
metallic box covered on the top with glass sheet. Inside there are blackened metallic absorber
(selectively coated) sheets with built in channels or riser tubes to carry water. The absorber
absorbs the solar radiation and transfers the heat to the flowing water.
11.3.2 Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC) based Solar Water Heaters
Evacuated Tube Collector is made of double layer borosilicate glass tubes evacuated for
providing insulation. The outer wall of the inner tube is coated with selective absorbing
material. This helps absorption of solar radiation and transfers the heat to the water which
flows through the inner tube.
Salient Features of Solar Water Heating System
Solar Hot Water System turns cold water into hot water with the help of sun’s rays.

 Around 60 deg. – 80 deg. C temperature can be attained depending on solar

radiation, weather conditions and solar collector system efficiency.
 Hot water for homes, hostels, hotels, hospitals, restaurants, dairies, industries etc.
 Can be installed on roof-tops, building terrace and open ground where there is no
shading, south orientation of collectors and over-head tank above SWH system.
 SWH system generates hot water on clear sunny days (maximum), partially
clouded (moderate) but not in rainy or heavy overcast day.
 Only soft and potable water can be used.
 Stainless Steel is used for small tanks whereas Mild Steel tanks with anticorrosion
coating inside are used for large tanks.
 Solar water heaters (SWHs) of 100-300 litres capacity are suited for domestic
application.
 Larger systems can be used in restaurants, guest houses, hotels, hospitals,
industries etc.

Fuel Savings:
A 100 litres capacity SWH can replace an electric geyser for residential use and saves 1500
units of electricity annually.
Avoided utility cost on generation.
The use of 1000 SWHs of 100 litres capacity each can contribute to a peak load shaving of 1
MW.
Environmental benefits
A SWH of 100 litres capacity can prevent emission of 1.5 tonnes of carbondioxide
per year.
Life : 15-20 years
Approximate cost : Rs.15000- 20,000 for a 100 litres capacity system and Rs.110-150
per installed litre for higher capacity systems