ANIMAL HEALTH CARE

OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
To Our Valued Reader,
This publication, The Philippines Recommends for

Animal Health Care, provides livestock and poultry
technicians and food animal raisers basic information on
common veterinary practices for primary level care and
maintenance of animal health. Adoption of the
recommended animal health practices coupled with
proper management will enable backyard animal raisers to
ensure that healthy animals will be raised in the farm and
thereby increase the population of healthy, vigorous, and
prolific ruminants (cattle, carabaos and goats), swine, and
poultry in the countryside, thus, ensuring food security.
A joint publication of PCARRD and the Animal Health
Division, Pfizer, Inc., this publication outlines programs on
hygiene and sanitation, regular vaccination, regular parasite
control, and preventive medication for ruminants, swine
and poultry.
It is hoped that you will find this publication a useful
reference material.
Very truly yours,
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
The Philippines
Recommends
for Animal
Health Care
Philippines Recommends Series No. 65-A
PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY

AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Department of Science and Technology
ANIMAL HEALTH DIVISION

PFIZER, Inc.
Los Baños, Laguna

2002
First Edition 1988
Second Edition 2002 (Revised)
ISSN 0115-7833
ISBN 971-20-0492-9
Bibliographic Citation:
The 2001 Animal Health Care Committee.

The Philippines recommends for animal
health care. Los Baños, Laguna:
PCARRD/DOST-PFIZER, INC., 2002.
109p. - (Philippines Recommends Series
No. 65-A).
ii
Foreword
Animal diseases have been an important concern in the

overall animal industry. They influence a number of global
security issues – food security for the ever-increasing
human population, access to international trade and
economic growth in developing and underdeveloped
countries. Because many animal disease agents are
zoonotic (transmissible between humans and animals,
causing infection in both species), their management and
prevention are critical to improving public health.
Animals that are healthy and more resistant to diseases
are desired to produce safer and more wholesome meat,
milk, and eggs for the farmer’s own consumption or for the
general public. It is crucial therefore, that the health of food
animals like cattle, carabaos, goats, pigs, and chickens
should be a common concern for both backyard and
commercial animal producers. This goal can be achieved in
the rural setting by adoption of applicable preventive
veterinary interventions and acceptable practices in
commercial operations. In this context, this Philippines
Recommends issue was evolved. Its main objective is to
provide livestock and poultry technicians, technologists
and progressive animal raisers a reference for basic
information on common veterinary practices for primary
level care and maintenance of animal health. The rationale
behind these practices is discussed and examples of
recommended procedures applicable at the farmer’s level
are presented.
The expectations of the publishers (PCARRD in
collaboration with Pfizer, Inc.) will be realized if a sizable
majority of backyard raisers will adopt the recommended
iii
practices and a good indicator will be an increase in the
population of healthy, vigorous, and prolific livestock and
poultry in the countryside. Comments, suggestions and
criticisms on this publication are welcome, to improve
future editions.
PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
PCARRD
iv
Message
In the Philippines, majority of livestock and poultry are

raised in the backyard by smallholder farmers living
mostly in the countryside. Unfortunately, financial losses
caused by diseases and parasitism accrue because
smallholder farmers still adopt traditional animal
management practices which do not promote good animal
health status. We are optimistic that by providing
farmers information on proper animal health care, losses
due to diseases and parasitism can be reduced
considerably if not totally eliminated, thus, making
animal raising more beneficial to the farmers.
The Animal Health Division of Pfizer, Inc., like other
agencies and institutions, is glad to help the Filipino
animal raisers in improving the productivity of livestock
and poultry. We are certain that important information on
proper animal health care contained in this volume of the
Philippines Recommends for Animal Health Care can
serve the farmers.
This publication is prepared by a technical committee
composed of experts from the College of Veterinary
Medicine (CVM), and the Dairy Training and Research
Institute (DTRI) of the University of the Philippines
Los Baños (UPLB), College of Veterinary Science and
Medicine (CVSM) of the Central Luzon State University
(CLSU), and the Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) of the
Department of Agriculture (DA). This volume contains
relevant information on proper animal hygiene and
sanitation, vaccination, parasite control and preventive
medication and procedures in handling emergency cases.
This information is essential in providing good animal
health status of livestock and poultry raised for different
purposes such as meat, egg, and milk production and draft
power.
v
The Animal Health Division, Pfizer, Inc. expresses its
thanks to the Animal Health Care Committee 2001 who
prepared this publication.
Through this publication, we also extend our sincere
thanks and gratitude to those who patronize our products.
We will do our best to continuously share with you new
technologies in animal production that will be developed in
the future.
RONALD A. VERGEL DE DIOS

Director
Animal Health Division
Pfizer, Inc.
vi
Acknowledgment
The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and

Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD)
and Pfizer, Inc. gratefully acknowledge the cooperation
extended by some agencies and institutions in the publication
of the Philippines Recommends for Animal Health Care.
Appreciation is due to the heads of the University of the
Philippines Los Baños, Central Luzon State University and
the Bureau of Animal Industry – Department of Agriculture
for allowing their staff to serve as members of the Technical
Committee for the revision of the Philippines Rcommends
for Animal Health Care.
Acknowledgment is also due to the staff of Livestock
Research Division, PCARRD, for their continued and
unrelenting support and assistance, Mr. Ronald A. Vergel
de Dios of Animal Health Division, Pfizer, Inc. for his
contribution to the printing of this volume and Dr. Norma
V. Llemit, Dr. Tricia R. Javier, and staff of the Applied
Communication Division, PCARRD for the overall
coordination of the production of this publication.
vii
Contents
Foreword iii
Message v
Acknowledgment vii
The 2001 Animal Health Care Committee xiii
Glossary of Terms xiv
Introduction 1
Hygiene and Sanitation Program 4
Hygienic Measures to Prevent the Entry of Disease
Agents 5
Hygienic Measures to Minimize the Occurrence
of Diseases 6
Recommended Procedures in Disinfection 9
Chemical Compounds Used in Disinfection 9
Properties of an ideal disinfectant 9
Regular Vaccination Program 14

Technical Basis of Vaccination 14
Vaccine Efficacy 16
Features of an Excellent Vaccine 24
Guidelines for Vaccination/Use of Vaccines 24
Regular Parasite Control Program 26

Technical Basis of Parasite Control Program 27
Types of parasites and their effects on the host 27
Modes of parasite transmission 27
Common arthropods of ruminants 28
Common parasites of poultry 28
Common helminths of ruminants 29
Common helminths of swine 30
Parasite Control Program Methodologies 48
Environmental control 49
Management schemes 50
Regular deworming program 53
ix
General Guidelines for Effective Deworming
Program 54
Herbal medicine 56
Recommended deworming schedules 57
Preventive Medication Program 61

Situations/Conditions which Need Preventive
Medication Program 61
Guidelines in Formulating a Preventive Medication
Regimen 62
Drugs Used in Preventive Medication Program 63
Antibiotics 63
Probiotics 64
Guides in Handling First Aid and/or Emergency Case 66

Basic Guidelines in Handling Emergency Cases 66
Recommended Emergency Procedure in Handling
Specific Cases 67
Heat stroke 67
Acute insecticide poisoning 69
Bloat (Tympany) 69
Fractures (long bones of the legs) 76
Foot problems 77
Difficult parturition (Dystocia) 79
Dystocia in small ruminants 83
Retained placenta 86
Uterine prolapse 87
Vaginal prolapse 90
Diarrhea/Scouring 91
Acute pneumonia 92
References 94
Appendices
A Department of Agriculture Administrative Order
No. 12 Series of 1992 99
B Guide in Collection and Transport of Specimens for
Laboratory Examination 103
C List of Regional Animal Disease Diagnostic
Laboratory (RADDL) 107
D Capabilities of the Regional Animal Disease
Diagnostic Laboratory (RADDL) 108
x
List of Tables
1 Animal disease situation report, 2000 2
2 Examples of various types of chemical compounds
used in disinfection 10
3 Classification of chemical compounds used in
disinfection 12
4 Schedules for vaccination against common diseases
of livestock and poultry 17
5 Injection types for cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat,
and pig 23
6 Common ectoparasites affecting livestock and
poultry and the diseases associated with them 36
7 Common endoparasites affecting livestock and
poultry and the diseases associated with them 40
8 Normal pulse rate, respiration rate, and body
temperature of some domesticated animals 68
9 Some common plants poisonous to livestock in the
Philippines 70
List of Figures
1 Suitable cage/pen for chicken 7
2 Suitable shed/pen for pigs 7
3 Recommended night shed or holding area for cattle
and carabaos 7
4 Intramuscular injection for pigs 23
5 Subcutaneous injection for piglets 23
6 Tabanus sp. (breezefly) 28
7 Boophilus microplus (tropical cattle tick) 28
8 Damalinia limbata (biting louse) 28
9 Ornithonyssus bursa (tropical cattle tick) 28
10 Goniodes sp. (large body louse) 28
11 Ascaridia galli (large roundworms) 29
12 Raillietina sp. (tapeworm of poultry) 29
13 Moniezia sp. (tapeworm) 29
14 Toxocara vitulorum (common roundworm) 29
15 Amphistomes 29
16 Fasciola sp. (liver fluke) 29
17 Ascaris suis (large roundworm) 30
18 Stephanurus dentatus (kidney worm) 30
19 Trichuris suis (whipworm) 30
xi
20 Life cycle of Trichostrongyles 31
21 Life cycle of Toxocara vitulorum in cattle and
carabao 31
22 Life cycle of Ascaris suis 32
23 Life cycle of coccidia (Eimeria tenella) in chicken
33
24 Life cycle of common liver fluke 34
25 Division of paddocks for rapid rotational grazing
system 51
26 Trocar and cannula used to puncture the left
paralumbar fossa. Only the cannula remains after
trocar is withdrawn to expel gas 75
27 Palmar aspect of the equine hoof 78
28 Palmar aspect of the bovine hoof 78
29 Lateral aspect of the bovine hoof 78
30 Abnormality of posture: One leg flexed at knee 81
31 Correction of simple leg flexed (leg back)
presentation 81
32 Full leg flexion from the shoulder, showing an
attempt to draw it forward to the simple knee
flexion 81
33 Correction of a “head back” position 82
34 Backwards presentation showing normal and
abnormal positions of the umbilical cord 82
35 Backwards presentation 82
36. Breech presentation 83
37a Manual extraction of fetus with front legs back 84
37b Manual extraction of fetus with legs present, but
head twisted 85
37c Manual extraction of fetus with breech
presentation 85
38a Prolapse of the uterus 88
38b Prolapsed uterus placed in a bucket containing
cold sugar solution 88
38c The same cow after the prolapsed uterus was
returned into the pelvic cavity and the vulva
sutured 89
39a Prolapse of the vagina and the cervix 90
39b A vaginal prolapse 91
xii
The 2001 Animal Health Care
Committee
CHAIRMAN
Dr. Jose Q. Molina

Director
Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI)
Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City
MEMBERS
Dr. Ronello B. Abila Dr. Andrew M. Bernardo

Officer-in-Charge Assistant Professor
Animal Health Division College of Veterinary Medicine
BAI, Visayas Avenue University of the Philippines
Diliman, Quezon City Los Baños (UPLB)
College, Laguna
Dr. Antonio A. Rayos Dr. Edwin C. Villar

Research Associate Professor Director
Dairy Training and Research Livestock Research Division (LRD)
Institute PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
UPLB, College, Laguna
Dr. Virginia M. Venturina Dr. Jerosalem A. Arguzon

Associate Professor Science Research Specialist
College of Veterinary LRD, PCARRD
Science and Medicine Los Baños, Laguna
Central Luzon State University
Muñoz, Nueva Ecija
Ricardo R. Argana
Volume Editor
Science Research Specialist II
Applied Communication Division
PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna
xiii
Glossary of Terms
Agglutination – a reaction in which particles (such as red

blood cells, bacteria, virus particles, or rickettsiae)
suspended in liquid collect into clumps or flocules with
the loss of motility in the case of flagellated or ciliated
organisms. This occurs when the suspension is treated
with certain substances that combine with the surface
of the particles.
Anaphylactic shock – an exaggerated reaction to foreign
protein which sometimes follows parenteral injections,
stings, and the like which is frequently encountered on
administration of a second dose of a vaccine.
Anaesthetic – anything (e.g., drugs, gas, and the like) that
makes a part of or the entire individual to lose partially
or totally its sensibility.
Anthelmintic – a substance used to expel or destroy parasitic
worms especially of the intestine.
Anthelmintic resistance – a state when there is greater
frequency of individuals within a population able to
tolerate doses of a compound than in a normal population
of the same species.
Antibacterial action – similar to bactericidal action. The
process of killing or destroying bacteria, as opposed to
bacteriostatic action which is inhibiting the growth of
microorganisms.
Antibiotic – a substance produced by molds which inhibits
growth or kills bacteria.
Antibody – any of various globulins normally present or
produced in response to infection or administration of
suitable antigens or haptens. This combines specifically
with antigens (as bacteria, toxins, or foreign red blood
cells) and neutralizes toxins; agglutinate bacteria or
cells; and precipitates soluble antigens.
Antiparasitic compounds – are agents that are capable of
expelling and/or killing either internal or external
parasites or both.
xiv
Antiseptic – a substance that prevents or arrests the
growth or action of microorganisms either by inhibiting
their activity or by destroying them.
Antitoxin – an antibody formed in the body as a result of the
introduction of a toxin that stimulates its production.
This is produced for medical purposes by ingestion of
animals with gradually increased doses of a toxin or
toxoid. The resulting serum is used to counteract the
same toxin in other animals.
Attenuated vaccine – is a vaccine preparation wherein
the virulence of its microorganism contents has been
reduced, e.g., by serial passage in animals other than the
normal host species.
Avirulent – incapable of causing disease.
Bacterin – suspension of killed or attenuated bacteria
when injected into a living body stimulates the
development of immunity.
Bivalent vaccine – an immunizing agent consisting of two
strains of the same microorganism.
Booster dose – is the subsequent administration of a
vaccine at proper intervals after the first injection to
increase and/or make the protection stronger.
Broad spectrum antibiotic – an antibiotic that has a wide
range of activity against different types of
microorganisms.
Broad spectrum dewormer – a dewormer that has the
capability of destroying or killing different types of
parasites.
Carcinogenic – producing or tending to produce cancer.
Charred – burned to ashes.
Chemoprophylaxis – the prevention of infectious disease
by use of chemical agents.
Chemotherapeutic compounds – are chemical substances
that are used for the treatment of infectious disease.
Chemotherapy – the treatment of infectious disease by
use of chemical agents.
Cold compress – procedure of applying ice packs to a
particular bleeding/swollen area for a definite period of
time with a certain pressure on it.
xv
Colostrum – the milk produced during the first three to
five days after parturition. It contains high protein,
vitamins, minerals and antibodies that supply essential
immune bodies to the newly born animals.
Complete fixation – an approach usually done in cases of
fracture to temporarily immobilize particular parts of
the body to enable complete approximation of the
fractured edges.
Cut-and-carry – a method of feeding where the forage is cut
and given fresh to the confined animals.
Cytotoxic – a substance having a lethal effect on cells.
Decoction – a liquid preparation made by boiling a
medicinal plant with water.
Dehydrated – a state of deficiency in total body fluid
volume.
Diluent – an inert fluid used for reconstituting vaccines
or antibiotic powder preparations.
Disease agent – any physical, chemical, electromagnetic,
biological agent capable of causing disease.
Disinfection – a substance which inhibits or destroys
microorganisms and their spores.
Electrolytes – a substance (an acid, base or salt) which
when dissolved in a suitable solvent (as water) or when
fused becomes an ionic conductor.
Frothy bloat – a condition occurring in ruminants which is
characterized by accumulation of gas interspersed
with fluid causing foaming.
Gag – something thrust into the mouth to keep it open; a
medical device for keeping the mouth open.
Genetic potential – desired traits that are possessed by an
individual which is acquired from one or both parents.
Hemagglutination – aggregation of clumping of red
blood cells.
Hemolytic enzymes – substances that are capable of
destroying the red blood corpuscles with the concomitant
release of hemoglobin.
Hiplock – enlargement between the hips of the mother and
that of the offspring that would lead to difficult birth.
Hygiene – conditions or practices conducive to health.
xvi
Hypersensitivity – abnormal response to an antigen, drug,
or other agents, e.g., allergy.
Immunoresponsive cells – are cells of the blood and the
reticuloendothelial system capable of responding to
antigenic stimuli.
Inactivated vaccine – vaccine wherein the disease inducing
ability of its microorganism content has been destroyed.
Inflammatory cells – are cells of the body (white blood cells
and RES) that migrate to sites of tissue injury to destroy
the injurious agent and to help in the healing process.
Intermediate host – is an organism (mammals or
arthropods, insects, and the like) which serves as
biological carrier of disease inducing agents.
Intermediate host – organism that harbors the asexual or
larval stages of the parasite.
Intravenous administration – the introduction of
solutions/drugs into the circulation via the veins.
Jugular furrows – are the grooves along the ventral region
of the neck which correspond to the location of the
jugular veins.
Live vaccine – a vaccine consisting of live organisms which
multiply in the body cells and tissues and induce the
body to produce antibodies.
Macrophage – a mononuclear white blood cells or
histiocytes which phagocytize (eat up) particular
matter.
Mixed vaccine – a vaccine consisting of two or more
different organisms.
Modified vaccine – a vaccine wherein the live organism
content of an antigen that has capability to produce
disease has been altered.
Monovalent vaccine – an agent consisting of a single
strain of an organism.
Necrotic tissues – dead tissues.
Oxytocin – a substance that stimulates the contraction of
uterine muscles and the ejection of milk.
Paralumbar fossa – hunger hollow, demarcated on both
flanks by the last rib anteriorly, the lumbar transverse
processes dorsally and the point of the hip posteriorly,
making an inverted imaginary triangle.
xvii
Parasite burden – the degree/intensity of parasitism based
on the total parasitic load.
Paratenic host – organism that harbors the infective stage
of a parasite but no further development takes place
and transmits the infection to the susceptible host.
Parenteral administration – the administration of drugs
or compounds in routes other than the oral route, e.g.,
I.M. and I.V.
Peracute – sudden occurrence.
Permeability – the ability to penetrate cell membranes.
Poultice – a soft mass (pounded leaves, clay) usually heated
and spread on cloth for application to sores, inflamed
areas, or other lesions to supply moist, warmth, relieve
pain, or act as counter-irritant or antiseptic.
Reconstitution – the process of adding diluent to
dehydrated preparations, e.g., freeze dried vaccines.
Rehydration – the process of restoring body fluids lost in
dehydration.
Rumenotomy – incision into the rumen.
Sedation – inducing a relaxed easy state by use of sedatives.
Sporulated oocyst – the infective stage of coccidian
parasites which has undergone division by spore
formation.
Subcutaneous injection – the administration of drugs/
compounds just beneath the skin.
Transmissible disease – a disease that spreads from one
host to another (same or different species).
Trivalent vaccine – a vaccine containing a mixture of
three different strains/biotypes of the same organism.
Tympany – the excessive accumulation of gas in the rumen.
Vaccinates – vaccinated animals.
Vaccination – the process of administering vaccine.
Vaccine – a preparation of live/dead/inactivated/modified/
attenuated organisms designed to induce immunity to a
particular disease.
Vector – an agent (usually arthropods) capable of
transmitting a pathogen from one organism to another
either mechanically as carrier or biologically by playing
a specific role in the life cycle of the pathogen.
Virulent – capable of causing disease.
xviii
Introduction
Livestock diseases is a problem of considerable

importance to farmers. Good livestock husbandry equates
with proper animal care to obtain optimum production of
their products. As production methods become more
intensive, particularly in commercial farms, the health
status of animals becomes increasingly a primary
determinant of productivity in livestock farms.
In tropical countries like the Philippines, livestock
diseases are a major impediment to livestock production
and economic development. Tropical climate is extremely
conducive to the growth and propagation of pathogens, and
consequently the environment is rife with diseases and
their vectors. Table 1 lists the Animal Disease Situation of
2000. Among the major diseases of economic importance in
the country are Foot and Mouth Disease, Hemorrhagic
Septicemia, Hog Cholera, and Newcastle Disease. A
livestock disease with primary public health importance
is Anthrax, which is primarily confined in the mountainous
areas of northern Luzon.
Occurrence of diseases is not always caused by mere
presence of the disease agent. For example, Pasteurella
multocida is a natural inhabitant of the respiratory system
of large ruminants, but its mere presence will not cause
Pasteurellosis. Under certain stressful condition, when the
natural resistance of the animal declines, the bacteria will
overcome the natural defenses of the respiratory tract and
therefore, multiply to cause Pasteurellosis. On the other
hand, inspite of the P. multocida becoming pathogenic, if the
animal is immunized due to previous vaccination,
hemorrhagic septicemia will not occur.
The relationship between the disease agent, the
susceptible host and the environment must be fully
understood to prevent occurrence of diseases. The best
method of avoiding the devastating effects of a particular
PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 1

Table 1. Animal disease situation report, 2000.
2 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS
Disease Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total
Disease
C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D
A. coccidiosis 19946 206 4133 174 53 12 87 7 1181 33 35 4 4315 165 2100 0 15 5 0 0 16050 0 300 0 48215 606
A. malaria 4012 0 6 0 14 0 5150 0 3500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 23000 0 0 0 35683 0
Anthrax 0 0 9 9 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 13
Blackleg 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2
Coryza 15421 110 2224 780 675 68 3406 307 4219 89 231 50 1434 179 7 0 39 5 0 0 0 0 10025 0 37681 1588
CRD 17461 314 4334 1211 1573 150 2007 45 1473 51 748 137 2665 474 558 1 0 0 0 0 20171 0 20400 0 71390 2383
E. fever 0 0 4 0 13 0 5 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 34 0
FMD 602 62 975 96 384 69 50 0 551 81 348 26 376 98 239 32 122 12 154 13 96 43 348 61 4245 593
F. Cholera 565 330 1373 707 173 31 8 11 285 3 35 1 1157 577 0 0 1 0 0 0 100 0 200 0 3897 1660
F. pox 25825 747 5202 5030 313 178 374 27 314 116 593 237 10271 7016 0 0 59 5 20 6 200 0 0 0 43171 13362
FOR
HC 188 111 256 48 97 89 209 156 277 206 556 45 306 93 67 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 1966 748
Hemosept 427 34 500 91 217 28 215 15 177 5 70 1 146 11 0 0 8 2 0 0 16 0 8 0 1784 187
Liverfluke 1520 38 1954 29 2498 13 781 17 401 4 860 2 2250 0 68 1 17 0 0 0 97 0 40 0 10486 104
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
NCD 35167 29026 10751 5379 113 58 260 128 156 34 0 0 14173 5147 0 0 22 8 0 0 50 0 12 10 60704 39790
Orf 46 4 23 1 42 0 24 5 12 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 157 10
S. erysipelas 170 20 66 11 51 2 15 1 16 2 5 0 35 2 0 0 1 0 7 0 14 0 2 0 382 38
S. Flu 418 30 702 55 1040 76 728 112 395 171 741 71 51 2 9 0 43 9 0 0 62 0 4 0 4193 526
S. Plague 154 10 141 6 44 2 110 4 38 17 24 11 252 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 43 0 0 0 806 75
Surra 73 0 22 0 41 2 34 9 24 0 8 2 20 6 8 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 20 0 259 19
Orf 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0
Grand Total 121995 31042 32675 13627 7343 780 13466 847 13031 812 4259 587 37452 13796 3056 34 337 46 181 19 59918 43 31364 71 325077 61704
Source: BAI-DA.
c - case; d - death
disease is still adopting measures for its eradication, similar
to the measures undertaken in eradicating rinderpest from
the country in the 50s. But for diseases that have not been
eradicated yet, we need to implement measures to prevent
its occurrence or at least reduce its devastating effects.
Among the measures needed to be undertaken to prevent
diseases is to keep susceptible animals in a safe place to
prevent contact with infectious agents. Keeping farms away
from crowded areas is one way to reduce the risk of
contamination. Proper sanitation and disinfection of all
vehicles and possible mechanical carriers will also reduce
disease transmission.
Since livestock are predominantly exposed to possible
disease-causing agents and their vectors, herd immunization
via vaccination must be practiced regularly to prevent
occurrence of diseases. Other measures include controlling
the population of vectors and intermediate hosts, through
the use of chemicals, drugs, and biologicals in the disinfection
of surroundings and handling of clinical cases.
This publication was made to assist farmers on the
proper management of animal health. The integration of
animal health care with proper management practices,
hopefully, will reduce the incidence of animal health
problems that adversely affect the productivity and efficiency
of the country’s livestock and poultry stocks.

Hygiene and Sanitation Program
One of the veterinary medical interventions designed

to promote animal health is hygiene and sanitation program.
If implemented properly, it will prevent or at least minimize
contact between disease agents and the animal and will
result to disease-free or healthy animals.
Under the traditional village, smallholder or backyard
system of raising animals, farmers are not commonly
responsive to recommended sanitation and hygiene
programs. This is due to the nature of the husbandry system
where the livestock raised are not confined in suitable
housing. For example, chickens in the barangays are
allowed to roam around during the day scavenging for food
in the neighbor’s backyard or in open fields. They return
home in the evening to roost under the farmer’s fruit trees,
or in a makeshift sheltered area in the backyard, or under
the farmer’s house. Chickens are confined only when
fattened. They are placed in basket cages for fattening in
time for a special family occasion, or for the mother hens to
sit on their eggs to hatch.
The farmer’s carabaos, cattle, goats and pigs on the other
hand are more confined than his chickens. They are being
tethered nearly all the time whether at “home” or in the
grazing areas. The animal's “home”, however is most likely
a place under a mango or tamarind tree. Some animals are
luckier because they are tethered in a makeshift shelter
covered with thatched cogon or coconut leaves. These
conditions require extra effort from the farmer or his family
to keep the area clean.
But more and more chickens and livestock raised in the
backyard are being confined. In chickens, this is seen in
broilers being raised in housing with elevated slatted
floors. Pigs too are being raised in houses with concrete
floors and dairy carabaos and cows are confined in sheds
during the night. Thus, some basic sanitary and hygienic
4 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE

measures are practiced in the rural villages to a certain
degree. These measures should be promoted as routine
procedures aimed at minimizing the contact of the animals
with agents of infectious diseases or the carriers/sources of
these agents.
Hygienic Measures to Prevent the Entry

of Disease Agents
The entry of disease agents to disease-free or healthy

animals should be prevented. This can be done by
practicing biosecurity measures like quarantine and
isolation of diseased animals. Foremost in the list of
quarantine measures is the strict selection of animals
free from disease before they are added to the existing
animals. Healthy animals will not show the usual
symptoms of disease like fever, inappetence, coughing,
sneezing, diarrhea, constipation, rapid breathing or
thumping, recumbency, poor condition, rough hair coat,
runting, abortion, infertility, etc.
The provision of confinement housing with perimeter
fence will prevent possible contact with sick animals in
the neighborhood especially if this is located away from
other livestock and people. However, in backyard farms
where the distance to the next farm is not considerable,
entry of infection by air, dust, birds, rodents, pets, and
objects may not be prevented.
People can also introduce infection to healthy
animals. Microbes can attach themselves to various parts
of the body including the nostrils and be carried to the
animals. This is why hygienic procedures such as
shower-in/shower-out, change of clothes and foot wear,
foot bath and hand wash are adopted to prevent the entry of
infection.
Equipment and supplies, which are needed in the
farm, are sterilized by using fumigation usually with
formaldehyde-potassium permanganate or disinfectant
spray.

Hygienic Measures to Minimize the Occurrence
of Disease Problems
In cases where a disease is already present, hygienic

measures can minimize the occurrence of disease by
reducing the number of animals getting sick (morbidity
rate) and the number of animals dying from the disease
(mortality rate).
z Whenever possible, confine animals in suitable

housing.
1. Confine poultry and pigs raised in the backyard.

Raise chickens in cages (Fig. 1) and pigs in pens
with concrete floor (Fig. 2) for sanitary and
hygienic reasons. Ample feeding, drinking, and
resting spaces should be provided.
2. Clean the house and disinfect between batches.
This practice is also known as All-in/All-out method.
Remove immediately the manure after vacating
the house. Brush clean the floors, walls, waterers,
and feeders with soap and water. Soak them in
soapsuds for half an hour. Brush clean to remove all
dirt and organic matter and then rinse them
thoroughly with water. If possible, dry the waterers
and feeders in the sun to take advantage of its
disinfecting property. Disinfect also the house and
premises. Rest and vacate the house from at least
two days to two weeks before putting in the next
batch of animals.
3. Well-drained holding area. As much as possible,
the night shed or holding area (Fig. 3) for cattle and
carabaos should be in an elevated, well-drained area.
This minimizes soggy condition of the soil, thus,
helps prevent foot rot.

Fig. 1. Suitable cage/pen for chicken.
Fig. 2. Suitable shed/pen for pigs.
Fig. 3. Recommended night shed or holding area for cattle

and carabaos.

z Regular removal and proper disposal of manure, litters
and garbage. Clean the animal’s area and the immediate
vicinity regularly. This prevents the build up of maggots
and fly population, which are carriers of infectious
disease. Flies and maggots also cause direct injury to the
animal. Removal of manure regularly also prevents
soggy or wet condition of the soil which is conducive to
foot rot in cattle and carabaos. The best and most practical
method to dispose organic wastes and garbage is
composting.
z Proper disposal of dead animals. Animals that died of an

infectious disease are potent sources of disease agents.
Dispose them properly to prevent spreading the disease.
Bury the animal together with the contaminated litters
and manure at least 6 ft under the ground with 1 m of soil
and rocks as top cover. If available, pour strong creoline
solution over the cadaver and on the burial area. Use
lime if creoline solution is not available. If possible, put
stones or heavy objects on the burial site to prevent the
dogs from digging it. In specific situations where
burning of the cadaver becomes necessary, completely
char it to ashes.
z Check the drinking water supply. Water should be

potable and not contaminated with pathogenic
microorganisms and infective materials like manure
and vectors of infection. Cattle, carabaos, goats, and
sheep should drink clean water from sanitary wells and
whenever necessary from rivers and streams with clean,
flowing water and not from ponds and pools of stationary
water.
z Quarantine of premises during outbreaks of diseases.

Confine sick animals to avoid contact with healthy
animals. This minimizes the possibility of spreading the
disease.
z Regular grooming of animals. Cattle, carabaos, goat, and

sheep should be groomed regularly to remove dirt and

unnecessary hairs, and to stimulate the skin's oil
glands. Grooming also provides an opportunity for the
farmer to examine more closely the condition of his
animal, e.g., examination of lice and tick infestation.
Examine also the teeth to check for any abnormalities.
Bad condition of the teeth and gums can cause poor
appetite.
Recommended Procedures in Disinfection
1. Remove all loose dirt, litter, and other organic materials

from the area to be disinfected. Use hot water containing
detergent or soap. Scrub the dirt, if practical. High
pressured water is recommended in areas where
scrubbing is not possible.
2. Use the recommended disinfectant as prescribed by the
manufacturers. Use it warm, if possible.
3. Apply the disinfectant thoroughly. Special attention
should be given to the feeding troughs, drainage, and
waste containers.
4. Allow the disinfectant time to act. All residues of the
disinfectant should be rinsed thoroughly before
repopulating the area/pen.
5. Heat is the most reliable disinfectant. Where practical,
all contaminated materials should be burned. Using
boiling water is also effective.
Chemical Compounds Used in Disinfection
Properties of an Ideal Disinfectant
An ideal disinfectant must:
z have a broad antimicrobial activity;

z have high stability and permeability;
z have low toxicity to the animal;
z not irritate the skin and free from corrosive
property and offensive odor;

z not cause pollution and disturb the ecology of the
environment;
z not interfere with normal healing process, and must
act in the presence of pus and necrotic tissues; and
z be readily available at reasonable cost.
Chemical compounds used in disinfection are given in

Tables 2 and 3.
Table 2. Examples of various types of chemical compounds

used in disinfection.
Acids(Inorganic Coal-tar Derivatives

and Organic) phenol (carbolic acid)
hydrochloric acid cresol
nitric acid phenol bismuth
sulfuric acid phenol diiodide
phosphoric acid para-nitrophenol
acetic acid
carbolic acid Halogens
benzoic acid bromide
boric acid chlorine
fluorine
Alcohols iodine
methyl alcohol
ethyl alcohol Oxidizing Agents
propyl alcohol chlorine
isopropyl alcohol oxygen
benzyl alcohol ozone
amyl alcohol perchloric acid
sodium bromate
Aldehydes sodium permanganate
acetic aldehyde sodium peroxide
formaldehyde
glyceric aldehyde Reducing Agents
methoxy benzyl aldehyde carbon dioxide
isovaleric aldehyde hydrogen
carbon monoxide
Alkalines ethylene oxide
calcium hydroxide salicylic acid
sodium hydroxide
potassium hydroxide

Table 2. (Continued).
trisodium phosphate Surface-active Agents

sodium bisulfate anionics (true soaps,
sodium nitrite synthetic soaps
sodium sulfonate sulfonates)
sodium borate cationics (quaternary
sodium carbonate ammonium germicides)
nonionics (alkylated aryl
Aromatic oils polyether alcohol)
camphor polyethylene, derivative
peppermint of sorbitan mono-oleate
pine
cinnamon
eucalyptus
Source: PR for Animal Health Care, 1988.

Table 3. Classification of chemical compounds used in disinfection.
Approximate
Agent Concentration Used (%) Mode of Action Use
Alcohols 50-70 denaturation of proteins; as skin disinfectants; to form

interference with tinctures of antiseptics (used
metabolism: lysis with acetone)
(dissolving of organism)
Cationic, surface-active 0.10-0.25 denaturation of proteins; as skin disinfectants and
quaternary ammonium inactivation of cellular antiseptics; in mechanical
compounds metabolites; dissolving removal of foreign matter from
FOR
of cell wall wounds; in sanitazing eating

and drinking utensils, food
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
processing equipment
Bisphenols (2 phenols 2-5 inhibition of cell growth as surgical scrubs (used with
linked together) soaps and detergents); as
deodorants
Chlorine gas and chloride 0.0000002-0.000002 liberation of cell constituents in chlorination of water supplies;
compounds with as food/plant sanitizer; in
available chlorine treating wounds and hospital
equipment
Iodine and iodized 2-16 precipitation of cell protein in ointment and serves as skin
compounds antiseptics; in surgical
instrument disinfection
Aldehydes 1-5 general microorganism poison in disinfection of dwellings, ships,
storage houses, utensils,
clothing; as fungicide for
plants, in hospital-instrument
sterilization
Approximate
Agent Concentration Used (%) Mode of Action Use
Oligodynamic metals (silver, traces cell membrane destruction; as disinfectants, in ointments

PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS
copper, mercury) coagulation of cell materials and salves in cement (e.g.,

in shower rooms)
Acids 0.1-5.0 precipitation of cell proteins; as skin antiseptics (salicylic
destruction of cell wall benzoic acids); in food
preservatives (benzoic acids);
in destruction of bacteria and
viruses (inorganic acids)
Coal-tar derivatives 0.1-5.0 cytoplasmic poisons; disruption as skin antiseptics in dilute
of cell wall; precipitation solutions; as floor and wall
of proteins; inactivation of disinfectants, combined with
enzymes soaps; as surgical instrument
FOR
sterilizers
Salicylanilides and 0.1-5.0 catalyze oxidation of cell; as skin antiseptics in soaps
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 13
carbanilides (similar bind cell proteins; inhibit and cosmetics; in surgical

to bisphenols; combine cell growth and bath soaps and laundry
with salicyclic acid and detergents
aniline
Aromatic oils (especially 0.1-5.0 effect on cell constituents; as disinfectants with soaps for
pine oil) mechanical effect inhibits washing floors and walls; to
cell growth mask unpleasant odors; as a
deodorant on inanimate
surfaces.

Regular Vaccination Program
Vaccination involves exposing an animal to an antigen

derived from an infectious agent so that an immune response
is stimulated and the animal acquire resistance to that
infectious agent before natural infection occurs. Several
criteria must be considered to determine whether vaccination
is either possible or desirable in controlling a specific
disease. The first is the absolute identification of the causal
agent. Second, it must be established that an immune
response can actually protect against the disease in question.
Thus, the decision to use vaccines for the control of any
disease must be based not only on the severity of the
problem, but also on the prospects for its control by other
techniques such as removing or reducing the effects of risk
factors.
A regular vaccination program at least against
economically significant diseases prevalent in a particular
community is therefore recommended. This should be
instituted in individual smallholder livestock production
systems. The program is particularly important in viral
diseases, where effective, safe, and affordable drugs for
prevention and treatment are not yet available, unlike
bacterial and parasitic diseases, where drug prophylaxis
(prevention) and therapy (treatment) are generally accepted
routine procedures.
Technical Basis of Vaccination
Classic vaccines can be divided into two groups according

to the status of the organism or bioactive agent included as
the antigen - live or killed (inactivated). The term “killed”
is used when bacterial vaccines are discussed, whereas the
term “inactivated” is used for vaccines used against viruses
or toxins.

There are relative advantages and disadvantages of
live and killed vaccines. Two of the prerequisites of an
ideal vaccine, high antigenecity and the absence of adverse
side effects, tend to be mutually incompatible. Vaccines
containing viable infectious agents stimulate the best
immune response but have the potential to produce disease
because of residual virulence, whereas the antigens in
killed vaccines may be relatively poor immunogens but
are usually much safer.
The advantages of live vaccines include the following:
strong and long-lasting immunity; few inoculating doses
required; convenient as they can be given by nonparenteral
routes (e.g., intranasal); adjuvants are unnecessary; less
chance of hypersensitivity; and viral vaccines may
stimulate interferon production.
The advantages of killed vaccines are that they are
unlikely to cause diseases because of residual virulence or
reversion, and storage stability.
Animals may be rendered immune to an infectious
disease by passive or active immunization. Passive
immunization provides temporary resistance by
transferring antibodies from an animal that possesses them
from a natural infection or vaccination to an animal that
does not. The transfer of colostral immunoglobulins is an
example. The pregnant animal develops an immune
response to these antigens and produces antibodies that
are concentrated in the colostrum and subsequently
transferred to its offspring. Active immunization is the
result of natural infection or vaccination, which involves
the administration of an antigen to an animal so that it
responds by developing a protective immune response
that may be antibody- or cell-mediated, or both.
Reimmunization or exposure to infection results in a
secondary immune response. Protection is not developed
immediately but usually requires several days or a few
weeks; however, once established, it is long-lasting and
capable of restimulation.

Vaccine Efficacy
What is vaccine efficacy? Efficacy could mean prevention

of the disease in question, or control at an economic level. It
could also mean that the vaccine is economical to use,
because vaccinated animals may be more profitable than
unvaccinated animals. Vaccine must be safe and capable of
eliciting a protective response in the targeted host. This
could mean protection from clinical disease or protection
from infection by the pathogen. A criterion for protective
efficacy must be established for each disease for which a
vaccine is to be developed.
Protection means that the vaccine constituents elicit
reaction to the immune system to produce enough antibodies
that will combat the disease agent in case the animal is
exposed. Protective immunity can be established only by
challenge of the vaccinated host for which the vaccine is
intended with the respective pathogen under conditions
resembling those of natural infection.
Vaccination schedules for common diseases of livestock
and poultry are presented in Table 4. The different injection
types are listed in Table 5 while Figures 4 and 5 illustrate
the intramuscular and subcutaneous injection sites. It is
recommended that vaccination programs should be specific
for a given locality or project. Vaccination against all common
diseases may not be economically advisable in a particular
setting. Also, in an area, there may be only one or two
common diseases. With the help of a knowledgeable and
experienced livestock and poultry specialist, the disease
profile should be ascertained first before a vaccination
program is institutionalized.

Table 4. Schedules for vaccination against common diseases of livestock and poultry.
Causative Vaccine Route of Subsequent

Diseases Agent Types Administration 1st Dose 2nd Dose Dose Remarks
Cattle and Carabao

Foot and Aphthovirus Inactivated IM 2-3 months 4-5 months Every six In FMD affected
mouth types in alum months areas
disease A, O, C Phil. hydroxide
Hemor- Pasteurella Bacterin IM 2-3 months 6-8 months Annually -
rhagic multocida
septicemia
Anthrax Bacillus Spore vaccine IM 4-6 months - Annually In anthrax
anthracis zones
Blackleg/ Clostridium Mixed bacterin IM 4-6 months - Annually In blackleg
malignant chauvei/ zones
edema septicum
FOR
Tetanus Clostridium Tetanus IM - - - Preventive

tetani toxoid during open
castrations
Sheep and Goat
Foot and Aphthovirus Inactivated IM 2 months 4-5 months Every six In FMD affected
mouth types in alum months areas
disease A, O, C Phil. hydroxide
Hemor- Pasteurella Bacterin IM 2months 4 months Annually -
rhagic multocida
septicemia

Anthrax Bacillus Spore IM 4 months - Annually In anthrax

anthracis vaccine zones
Swine
Foot and Aphthovirus Inactivated IM 1-2 months 3-4 months Semi- In FMD affected
mouth in oil annually areas
disease emulsion in case of
FOR
breeders
and replace-
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
ment stock
Hog cholera Pestivirus Modified live IM 1-2 months 2-4 months Annually for Do not vaccinate
breeders pregnant
before animals
weaning
time
Pseudorabies Porcine herpes Inactivated in IM 2-3 weeks 3-4 months Annually for Vaccine supply
virus alum hydroxide breeders is presently
or in oil before regulated by
emulsion weaning the BAI-DA
time
Transmissible Coronavirus Inactivated in IM 4-5 months 6-7 months 3 weeks For breeders
gastro- alum hydroxide before and replace-
enteritis every ment gilts
farrowing only. Modified
live also
available

Parvovirus Porcine Inactivated in IM 4-5 months 6-7 months 3 weeks For breeders
infection parvovirus alum hydroxide before and replace-
or in oil every ment gilts

emulsion farrowing only
Piglet scours Escherichia Bacterin IM 4-5 weeks 1-2 weeks 2-3 weeks For breeders
coli before before before only
farrowing farrowing every
subsequent
farrowing
Salmonellosis Salmonella Bacterin usually IM 2-4 weeks 3-4 months - For fattening
cholerasuis mixed with after stock, 3rd dose
E. coli and weaning may be
Pasteurella sp. optional
FOR
depending on
severity of
enzootic
infections
Pasteurellosis Pasteurella Bacterin IM 2-4 weeks 3-4 months - Repeat dose
multocida usually mixed after before
with E. coli and weaning breeding if
Pasteurella sp. necessary
Leptospirosis Leptospira sp. Polyvalent IM 1 week 3-4 months - Semiannual
bacterin before booster doses
weaning in breeders
Mycoplasma Mycoplasma Inactivated in IM 2 weeks 2-3 weeks later - Semiannual
pneumonia hyopneu- alum hydroxide or older booster doses
or enzootic moniae in breeders
pneumonia

Poultry
Marek’s Herpesvirus Live avirulent SC Day old - - Single dose only

disease Turkey herpes Bivalent types
virus available
Newcastle Paramyxovirus Live mild and Drinking 1st-2nd week 3rd-5th week Before start Boosted when
disease inactivated in water, with live of lay (in egg production
oil emulsion eye drop vaccines layers, and decreases to
FOR
or spray breeders) below 30%

with
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
inactivated
vaccine
Gumboro Birnavirus Live mild and Drinking 1st week 3rd-5th week Before start Delay 1st and
disease inactivated in water with live of lay (in 2nd dose in
oil emulsion vaccine layers and birds with high
breeders) maternal
with immunity
inactivated
vaccine
Infectious Coronavirus Mild live Drinking 1st-2nd week 3rd-5th week Before start Vaccine is also
bronchitis monovalent water with live of lay (in incorporated
or bivalent or spray vaccine layers and in NCD
breeders) vaccines, e.g.,
with NCD-IB
inactivated vaccine
vaccine

Avian Picornavirus Modified Drinking 1st-2nd week 3rd-5th week - Cull infected
encephalo- live water layers,
myelitis breeders
Egg drop Adenovirus Inactivated Spray or 12-14 weeks 18-20 weeks - -
syndrome in oil eyedrop
emulsion
Viral Reovirus Modified Spray or 1-2 weeks 3-4 weeks Before start -
arthritis live and eyedrop with live with live of lay (in
(leg weak- inactivated vaccine vaccine layers and
ness/mal- in oil breeders)
absorption emulsion with
syndrome) inactivated
vaccine
FOR
Infectious Fowl herpes Modified Spray or 2-3 weeks 5-6 weeks - -

laryngotra- virus live eyedrop
cheitis
Fowl pox Avian pox Modified Wing web - - - -
virus live chicken stab
pox virus or
pigeon pox
virus
Fowl cholera Pasteurella Killed IM 8-10 weeks 12 weeks - -
multocida bacterin

Chronic Mycoplasma Live and Spray or SC 1-6 weeks 4 weeks Before start Do not medicate
respiratory gallisepticum inactivated later of lay (in chicken with
disease or in oil layers and antibacterial
air sac emulsion breeders) drugs 5 days
syndrome with before or
inactivated after
vaccine vaccination
FOR
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
Table 5. Injection types for cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, and pig.
Type of Injection Placement Placement Tips
Intramuscular (IM) Into the muscle z Use a spot on the neck behind
and below the ear.
z Use proper needle size to
ensure medication is deposited
in the muscle.
Subcutaneous (SQ) Under the skin z Inject only into clean, dry
areas.
z Use the loose flaps of skin in
the flank of young animals.
z Use the loose skin behind the
ear of adults.
z Slide needle under the skin
away from the site of skin
puncture before depositing the
compound.
Intravenous (IV) In the vein z Use only upon veterinary
instruction and guidance
because serious injury to the
animal can occur.
Fig. 4. Intramuscular injection

for pigs.
Fig. 5. Subcutaneous injection

for piglets.

Features of an Excellent Vaccine
The quality of vaccines should not be compromised

for a cheaper price.
The following are important considerations in the
choice of an ideal vaccine:
1. Highly immunogenic
z Affords protection of at least 95% of vaccinates

z Stimulates adequate levels of antibodies detectable
by available assay procedures and can be
differentiated from antibodies to field isolates.
z Stimulates both the humoral and cellular immune
responses.
2. Safety features
z Does not produce disease in vaccinates

z Does not spread infection to unvaccinated animals
z Does not induce the carrier state in vaccinates
z Does not revert to virulent state
z Does not contain contaminants (other viruses and
bacteria)
z Does not cause toxic reactions
z Does not cause disease in man
z Does not cause allergic reactions in vaccinates
3. Stable in storage at ambient temperatures.

4. Cheap
Guidelines for Vaccination/Use of Vaccines
Vaccines are perishable products. Extra care and

precautions are necessary in their proper use.
The following guidelines should be observed at all time:
1. Vaccinate only healthy animals. Defer vaccination of

sick ones until they fully recover.

2. Do not vaccinate during very hot or wet weather.
3. Avoid stress on the animal during vaccination. In stressed
animals, wait until they are relaxed/calm.
4. Do not buy or use expired vaccines and those with
broken seals. Always check expiration dates and read
label instructions. Check contents for any signs of
damage like discoloration, moldy growth, and the like.
5. Store vaccines (“live” or “killed”) in the refrigerator or at
cold temperature (20-60C).
6. Transport vaccines in ice chest or covered plastic/
styrofoam containers packed with ice. Do not place
vaccines in your pockets.
7. In transporting vaccines, place them in a plastic bag with
cracked/cubed ice. Preferably, place the bag in a bigger
bag packed with cracked/cubed ice and put the bag in a
covered plastic container or any appropriate container.
8. Prepare sterilized syringes and needles in advance.
Sterilize them only by boiling for at least 15 minutes.
Do not use chemical disinfectants.
9. Clean and wipe dry the surface of the rubber stopper of
vaccine vials/bottles with sterile absorbent cotton
before inserting needles.
10. Use only approved diluents for vaccines. Preferably use
the one that comes with the vaccine. Mix diluent with
vaccine only when ready for use. Avoid more than one-
hour interval from mixing to actual use of the vaccine.
11. Dispose and burn vaccine containers and unused portions
unless it will be used within an hour from time of
reconstitution. In case of bacterins, unused portions of
big quantities may be stored for a few days provided
aseptic precautions have been followed when
withdrawing the amount used.
12. Be ready against allergic reactions. Always have
available epinephrine preparation ready for use within
2-3 minutes in case of anaphylactic shock. Record and
report to immediate veterinary supervisor any
untoward reactions of the vaccinates to vaccine.

Regular Parasite Control
Program
Parasitism is the most commonly encountered disease in

the rural areas and is generally believed by smallhold
farmers to be the most important health problem. The
tropical climate of the Philippines offers a haven for several
species of parasites. The distribution of rainfall and the
humid environment in a more or less defined period is
conducive for the growth, multiplication, and perpetuation
of parasites in the animals. Moreover, a wide range of
possible intermediate or paratenic hosts coexists with animal
parasites that permit the continuity of the parasite’s life
cycle.
The conventional method of raising animals in the
countryside where goats, cattle, and carabaos are tethered
in a common grazing area allows seeding of pasture with
parasite eggs and eventual direct infection of the animals
through the soil, grass, or arthropods that may carry the
infective stage of the parasite. Likewise, chickens are let
loose in the backyard to find their own food which render
them susceptible to a number of parasite species that may be
acquired through infected terrestrial or amphibious
organisms.
Economic losses from parasite burdens may be
attributed to decrement in terms of body weight, milk,
condemnation of organs or whole carcass, feed conversion
efficiency, reproductive performance, and body resistance
to other infections. It has been estimated that at least 10%
of the total value of livestock is lost annually because of
parasitism.
The upgrading of the indigenous breeds of animals in the
country in an attempt to improve animal performance has
resulted to an increased susceptibility to parasite diseases.
Native breeds are generally observed to have natural
resistance to the effects of parasites.

Parasite control programs should therefore be a part of
any smallholder or semi-commercial farm operation to
significantly reduce the economic losses due to parasitism.
This will also improve the productivity and efficiency of
the animals.
Technical Basis of Parasite Control Program
Types of Parasites and their Effects on the Host
Parasites are broadly categorized based on their

location, namely:
1. Ectoparasites – these are parasites found on the

external surfaces of the body (e.g., skin and hairs)
like lice, ticks, mites, and flies (Figs. 6-10)
2. Endoparasites – these are parasites which
inhabit the internal body organs, e.g., lungworms,
liverflukes, kidney worms, and intestinal worms
(Figs. 11-19)
Modes of Parasite Transmission
Parasite infection in animals may develop in several

ways. When the infective stage of the parasite finds
its way to the body of the animal by ingestion or other
means, without the involvement of another organism,
the transmission is said to be mechanical. This mode of
transmission applies to parasites with a direct life
cycle (Figs. 20-23). On the other hand, establishment
of parasites in the susceptible host through an
organism where the infective stage of the parasite
develops is a biological type of transmission. Parasites
with indirect life cycles follow this manner of
transmission (Fig. 24).

Common Arthropods of Ruminants
Fig. 6. Tabanus sp. (breeze Fig. 7. Boophilus microplus

fly). (tropical cattle tick).
Fig. 8. Damalinia limbata

(biting louse).
Common Parasites of Poultry
Fig. 9. Ornithonyssus bursa Fig. 10. Goniodes sp. (large

(tropical fowl mite). body louse).

Fig. 11. Ascaridia galli Fig. 12. Raillietina sp.
(large roundworms). (tapeworm of
poultry).
Common Helminths of Ruminants
Fig. 13. Moniezia sp. Fig. 14. Toxocara vitulorum

(tapeworm). (common round-
worm).
Fig. 15. Amphistomes. Fig. 16. Fasciola sp. (liver

fluke).

Common Helminths of Swine
Fig. 17. Ascaris suis (large Fig. 18. Stephanurus

roundworm). dentatus (kidney
worm).
Fig. 19. Trichuris suis

(whipworm).

Adult develops in the
intestine/ab omasum
and la ys eggs
Infective s tage
ingeste d b y animals
from herbage
Eggs passed o ut
with the feces
L3 L2 L1
De velopme nt of larva on pasture
Fig. 20. Life cycle of trichostrongyles.
The majority of the larvae migrate to various tissues/

organs. During pregnancy, they also migrate to the
uterus and infect the fetus via the fetal circulation.
Some larvae find their way to the mammary gland thru
the blood.
Infective egg
re-infest the mother
Larvae may pass out with milk

or colostrum and infect the calf
Infective eggs
are ingested by calf
Larvae in Adults lay eggs

small intestine which pass out
with the feces
Manure
contaminated
with eggs
Infective larva develops

in the eggs
Fig. 21. Life cycle of Toxocara vitulorum in cattle and carabao.

Adult worms inhabit
the small intestine
Host ingests
embryonated eggs
thru feed and water
Larva develops
inside egg
(embryonated eggs)
Eggs passed
with feces
1. Larvae released in small intestine and penetrate wall

2. Larvae reach liver thru the peritoneal cavity
3. Larvae reach lungs from liver via blood circulation
4. Larvae in lungs migrate to the bronchial tree to the trachea to
the pharynx - swallowed and mature in the small instestine.
Fig. 22. Life cycle of Ascaris suis.

Oocyst found and released in the caecal lumen
Oocyst passed
with feces
Host ingests
sporulated oocyst
Excystation
Sporulate on
(sporozoites released) the outside
(with
sporozoites)
Released
as oocyst
Macrogamate
Schizont
Zygote
Microgamate
Merozoites released and infest other
uninfected cells and process is repeated
Sperm released to
fertilize macrogamate
Fig. 23. Life cycle of coccidia (Eimeria tenella) in chicken.

Metacercariae mature
into adult flukes in the
liver Adults lay eggs
which are
excreted into the
Animal ingests intestine and
metacercariae thru pass out with the
contaminated water feces
or grasses
Adult flukes in
bile ducts of In water
liver miracidium
develops in
eggs
Cercariae encyst on
grasses, water or settle
in the bottom as
metacercariae
Mature cercariae
emerge from snail
Miracidum hatches
and enters the snail
and further develops
and multiplies
Many cercariae are formed

from a single miracidium
Sporocyst
Redia
Fig. 24. Life cycle of common liver fluke.

The following are possible ways by which parasite
infections could be acquired:
1. ingestion of infective stage through food and water

2. ingestion of infective stage through arthropods (e.g.,
grasshopper, cockroaches, mites, beetles, ants, and
dragonflies)
3. ingestion of infective stage through snails, slugs, and
earthworms
4. inoculation of infective stage through bites of
arthropods (e.g., tick and flies)
5. penetration of the infective stage through the skin
6. ingestion of infective larvae through the milk
7. transplacental transmission
Most common parasites affecting domestic animals and

their mode of transmission are listed in Tables 6 and 7.
Mixed or multiple infection where individual animal
harbors two or more parasite species is common. Under
Philippine conditions, it is rare to find just one species of
gastrointestinal nematodes in one animal, like in goats,
where there is an unlimited access to a variety of worm
species on pasture.
The farming system in the rural areas is also contributory
to the transmission of parasite diseases. Improper housing,
grazing management, and stock movement are some of the
factors that favor the high parasitic load of animals.
Depending on factors such as host animal species, number
and location of parasites, the movement and virulence of the
parasite, the age, and nutritional status as well as the
immunity of the host, parasites cause damage to the host by
the following means resulting in decreased productivity
and profitability.
1. By absorbing part of the digested nutrient of the

host, e.g., roundworms and tapeworms
2. By sucking blood or lymph, e.g., hookworms and
trichostrongyles in the intestines of ruminants
3. By feeding on the tissues of the host, e.g., maggots of
blowflies

Table 6. Common ectoparasites affecting livestock and poultry and the diseases associated with them.
Scientific Name Common Name Disease/ Condition Caused Disease Transmitted
Cattle and Carabao Ectoparasites
Tick
Boophilus microplus Tropical cattle tick Tick worry; development Babesiosis, Anaplasmosis
of wounds
Lice
Hematopinus quadripertusus Sucking louse Unthriftiness; itching
Hematopinus tuberculatus Sucking louse
FOR
Solenopotes sp. Sucking louse

Linognathus vituli Long-nosed cattle louse
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
Bovicola bovis Biting louse
Mites
Sarcoptes scabiei Mange mite Cattle scab, mange or itch,
Psoroptes communis Mange mite anemia
Chorioptes bovis Mange mite
Demodex bovis Mange mite
Biting / Blood Sucking Flies

Tabanus reduscens Breezefly Fly worry; predisposes to Surra, Anaplasmosis
Tabanus striatus Breezefly myiasis or secondary
Lyperosia exigua Hornfly bacterial infection
Stomoxys calcitrans Stablefly
Simulium sp. Blackfly, Buffalo gnat Onchocerca sp.
Culex sp. Mosquito
Myiasis Flies
Chrysomyia bezziana Screw worm fly Myiasis
Booponus intonsus Philippine foot maggot fly
Calliphora sp. Blue bottle fly
Lucilia sp. Green bottle fly
Sarcophaga sp. Flesh fly
Sheep and Goat Ectoparasites
Ticks
Boophilus microplus Tropical cattle tick Tick worry
Lice
Damalinia limbata Biting louse Unthriftiness; poor coat
Damalinia caprae Biting louse
Linognathus africanus Sucking louse
FOR
Mites
Psoroptes communis Mange mite Mange or Scabies
var caprae
Psorochorioptes sp. Mange mite
Thrombidid sp. -
Sarcoptes scabiei var caprae Mange mite
Swine Ectoparasites
Lice
Haematopinus suis Sucking louse Unthriftiness; poor body coat
Scientific Name Common Name Disease/ Condition Caused Disease Transmitted
Tick
Haemaphysalis sp.
Mites
Sarcoptes scabiei var suis Mange mite Mange; crusts and excoriations
in hairless areas of the body
Biting / Blood Sucking Flies
Culex sp. Mosquitoes Fly worry; irritation, wounds
FOR
Anopheles sp. Mosquitoes

Stomoxys calcitrans Stablefly
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
Culicoides sp. Biting midges, Punkies

or no-see-um
Simulium sp. Blackfly, Buffalo gnat
Poultry Ectoparasites
Lice
Menopon gallinae Shaft louse Ruffled feathers and scab
Menacanthus stramineus Body louse formation; poor weight gain
Lipeurus caponis Wing /Slender louse
Goniodes dissimilis Brown louse
Goniodes gigas Large chicken louse
Goniocotes gallinae Fluff louse
Oxylipeurus dentatus -
Flies
Culicoides sp. Biting midges, Punkies Leucocytozoonosis; mechanical
Simulium sp. Blackfly, buffalo gnat transmission of coccidian
Phlebotomus sp. Sandfly oocysts
Musca domestica Common housefly mosquito
Culex sp. Mosquito Avian malaria
Anopheles sp.
Mites
Pterolichus obtusus Feather mite Denudation of back and
Megninia cubitalis Feather mite tail due to feather pecking
Ornithonyssus bursa Tropical fowl mite
Cnemidocoptes mutans Scaly leg mite
FOR
Table 7. Common endoparasites affecting livestock and poultry and the diseases associated with them.
Disease and/or
Outstanding Intermediate Mode of
Scientific Name Common Name Clinical Signs Hosts/Vector Infection
Cattle and Carabao Endoparasites
Nematodes
Mecistocirrus digitatus Stomach worm Anemia; jaw edema; - Ingestion of grasses
Haemonchus contortus Barber’s pole worm, stunted growth with infective larvae
Wireworm
Trichostrongylus sp. - Diarrhea; edema; - Ingestion of grasses
FOR
Cooperia sp. - loss of weight with infective larvae

Paracooperia nodulosa -
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
Oesophagostomum sp. Nodular worm Diarrhea, edema; - Ingestion of grasses

anemia with “pimply with infective larvae
gut” lesions
Neoascaris (Toxocara) Large roundworm Intermittent diarrhea; - Ingestion of infective
vitulorum colic due to intestinal eggs from contami-
obstruction nated food and water
Trichuris ovis Whipworm Usually asymptomatic Ingestion of infective
eggs
Elaeophora poeli - No clinical signs Reportedly through
bites of Tabanus or
Chrysops
Dictyocaulus viviparus Lungworm Husk/Parasitic bronchitis Ingestion of grasses with
infective larvae
Bunostomum sp. Hookworm Anemia; bottle jaw; Ingestion of infective
weight loss larvae or by skin
penetration
Ostertagia ostertagi Brown hairworm Severe diarrhea; Ingestion of grasses with
weight loss infective larvae
Setaria digitata - Non-pathogenic but Mosquitoes Bites from infected
may cause cerebral mosquitoes
nematodosis if
introduced in
abnormal hosts
Onchocerca cebei - Nodules in brisket Biting midge Bites from infected

Parafilaria bovicola - and hind limbs (Culicoides sp.) midges
Thelazia rhodesii Eyeworm Conjunctivitis and Musca sp. Musca transfers the
lacrimation but rare infective stage once it
feeds
Cestodes
Moniezia benedini Double pored Unthriftiness Oribatid mite Ingestion of infected
Moniezia expansa tapeworm of oribatid mite
ruminants attached on forage
Trematodes
Fasciola gigantica Liverfluke Usually chronic type; Lymnaea sp.
FOR
Fasciola hepatica Liverfluke intermittent snail

diarrhea; edema;
anemia
Paramphistomes Stomach fluke Poor growth; edema A variety of snail Ingestion of grasses
species with metacercaria
Eurytrema pancreaticum Pancreatic fluke Poor condition 1st i.h.: Landsnails Ingestion of grasshopper
Eurytrema coelomaticum Pancreatic fluke 2nd i.h. – or tree cricket with
Eurytrema escuderoi Pancreatic fluke Grasshopper or metacercaria
tree cricket
Protozoa
Babesia bigemina - Babesiosis or red Tropical cattle Bites from infected
Babesia bovis - water disease; tick tick
hemoglobinuria
and icterus
Disease and/or
Anaplasma marginale - Anaplasmosis; Cattle tick and Bites from infected ticks
et centrale severe anemia blood-sucking or blood-sucking flies
and fever flies
Trypanosoma evansi - Surra; usually Biting flies Bites from infected
subclinical (Tabanus, flies
Lyperosis,
Stomoxys)
FOR
Eimeria zurni - Coccidiosis; - Ingestion of food and

Eimeria bovis - Diarrhea; loss water contaminated
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
of weight in acute with sporulated

cases oocysts
Sheep and Goat Endoparasites
Nematodes
Oesophagostomum Nodular worm Pimply gut; watery, - Ingestion of grasses
olumbianum dark, and very with infective larvae
Oesophagostomum Nodular worm fetid diarrhea -
venulosum
Trichostrongylus axei - Diarrhea; edema; - Ingestion of grasses
Trichostrongylus - loss of weight with infective larvae
colubriformis
Haemonchus contortus Barber’s pole Anemia; jaw edema; - Ingestion of grasses
Haemonchus placei worm, Wire worm loss of weight with infective larvae
Cooperia curticei - Diarrhea; edema; - Ingestion of grasses
loss of weight with infective larvae
Strongyloides papillosus Threadworm Inapparent but heavy - Through the milk of
infections may the dam; skin
cause diarrhea penetration
Trichuris ovis Whipworm Usually asymptomatic - Ingestion of infective
eggs through contami-
nated food and water
Bunostomum sp. Hookworm Anemia - By skin penetration or
ingestion of infective
larvae
Trematodes
Fasciola gigantica Liverfluke Anemia, diarrhea; Lymnaea sp. Ingestion of
Fasciola hepatica Liverfluke edema; weight metacercaria
loss; rough coat attached in grasses
Paramphistomes Stomach flukes Poor growth A variety of snail Ingestion of
(many species) species metacercaria
attached in grasses
Eurytrema pancreaticum Pancreatic fluke Poor condition 1st i.h. - Landsnails Ingestion of infective
2nd i.h. – Grass- metacercaria thru
FOR
hopper or tree grasshoppers or

cricket tree cricket
Cestodes
Moniezia expansa Double-pored Unthriftiness Oribatid mites Ingestion of oribatid
tapeworm of mites with infective
ruminants cysticercoid from
herbage
Protozoa
Eimeria arloingi - Coccidiosis; diarrhea - Ingestion of sporulated
Eimeria ahsata - and loss of weight oocysts from conta-
minated food and
water
Disease and/or
Eimeria granulosa -
Eimeria crandallis -
Swine Endoparasites
Nematodes
Hyostrongylus rubidus Red stomach worm Gastrointestinal - Ingestion of infective
FOR
nematodes larvae from the

Oesophagostomum Nodular worm generally cause ground or from
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
dentatum stunted growth, contaminated food

diarrhea, pot- and water
belliedness, and
Ascarops strongylina Stomach worm poor reproductive Grasshoppers Ingestion of infective
Physocephalus sexalatus Stomach worm performance and beetles stages through grass-
Gnathostoma doloresi Stomach worm hoppers and beetles
Ascaris suis Common roundworm - Ingestion of infective
Trichuris suis Whipworm - eggs from the soil or
contaminated food
and water
Globocephalus sp. Hookworm - - Skin penetration or
larvae
Strongyloides ransomi Threadworm - - Transmammary route
of infection, skin
penetration or
larvae
Stephanurus dentatus Kidney worm Emaciation due to Earthworms Ingestion or skin
long migratory penetration of third
phase in the liver stage larvae or
ingestion of infected
earthworms
Metastrongylus apri Lungworm Respiratory distress, Earthworms Ingestion of infected
Metastrongylus salmi inappetence, loss earthworms
Metasrongylus pu- of weight

dendotectus
Trematodes
Echinostoma Intestinal fluke Bullastra Ingestion of snails
(Artyfechinostomum) cumingiana infected with
malayanum metacercaria
Cestodes
Cysticercus cellulosae - Cysticercosis in pig - Ingestion of Taenia
muscles solium eggs through
FOR
contaminated food
and water
Cysticercus tenuicollis - Cysticercosis in - Ingestion of Taenia

peritoneal cavity hydatigena eggs
and serosal surface through contami-
of organs nated food and water
Acanthocephala
Macracanthorhynchus Thorny headed Subclinical or may Dung beetles Ingestion of infected
hirudinaceus worm cause diarrhea in dung beetles
heavy infections
Disease and/or
Protozoa
Balantidium coli - Balantidial dysentery - Ingestion of infective
cysts from contami-
nated food and water
Eimeria sp. - Dehydration due to - Ingestion of sporulated
watery diarrhea oocysts through
contaminated food
FOR
and water
Poultry Endoparasites
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
Nematodes
Ascaridia galli Common In gastrointestinal - Ingestion of infective
roundworm nematode infections, egg from the ground
Heterakis gallinae Caecal worm there is poor weight or from contaminated
Capillaria sp. Hair worm gain, low meat or food and water
egg yield, diarrhea,
emaciation, and
Acuaria hamulosa Gizzard worm weakness Grasshopper, Ingestion of insects
beetle, and that harbor the
weevil infective stage
Dyspharynx nasuta - Isopods Ingestion of infected

isopods
Tetrameres fissispina Proventricular Water crustaceans Ingestion of infected
worm crustaceans
Oxyspirura mansoni Eye worm Inflamed water eyes Cockroaches Ingestion of infected
cockroach
Cestodes
Raillietina sp. - Reduced growth rate Ants, flies Ingestion of insects
and emaciation (Musca sp.) with infective
and beetles cysticercoid
Hymenolepis sp. - Stable flies or
dung beetles
Protozoa
Eimeria tenella Caecal coccidia Caecal coccidiosis; - Ingestion of sporulated
bloody droppings; oocysts from contami-
inappetence; nated food and water
loss of condition or mechanically
carried by flies or
beetles
Eimeria necatrix Intestinal coccidia Intestinal coccidiosis; -
Eimeria acervulina mild to acute
Eimeria maxima in severity;
FOR
Eimeria hagani diarrhea mixed

Eimeria praecox with mucus or blood
Eimeria brunetti
Protozoa (malarial parasites)

Leucocytozoon caulleryi - Leucocytozoonosis; Biting midges Bites from infected
anemia, listlessness, midge
greenish diarrhea
Plasmodium juxtanucleare - Avian malaria; mild Mosquitoes Bites from infected
anemia and loss of mosquitoes
condition
4. By causing mechanical obstruction or pressure, e.g.,
liverflukes in cattle and carabaos, and ascarids in
almost all domestic animals
5. By causing growth of nodules and tumors and
perforating blood vessels, e.g., Elaeophora poeli in
carabaos
6. By causing wounds, e.g., Stomoxys and Tabanus
7. By destruction of tissues, e.g., immature Fasciola sp.
in ruminants
8. By irritation, e.g. hornflies in large ruminants
9. By secretion of toxins and other harmful substances:
- Antidigestive enzymes
- Digestive enzymes harmful to host tissues
- Anticoagulatory and hemolytic enzymes
- Other secretions and excretions into body fluids
10. Transmission of causal agents of some infectious
diseases and other parasites, e.g., Babesiosis
transmitted by tropical cattle tick
11. By reducing the resistance of the host to other
infections
12. By causing hypersensitivity reactions.
Parasite Control Program Methodologies
A zero parasite load in an animal, particularly those

from smallholder farms is hardly attainable. A strictly
controlled condition may render an animal parasite-
free, but in no means will an average farmer opt to such
farming scheme for practical reasons. Exposure to, and
harboring a minimum number of many parasite species
appears to be beneficial, such that the animals tend to
develop some degree of immunity to them. Parasite control
programs should therefore be aimed at 1) reducing to an
acceptable minimum the parasite burden of an animal, and
2) increasing the natural resistance of the host.
Considering the several factors that would influence
the degree of parasitism in animals, the strategies are,
therefore, based on interventions: 1) to minimize interaction
between the parasite and the host, and 2) to improve the

nutritional status of the host. The first can be achieved by
designing usually a combination of approaches that
would minimize the population of parasites inside and
outside the host to reduce potential infection of the latter.
Eradication of parasites may be possible if a variable that
control or influence host parasite interaction is regulated.
For example, goats may be prevented from acquiring
trichostrongyles if their feces have no contact with the soil,
if no further development of the infective stage will take
place or if they are kept under complete confinement with
trees and shrubs as their sole supply of roughage.
Poor nutritional status of animals predisposes them to the
harmful effects of parasitism. High level of protection is
also attained with good nutrition.
One or a combination of methodologies is recommended
to prevent heavy exposure of susceptible hosts to parasites:
Environmental Control
Control of intermediate/transport hosts. Many

parasites like liverflukes (Fig. 24) and tapeworms require
intermediate hosts such as snails, ants, earthworms, beetles,
mites, cockroaches, and flies in their life cycle. Intermediate
hosts of the important parasites of domestic animals are
shown in Table 7. Infective parasite stages develop and are
made accessible to the susceptible hosts by way of these
organisms, or through paratenic/transport hosts. In the
absence of such hosts, the chance of interaction becomes
limited or prevented, which results to a low rate of parasitism
or none at all. Destruction of these intermediate hosts and
their breeding places reduces their population and thus
break the life cycle of these parasites. In the event that a
new stock that harbors heavy parasite infection, e.g.,
Fasciola sp., is introduced in the herd, but the specific
intermediate host (Lymnaea sp.) is not present in pasture,
there is no way for this parasite to be established in other
animals.
Sanitation and hygiene measures. These are

applied to the host or its habitat to control or eradicate

vulnerable stages in the life cycle of the parasite present.
The life cycles of pig ascarid and coccidia of poultry are
shown in Figures 22 and 23. The need to clean sows with
soap and water two weeks before farrowing will reduce
materially the contamination to which the piglets will be
exposed. Likewise, the level of environmental contamination
with coccidian oocysts is best affected by removing all
manure and cleaning surfaces, as it is practicable to do.
Management Schemes
Housing and stall feeding. Confinement of animals in

proper housing and providing cut-and-carry grasses for
ruminants prevent or reduce the risk of parasite infection.
In heavily contaminated pasture, it is suggested that the
grasses be allowed to wilt under the sun prior to feeding so
that the attached larvae will fall off and eventually die.
Animals will have limited access to the infective forms of the
parasites that are usually found on the ground, on grasses,
or on different intermediate hosts. They are also protected
from exposure to adverse environmental condition, which
indirectly affects the animal’s defenses to the effects of
parasitism.
Grazing management. The grazing area is the main

source of parasite infections in ruminants. An effective
grazing management can minimize the seeding of infective
larvae on pasture. In controlling strongyles of goats which
has a direct life cycle (Fig. 20), it is recommended for sheep
and goats that the pasture be divided into 10 paddocks
(Fig. 25) and the animals be moved every 3.5 days. The
amount of available forage more than the size of the area
must be considered in dividing the pasture into paddocks.
In case there is no available space for this purpose, the
5-meter rope technology may be adopted. The rope is tied
around the neck of each mature goat and tethered in a
previously identified area then transferred to another
grazing area after the period specified. These approaches
in rapid rotational grazing system will break the life cycle of
the worms since the pre-infective developmental stages of

Animal is moved Larva
every 3.5 days in
each paddock
Fig. 25. Division of paddocks for rapid rotational grazing

system.

the egg passed out in the feces takes about 4-7 days. It will
also improve the nutrition of the animals since enough
time is allowed for the grasses to rejuvenate.
Controlled breeding. Production losses due to

parasitism particularly of ruminants is most marked in
young animals. Mortalities and clinical cases are at its peak
during the rainy months when the larval stages thrive,
coinciding with the onset of other infections, which
aggravate disease conditions. It is recommended that the
animals be bred in such a way that the time of kidding or
calving fall within the dry months when there is a lesser
risk for the young to succumb to heavy infections.
Feed supplementation. Providing feed supplements

to ruminants in the form of trees and shrubs, concentrates,
and mineral blocks especially in times when the forage is
scarce, improves their nutrition. The body defenses
against diseases become stronger, and the risk of acquiring
infective larvae from pasture is reduced which leads to
better performance of the animals. A feed supplement
block with dewormer, known as medicated urea molasses
mineral block (MUMMB), has been proven to improve
nutrition while reducing the parasite load in goats. The
block is recommended during the rainy months where
there is high prevalence of parasitism.
Stock movement. The arrival and moving out of new

stocks favor the introduction and spread of different
parasite infections. Strict monitoring must be implemented
to limit problems related to this. It is recommended that
animals to be transported be dewormed at source.
Quarantine of newly purchased stocks before introduction
in the herd allows identification of the parasites,
particularly in non-dewormed stocks. An effective drench
must be given within the holding period.
Management structure. Studies have shown that the

susceptibility of animals to parasitic disease varies

between different age groups. Therefore, it may be
beneficial to separate the animals according to their ages.
Stocking rate. The density of animals should not be

too high. The space requirement for each animal must be
followed. Overstocking will force the animal to come in
closer contact with materials contaminated by feces and
may result in higher intake of a large number of infective
parasite stages.
Regular Deworming Program
Adoption of a deworming program is aimed at

eliminating or reducing the parasite load of the animal by
applying drug or herbal preparations. A wide variety of
chemical dewormers are commercially available, but such
compounds must be used correctly and judiciously to
obtain a favorable clinical response and to preclude
selection for anthelmintic resistance. An ideal anthelmintic
should have the following properties:
1. Has a broad spectrum of activity against mature

and immature parasites
2. Easy to administer to a large number of animals
3. Has a wide margin of safety and be compatible with
other compounds
4. Does not require long withholding periods because
of tissue residues
5. Economical
Broad-spectrum dewormers given regularly to

ruminants and swine will practically eliminate or reduce
gastrointestinal helminths and lungworms but for a
limited period. For example, poor clinical response to the
recommended doses of certain drugs had been observed in
a small ruminant government station, where the same
anthelmintic has been used for over a decade. Anthelmintic
resistance in this farm was confirmed in tests indicating the
efficacy of the drug below the standard levels. Several
management factors were associated with the occurrence

of this phenomenon. The length and frequency of
anthelmintic use, dosing, grazing system, feeding
management, and use of cheap, sub-quality drugs are
considered as factors that affect the selection of parasites
for anthelmintic resistance.
The foreseen problem on the eventual inefficacy of
currently available anthelmintics necessitates strategic
planning of a deworming program as a means of worm
control. One should not rely on the use of chemical dewormers
as the sole method of worm control but should integrate it
with management programs for sustainability.
General Guidelines for Effective

Deworming Program
1. Identification of the species or type of parasites is

necessary before applying treatment. Request a
technician or veterinarian to collect appropriate
samples (e.g., blood, feces, tissues, fluids, and parasites)
for parasite examination and identification by a
parasitologist. Refer to Appendix B for proper sample
collection. Knowledge of the specific parasite involved
is important in the choice of appropriate, specific drug
or herbals to be used. For example, piperazine and
levamisole compounds are cheaper and effective
against roundworms but they are ineffective against
liverflukes.
2. Dosing of animals at appropriate intervals is

necessary to prevent the establishment of adult
parasite load capable of doing harm to the animal. The
timing of dewormer application should coincide with
the peak seasonal availability of the infective stages
of the parasite. For example, the dose may be given
before the onset of the rainy season to eliminate standing
adult population, which will potentially spread the
infection once the conditions conducive for its
multiplication commences. A follow up may be
necessary to eliminate the larvae of the parasite

present in other tissues or organs of the body at the time
of medication.
3. The recommendations on the label of drugs should be

carefully read and strictly followed. The dose of the
drug should be computed to ensure best efficacy
results. The animal should be weighed individually
or in the case of a large group of animals, the heaviest
animal should be weighed and the computed dose shall
apply to the rest of the group. The disadvantages of
underdosing include: a) reduction of drug efficacy,
b) decrease in animal production performance, and
c) promotion of drug resistance. Overdosage also has
its own demerits as it creates unnecessary expenses
and extends the withdrawal period of the drug longer
than specified.
4. Proper dispensing of anthelmintic drug influences its

efficacy. The assistance of a technician or a veterinarian
may be sought. A drenching gun, or in its absence,
softdrink bottle or cut bamboo stem with a blunt end
may be used as alternatives for this purpose.
5. Young animals are more susceptible to parasitism

than mature ones. There are some parasites that can be
acquired by prenatal route or via the milk. The first dose
should be given as early as possible to prevent infection
at a vulnerable age.
6. Newly arrived stocks should be quarantined,

diagnosed for the presence of parasite, and given
dose of an appropriate drench before introduction in the
herd. This will minimize the transmission of parasite
species that may be harbored by the animal. They
should be separated from the herd for about a month.
Deworming with 2 or 3 classes of drugs a few days
before or after arrival is recommended.
7. A regular antiparasite program is more effective if

coupled with control of the parasite in the environment.

8. Alternate use or rotation between anthelmintic
classes every year is recommended to prevent the
development of anthelmintic resistance. If resistance
against one class has been recorded, all drugs belonging
to the class should be abandoned from the rotation
scheme.
9. As regards to ectoparasites of ruminants, regular

manual removal may be effective in a small group of
animals with light infestation. In heavy infestation,
however, appropriate insecticide application should
be done. Shaving the hair of carabaos is helpful in
reducing the infestation.
10. Propagation of flies and other arthropods may be

reduced if their breeding places are destroyed. For
example, animal manure where flies deposit their eggs
may be collected immediately and laid scattered under
the heat of the sun. It may also be useful to pile the
manure in heaps and apply larvicide on top. This will
kill the eggs or larvae under the heaps due to very high
temperature. Other approaches involve the
incorporation of chemical compounds in feeds which
prevents the development of larvae on manure.
Herbal Medicine
Medicinal plants are popular in the Philippines as an

alternative method for worm control primarily because of
the high cost of commercial drugs. The distance of the
market from the village where the drug could be availed of
is also a hindrance for the smallhold farmers. Farmers find
herbal plants that abound in his backyard as an immediate
solution against worm. There is a long list of potential and
clinically proven herbal plant species with antiparasitic
properties. However, there is a need for more detailed
studies on their efficacy and possible toxicity before
promoting their use in a wide-scale basis.

Recommended Deworming Schedules
The following deworming schedules for ruminants and

swine make use of broad-spectrum antiparasitic compounds.
The anthelmintic preparation used for cattle is also used in
sheep and goats. While it is ideal to identify the specific
parasite load of a particular animal prior to treatment, this
is not always feasible in the field especially in remote areas.
It is assumed, however, that parasite infection of animals in
smallholder system consists of a mixture of more than one
species of parasites.
z Large Ruminants
1. Deworm calves and caracalves at around 2 weeks -

1 month of age with an anthelmintic effective
against threadworms and immature stages of large
ascarids, which may be acquired from the dam’s
milk. This must be repeated at three months against
almost all-internal parasites (gastrointestinal
nematodes, cestodes, and lungworms) except
liverflukes.
2. Animals more than one year of age should be
dewormed with an anthelmintic that is effective
against all stages of the parasite (e.g., Ivermectin,
Doramectin and Fenbendazole) once a year,
preferably before the onset of the rainy season. A
second dose may be necessary at the middle of the
rainy season. Should the drug of choice be specific
only for adult worms, a follow up should be given
after three weeks to preclude establishment of
larvae that survived the previous treatment.
3. Subsequent dosing should be based from periodic
monitoring of parasite load or by observation of
clinical parasitism.
4. Pregnant animals are recommended to be dewormed
two weeks before calving.
5. A separate defluking schedule is necessary because
most available broad spectrum anthelmintics of the
benzimidazole group are not generally effective

against common flukes (e.g., liverflukes,
amphistomes). The drug of choice should be one
that could kill all migratory as well as the adult
stages of the fluke, like triclabendazole. In areas
where fluke infection is a major problem, breeders
should be dewormed two weeks before they are
bred. In high risk areas (where snail intermediate
hosts and its habitat abound), an effective flukecide
should be given every three months on the first year,
every six months on the second year and yearly
thereafter.
z Small Ruminants
1. Kids and lambs should receive their first anthelmintic

dose at 2 weeks-1 month of age if threadworm is a
problem in the herd/flock. This must be repeated at
3 months against almost all internal parasites
except liverflukes.
2. Animals more than one year of age should be
dewormed with an anthelmintic that is effective
against all stages of the parasite a month before the
onset of the rainy season. Subsequent treatments
should be based from the farmer’s assessment of the
animal condition.
3. Pregnant animals should be dewormed two weeks
before the expected date of kidding.
4. The defluking schedule for large ruminants also
apply to sheep and goats.
z Poultry
Anthelmintics (dewormers). In the Philippines,

deworming of poultry has mainly been limited to large
commercial layer and breeder farms and private gamefowl
breeders. Deworming in these farms is instituted in order
to prevent loss of condition, growth retardation, diarrhea,
anemia, reduced egg production, and probable mortality in
infected birds. Layer and breeder farms deworm their

stock twice before the onset of lay. Deworming during the
laying period may be indicated in farms with high intestinal
parasitic challenge. Some of the more common poultry
dewormers include Piperazine HCl, Hygromycin B,
Levamisole, Mebendazole, and Fenbendazole.
Coccidiostats (against intestinal and cecal

coccidiosis). Anticoccidial compounds include amprolium,
clopidol, monensin, salinomycin, robenidine,
sulfachloropyrazine, sulfaquinoxaline, and halofuginone
drugs. These are available as solubles for drinking water or
as premixes for feed incorporation. Coccidiostatic drugs
may be given in feed from the first day to broilers and
replacement pullets to prevent or treat coccidiosis.
Breeder flocks and replacement pullets destined for floor
adult housing are given coccidiostats, enough in order to
keep the disease under control until the birds develop
active immunity. Judicious use of anticoccidials is
recommended due to the increasing problem of drug
resistance. Shuttle programs wherein one drug is given in
the starter ration and another in the grower ration are
advocated to reduce this problem. Attention should also be
given to proper litter management. Prevention of wet litter
should be aimed in order to prevent the development of
infectious stages of coccidia. Oocysts of Eimeria sp. require
moisture levels in excess of 25% to mature and wet litter is
often associated with outbreaks of coccidiosis.
Antimalarial and antileucocytozoonosis. Control of

insect vectors (such as Culex sp., Aedes sp., Culicoides sp.,
and Simulium sp.) is an important means of control.
Preventive medication and treatment is in the form of
pyrimethamine, chloroquin and sulfa drugs given during
the rainy season in anticipation of the proliferation of
these insects.
Implementing antiparasitic program in free-living
(unconfined) poultry poses certain problems related to the
delivery of the optimum dosage to the birds. The birds
should be confined at least for certain periods to insure that
they ingest the optimum dose of medication. This may be

inconvenient if not possible in backyard system of raising
free-living chickens. Thus, recommendation for parasitic
control in poultry may be applicable only to backyard raising
of broilers and/or layers in confinement.
z Swine
The management system influences the type and degree

of parasitic infection in pigs. Hygiene and sanitation play
an important role in preventing the spread of parasitism in
the herd. Studies show that backyard farms tend to have
higher infection rate than commercial farms. This may be
attributed to the more organized management system that
can be afforded by these farms.
An efficient worm control scheme should not rely on the
regular deworming program but should also consider
strict hygiene and sanitation to prevent reinfection. Pig
pens should always be kept clean and dry. Feeding and
watering troughs should likewise be maintained as clean
as possible. Sows should be brushed clean before being
transfered to the farrowing pen to make sure
parasite eggs that have stuck to the skin and hairs are
removed. Possible vectors like earthworm, flies, beetles,
and other arthropods should be controlled.
A broad-spectrum dewormer that is safe and economical
will be a good choice. It is best however to determine the
species of parasite present in each group of pigs to come up
with a list of drugs where the parasite is specifically
susceptible. In most cases however, fecal analysis is not
routinely done, hence the choice of a broad-spectrum
dewormer becomes a common practice.
Pig Class Schedule of Deworming
Piglet 4 weeks of age

1 week after weaning
Grower/Fattener 5-6 weeks after last deworming
Sow/Gilt 2 weeks before breeding
2 weeks before farrowing
2 weeks after weaning litter
Boars/Replacement Breeders At least twice a year (3-4 month
interval)

Preventive Medication Program
A preventive medication program is a very important

part of any animal production system. Preventive medication
mainly involves the implementation of strict biosecurity
and the vaccination of animals against the more common
viral and bacterial diseases. Another form of preventive
medication is the administration of antibiotics or probiotic
drugs to animals to prevent or minimize the occurrence of
disease. The following deals with this form of preventive
medication.
Situations/Conditions which Need Preventive

Medication Program
1. Adverse climatic conditions. Sudden changes in

ambient temperature and humidity cause stress to
chickens and pigs in confinement, and these may cause
flare-ups of subclinical infections.
2. During vaccination. Vaccination causes stress to

chickens and pigs. Anxiety and fear may result from
catching and restraining the animals. In vaccination
with live virus vaccine, multiplication of the organism
content of the vaccine in the host target cells is included,
and in effect create a subclinical or mild infection. The
latter may trigger secondary infection through
endogenous microbial flora, which can be suppressed
by preventive medication.
3. Occurrence of diseases. When the following disease

conditions regularly occur and exceed acceptable norm
of incidence levels (>2-5%):

z diarrhea
z post weaning enteritis
z mastitis-metritis-agalactia in sows
z bacterial pneumonia in weaners, growers, fatteners
and breeding stocks
z chronic respiratory disease in broilers
z infectious coryza
z coccidiosis in broilers
z avian malaria
z piglet anemia - preventive medication is routinely
given at 3-4 days of age and after a prolonged or
severe scouring
z hemorrhagic septicemia
Guidelines in Formulating a Preventive

Medication Regimen
1. Identify the disease pattern of the flock or herd. This

requires a record of flock or herd morbidity/mortality
and description of clinical symptoms and unusual
environmental circumstances in times of sickness or
death. Also, check the animal disease problems in the
vicinity. This needs cooperation among animal raisers in
the area.
2. Identify the specific microbial agent causing the

disease. Specimen of sick and dead animals should be
brought to a diagnostic laboratory for analysis. In the
absence of a diagnostic laboratory, regular field post-
mortem examinations should be done.
3. Preferably, perform the antibiotic sensitivity profile of

bacterial isolates from the flock or herd at least twice a
year. This is useful in the choice of antibacterial to be
used in monitoring the development of drug resistance.
4. The most important consideration is the delivery of

adequate concentration (preventive level) of the
preventive medication in the target tissue sites of

infection. Since this requires basic knowledge of
pharmacological principles, it is necessary to consult a
veterinarian. Antibacterials are powerful chemical
substances, however, small dosage will not give the
desired effect. On the other hand, excess dosage may be
toxic to the animals causing them to be sick or unfit for
human consumption.
Drugs Used in Preventive Medication Programs
Antibiotics
Incorporating antibacterial in the feed and/or drinking

water of poultry, swine and other food animals, or their
parenteral administration at certain stages of the production
cycle and during stress conditions is commonly practiced.
Preventive medication is a routine in commercial production
of chickens and pigs. Most commercial feed manufacturers
incorporate preventive levels of antibiotics in the feed for
poultry and swine. This is to minimize the risk of incurring
losses from morbidity and mortality. This is also to check the
nearly regular occurrence of respiratory, enteric, and
reproductive problems in subclinical or clinical levels in
chickens and pigs in confinement.
Based on the spectrum of their antibacterial activity,
antibacterials are either narrow (against few types of
bacteria) or broad spectrum (against many types of bacteria).
Based on their action, they either suppress the multiplication
of bacteria (bacteriostatic) or they kill bacteria (bactericidal).
Bacteriostatic compounds of narrow spectrum type are
preferred for preventive medication in situations where the
specific disease profile is known. Where it is not known,
broad-spectrum antibacterials may be used.
However, certain issues should be resolved in the
practice of continuous medication of food animals. These
include the development of drug resistance by bacterial
agents and the presence of drug residues in the food of
animal origin. Antibiotic preventive medication is an
effective and useful production tool requiring

understanding of the development of disease processes in
animals raised in confinement. The nature and properties of
at least the commonly used antimicrobial substances and
the requirements for judicious use of these substances have
to be understood. Antibiotic preventive medication is one of
the most abused veterinary procedures, hence, rational use
is recommended. Expert assistance must be solicited when
using antibiotics in preventive medication programs.
The following are some of the most commonly used
antibiotics for preventive medication programs that are
available here in the Philippines:
z Tylosin phosphate
z Zinc bacitracin
z Spiramycin
z Virginiamycin
z Chlortetracycline
z Oxytetracycline
z Avilamycin
z Salinomycin
z Monensin
z Flavomycin
Probiotics
The increasing problem of antibiotic resistance brought

about by the use of antibiotics in poultry, swine, and cattle
production has led to the increased interest of using
probiotics in preventive medication programs. Probiotics
are defined as beneficial microorganisms, which help
maintain the balance between beneficial and harmful bacteria
in the gut. Examples of beneficial bacteria which are being
used as probiotics include species of Lactobacillus and
Streptococcus (L. acidophillus and S. faecium). These
bacteria exert their beneficial effects through “competitive
exclusion” and lactic acid production. Lactobacilli and
Streptococci actually compete with pathogenic bacteria
for space along the intestinal wall. This prevents the
pathogenic bacteria from proliferating within the gut and
exerting their potential harmful effects. In addition to

competitive exclusion, lactic acid produced by species of
lactobacilli and streptococci reduces gut pH, which makes
the intestinal environment unfavorable for certain
pathogenic bacteria. There has also been increasing evidence
that an acidic environment is conducive to increased
enzymatic activity within the digestive system that leads to
improved production performances. Results from
university studies and commercial farm trials have
reported significant improvement in weight gain, feed
conversion and decreased mortality in poultry and swine
supplemented with probiotics. During periods of stress or
mismanagement the balance between beneficial species
and pathogens can shift in favor of harmful bacteria such as
E. coli. This imbalance normally results to poor production
performances, increased incidence of disease and higher
mortality. The general use of probiotics in preventive
medication programs has been directed as a means of
reducing these symptoms of stress and improving the
general health of the animal.

Guide in Handling First Aid
and/or Emergency Cases
An emergency case is any condition that requires

immediate attention as it endangers the life of the animal.
It is not expected that one will be proficient enough in
replacing the veterinarian in the job of saving life, but it
must be realized that at some crucial time, one has to react
to the situation properly to save life.
As a rule of thumb, basic procedures in handling
emergency cases in animals are geared towards its
immediate relief. These procedures include proper
evaluation of individual cases, proper hygiene, and sufficient
care and management of the injured animal.
Basic Guidelines in Handling Emergency Cases
1. Handle individual cases on the basis of history and

signs. Keep a record of the case. Quick evaluation is
necessary. Size up the situation and note the condition
of the animal.
2. If possible, gently drive or transfer the injured animal to
a more comfortable, isolated area (shed or pen) where
treatment and further observation can be done and
follow-up procedure can be easy. If the animal is lying
and transferring is difficult, do the first aid treatment
where the animal is. Movement or transfer can be done
later, if necessary. Never attempt to move an animal
with fractured or broken legs unless the legs have been
properly secured or immobilized.
3. Keep calm and deliberate. Ask the assistance of the
owner or caretaker. Start by keeping the animal calm
and comfortable. Protect the animal from adverse heat
and other stress factors. Inspect the body thoroughly
for other signs.

4. Continue with specific therapies as needed. Use of
chemotherapeutic compounds, however, is usually
resorted to alleviate sufferings or more often as a
palliative measure. Herbal medicines may also be
used. If in doubt with the action of a specific chemical,
never attempt to use the drugs. It will be wise to seek
the help of an expert veterinarian.
5. Be extra careful in dealing with every case of sudden
onset and acute type of infection. The possibility of
spreading the microbes and contamination of the
premises and their ultimate transmission to man is
great.
6. Dispose properly seriously ill or dying animals. If a
rapidly spreading infection is suspected, it may be wise
to sacrifice the animal and conduct a careful post-mortem
evaluation. Send specific tissue samples to the laboratory
for histopathological interpretation.
7. Avoid salvaging the carcass for human consumption.
8. Institute proper quarantine rules and regulations.
9. Report notifiable cases immediately to the nearest
government agency concerned in animal industry.
10. Conduct surveillance immediately of the vicinity for
similar cases.
Recommended Emergency Procedure

in Handling Specific Cases
Heatstroke
This occurs when the animal is exposed to excessively

hot environment.
1. The first step is to rapidly cool the body of the animal.

2. Apply cold compresses preferably ice packs to the
animal’s head and jugular furrows. Spray the rest of
the body with cold water.
3. Gently move the animal under a shaded, cool area.
4. Continue applying the ice pack and spraying of cold
water until the temperature drops to normal. If

possible, monitor the body temperature, pulse, and
respiratory rates (Table 8) at short intervals.
Reapply ice packs if the temperature rises.
5. Allow the animal to freely drink cold water with
sugar.
6. Allow proper ventilation at all times.
7. In mild cases, when the animal shows panting and
open breathing and initial stage of respiratory
distress, immediately remove it from the overcrowded
condition. Prevent additional stress and excitement.
Immediately bathe the animal with cold water.
8. Avoid heatstroke to recur by following the
recommended management procedure during hot
weather.
Table 8. Normal pulse rate, respiration rate, and body temperature

of some domesticated animals.
Species Pulse Rate Respiration Temperature

of Animal (beats/min) Rate (beats/min) (°C)
Carabao – adult
Caracalf 54.16 24.56 – 27.10 38.49 – 39.9*
Cattle – adult 40 – 60 12 – 16 37.5 – 39.5

Calf – 3 months
to 1 year 90 – 100 25 – 45 38.5 – 40.0
Goat – adult 70 – 80 12 – 16 38.5 – 40.0

Kid – 1 month
to 6 months 100 – 120 12 – 20 38.5 – 41.0
Sheep – adult 70 – 80 12 – 16 38.5 – 40.0

Lamb – 1 month
to 6 months 95 – 115 16 – 18 38.5 – 40.5
Swine – adult 65 – 90 10 – 20 38.0 – 40.0

Piglets – less than
3 months 120 – 140 - 39.0 – 40.5
Chicken 180 – 440 (Ave. 312) 15 – 30 40.5 – 43.0
Duck - 16 – 28 40.7

Acute Insecticide Poisoning
Common insecticides used against ticks and other

insects may sometimes be accidentally consumed (drank)
by animals, or in some cases, the concentration is high that
even when applied externally, toxicities result. In such
cases, emergency measures have to be instituted.
1. Affected animals show signs of restlessness,

stagger, and unsteady movements with salivation
immediately after external application of insecticide.
Therefore, it is necessary to immediately bathe the
animals thoroughly, if possible, with strong water
pressure. Wet the animal repeatedly.
2. In cases where the animal has taken in (drank) the
insecticide solution, quickly remove the solution
from the stomach by giving emetics or plain
concentrated sugar solution orally. Burned garlic
powder in water may be used as emetic.
3. For extreme cases of poisoning, call a veterinarian.
Poisoning may also be caused by ingestion of poisonous

plants found in areas where the animals are grazed. A list of
poisonous plants common in the country is given in Table 9.
Avoid tethering animals in areas where poisonous plants
are found. If possible, destroy or uproot these plants to
prevent accidental plant poisoning.
Bloat (Tympany)
Tympany is the distention of the abdomen due to gas

trapped in the rumen. Only ruminants such as cows,
carabaos, sheep, and goats are affected by bloat. There are
generally two types of bloat, primary ruminal tympany or
frothy bloat, which is caused by overeating of legumes such
as Centrosema pubescens (Centrosema), Stylosanthes
guyanensis (Stylo), Macroptilium atropurpureum (Siratro),
and Pueraria phaseoloides (tropical kudzu) and the secondary
or free-gas bloat, usually affecting animals frequently given

Table 9. Some common plants poisonous to livestock in the Philippines.
Scientific Name Local Name Part of Plant Toxic Element Symptoms Antidote
Argeratum Bahu-bahu All parts Hydrocyanic acid, Congestion of small -

conyzoides coumarin, and an intestine and acute
alkaloid stasis of mesenteric
veins, heavy aromatic
odor of skin and urine
Aleurites fordi Lumbang bato Foliage and fruit. Saponin and another Symptoms of tung Animals should not be
Also commercial toxic substance are poisoning in cattle allowed access to
tung meal yet undetermined are not observed until discarded branches of
FOR
3-7 days after the tung tree. Emollients

foliage has been and drugs should be
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
consumed. Acute administered to relieve

poisoning results in the inflammation in
death in 3-4 days, the gastrointestinal
while chronic cases tract. Tempting the
linger on for 18-25 animal with soft
days before death feeds can be used to
ensues. Common stimulate its appetite.
symptoms include
diarrhea which later
becomes watery and
profuse, lack of appetite,
cessation of rumination,
listlessness, depression
and unthriftiness, chronic
cases may develop
labored breathing, mucus
discharge from the nose,
salivation, cracking of
the skin muzzle and
progressive emaciation.
Amaranthus spp. Urai, kilitis, Young shoots The toxic compound is Abortion, reduction of milk
kulitis believed to be KNO3 flow, signs of vitamin A

although “urai” deficiency, and sudden
poisoning does not death.
always show classical
sign (brown blood) of
nitrate poisoning
Casia Andadasi, Whole plant Alkaloids related to Dullness, tachycardia,

occidentalis balatong aso, atropine and as oily high temperature,
kabal-kabalan, residue with a suppression of urine,
katangan-aso, depressant action and slowing of respi-
FOR
tambalisa, on respiration ratory rate. Death

tighiman, duda, occurs with coma
gulinggam, suka, after slight convulsion.

samting Also tympanite,
groaning, great pain,
coldness of extremities,
weakness of the heart,
and slight stiffness of the
limbs.
Chromolaena Gonoy Young leaves Hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine Diarrhea with blood,

odorata and shoots alkaloids-echinatine emaciation, convulsions,
and intermediate or and loss of consciousness.
rinderine. Also
exceptionally high in
nitrate
Crotalaria Buli-lana, Leaves, stems, Alkaloid monocrotaline, Low blood pressure,

guinquefolia putukan, roots, seeds (dry which is cumulative. slow heartbeat,
FOR
susoi, or green). Four This is present in depression, loss of

suso-susoyan, kilograms of dried decreasing amounts appetite, bloody feces,
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
katanda, leaves will kill a in seeds, leaves, drooling saliva, nasal

palpatog 130 kg steer in and stems discharge, and finally
4 days. Tops death.
boiled with hay
can cause the
death of an entire
herd of cattle
Cryptostegia Madagascar, Entire plant - - -

grandiflora milkweed,
rubbervine
Hypericum Dagbob, Entire plant Hypericin hypericum Photosensitization, Affected animals should
pulogense dalipug red and volatile oil blisters, and scabs be kept under the shade.
puket around the mouth,
eyes, ears, nose, and
feet. In severe cases,
difficulty in breathing,
rapid pulse, foaming of
the mouth and finally
death.
Jatropha Tubang-bakod Bark and seeds Sapogenin and curcin Burning sensation in -
curcas taxalbumin the throat, followed

by vomiting, diarrhea,
and abdominal pain.
Lantana Bahug-bahug, Leaves. Lantadene A, Photosensitization in Affected animals should

camara boho-boho, Approximately a triterpnoid cattle and sheep (skin be kept under the shade.
coromitas, 0.34-0.45 kg becomes hard, swollen, Skin lesions should be
baho-baho, dried leaves can cracked, and painful). treated with healing
lantana poison cattle Sluggishness, partial ointments.
paralysis, and bloody
diarrhea. Acute
FOR
poisoning may cause

death within 3-4 days.
Lantana also produces

lesions and symptoms
of severe gastroenteritis.
Nerium Adelfa, Leaves. About Two glucosides, Nausea, irregular

oleander boladre 15-20 g is nerioside, heartbeat, bloody
sufficient to and oleandrosides. diarrhea, respiratory
kill mature The common species paralysis, and death.
cattle and horses. is N. indicum but Symptoms of poisoning
Dried leaves are whether it contains in horses, cattle and
nearly as toxic as some poisons is sheep are similar.
the green ones unknown
Pteridium Brackenfern, Fronds, fresh or Enzyme thiaminase High fever, labored Nerve sedatives and heart
aquilinium pakong dried. Typical and the anthelmintic breathing, internal and respiratory
bundok poisoning is pteretannic acid, salivation, bleeding. stimulants should be
caused by eating both cumulative Poisoning is often administered.
1.4-1.8 kg daily; poisons mistaken for anthrax Intravenous or
illness develops and other infectious intramuscular injection
3-4 weeks after diseases of cattle. with thiaminase
Also, unsteady gait, hydrochloride also
nervousness, congestion helps.
FOR
of visible mucous
membrane and
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
constipation, later
staggering and dilated
pupils.
Solanum Anti-anti, Leaves especially Solanin, a glucoside, Narcosis and paralysis, Affected animals should
nigrum bolagtad, unripe (green) and several alkaloids dilated pupils, vomiting, be given general heart
hulablub, fruits stimulation of nervous and nerve stimulants.
lagkakum, system followed by
kamakamatisan, depression, craving for
onti, kamates water, diarrhea, loss of
manok, malasili, appetite, and extreme
kuti, lubi-lubi, weakness.
muti, natangni-
aso, nateng,
kamkamatisan
overly mature roughage. The remedy for both types is
expulsion of gas from the rumen.
1. In mild cases, place a gag in the animal’s mouth

which usually provides prompt relief. A decoction of
“manzanilla” (Chrysanthemum sp.) leaves and
flowers in combination with coconut oil can be used
to relieve the animal from gas pain.
2. If there is continuous gas formation as can be

observed in the further distention of the abdomen in
a progressive manner, puncture the left paralumbar
fossa (hunger hollow) with a trocar and cannula
(Fig. 26) to expel gas. This procedure should be
repeated over several areas of the paralumbar fossa
as more than one free-gas bubbles are formed within
the rumen. The cannula is removed when rumen
fluid is seen coming out of it. An appropriate
substitute is a 16Gx1 inch or 1½ inches stainless
steel needle which can be purchased in agrivet
stores.
Fig. 26. Trocar (a) and cannula (b) used to puncture the left
paralumbar fossa (c). Only the cannula remains
after trocar is withdrawn to expel gas.

3. Allow the animal to walk freely to stimulate
ruminal contractions. This facilitates belching and
or eructation.
4. In cases of frothy bloat where the gas is evenly

mixed with the rumen fluid, and ingesta are trapped
therein, and the animal is not in immediate danger
of dying. In such a case, give one bottle of coconut
oil or detergent base by “supak” or administer the oil
via the cannula.
5. If the animal responded poorly to the regimen

(reasonable time is 4 hours), evaluate its condition.
If the case of the bloat is an obstruction, it would be
advisable to call a veterinarian to perform
rumenotomy and remove the blocking material.
Fractures (Long Bones of the Legs)
In the field, it is quite impractical to institute therapy

to adult cows, carabaos, or horses which suffer some form
of fracture mainly due to the nature of the injury and
difficulty in handling the case. In the event of a fracture,
especially of the long bones of the legs, the accompanying
damage to adjacent muscles is so severe that the injury is
deemed beyond therapy. Slaughter therefore, is to be
seriously considered to salvage the carcass of the animal.
For calves, foals, or small ruminants like sheep and goats,
the following measures can be followed:
1. As an emergency measure, immobilize the affected

leg. Assess the situation carefully. For valuable
breeding animals, casting will have to be resorted to.
2. Use wooden stocks or metal rods (2-4 pieces)

placed longitudinally along the fractured leg
positioned to cover both articulation to immobilize
the affected leg. Wrap it with any available clothing
material (if elastic bandage is not available) anchored
to both ends of the rods/stocks. Heat “kakawati”,

“ikmo” (Pier betel L.), or “lantana” (Lantana camara
L.) leaves, pound them, and apply as poultice or
use as a wrapping material around the affected joint.
Slowly place traction as the tying material is being
tightened to immobilize the leg.
3. Call a veterinarian to do the casting.
Foot Problems
One of the more commonly encountered problems by

farmers is lameness. The most frequent cases of lameness
in cattle are foot lesions. Immediately determine the
duration of lameness and the speed of onset. Take the
history. In sizing up foot problems, one should be familiar
and have a working knowledge with the parts of the
hooves to have a systematic evaluation. Diagrams of the
hooves of cattle and horses are shown in Figures 27-29.
Some foot problems such as heel cracks, corns and
ulcers on the sole are treacherous and spread in a stealthy
manner while foot rot, fractures, puncture and acute
lameness are sudden in onset.
Steps in Handling Foot Problems
1. Examine each of the parts of the hoof as shown in the

diagram. For cattle, look for small stones that may lodge
in between white line and interdigital space. Remove
stones that may lodge between the interdigital space.
Examine the sole and heel for puncture wounds and
abrasions. If such are found, clean using hydrogen
peroxide and iodine solution as first aid.
2. For the equine hoof, abrasions and puncture wounds are
commonly found in the sole and bulbs.
3. Carefully examine the foot. Swelling above the coronary
base indicates soft tissue inflammation (foot rot or
arthritis).
4. Raise the foot using a rope and hooks for proper
examination.

Bulbs of hoof
Central sulcus of frog
Collateral sulci between frog and bars
Bar
Lateral angle of sole
Apex of frog
Body of sole
White zone
Lamellae of wall
Sole border of the wall
Fig. 27. Palmar aspect of the equine hoof.
Dewclaw
Heel
Interdigital space
Wall
Sole
White line
Model
Toe
Fig. 28. Palmar aspect of the bovine hoof.
3 inches
Dewclaw
Coronary band or coronet
45°
Fig. 29. Lateral aspect of the bovine hoof.

5. Cows raised entirely indoors for a long time often have
exceptionally hard and dry hooves.
6. Clean and trim each hoof. Excess growth on the sole
must be removed and horny tissues must be debrided.
7. Inspect and palpate the area between the claws.
Observe for foot odors which suggest the presence of
necrotic or dead tissues.
8. If no foot lesions are found, lameness may be caused by
complicated factors such as nutritional, inherited, and
environmental factors aside from infections.
Several procedures can be successfully used in treating

foot rot. First, clean the wound. Then, inject the animal
with systemic antibacterial agent. A decoction made from
guava, “sampalok”, “makabuhay” (Tinospora rumphii
Boerl.) or “duhat” leaves may be used to wash the wound.
Wash once or twice daily.
Difficult Parturition (Dystocia)
Dystocia frequently occurs in primiparous (first

pregnancy) heifers or gilts under completely confined
management systems. It is often associated with poor
nutrition during gestation.
Information on the animal’s breeding history, previous
illness during the last 2 or 3 months before parturition,
and other pertinent data are important factors in coming up
with a sound and correct course of action.
Steps in Handling Dystocia in Cows
1. Check visually the general condition of the dam.

2. Make a detailed examination of the behavior of the dam
and the character and duration of contraction
(labor).
3. If possible, gently move/transfer the animal to a
clean area or stall (shed).
4. If lying, try to help the animal to stand. Restrain it
properly by placing slings (belly straps) in
preparation for manual intervention.

5. Thoroughly clean the external genitalia and surrounding
areas with soap and water.
6. Examine the birth canal for any injuries, and assess
the position, posture, and presentation of the fetus. To
know if the fetus is alive, pinch the leg or place a
finger inside the mouth (for anterior presentation), or
place a finger inside the rectum (for breech
presentation).
7. To prevent stress and injury of the dam, the handling
procedure must be done in hygienic condition.
8. In most cases of abnormal position, posture, and
presentation, adjust the fetus by returning it into the
normal presentation in the uterus with properly
disinfected hands. Manipulation can be made within
the uterus. Figures 30-36 show abnormal positions and
methods of correction.
9. The fetus is now ready to be withdrawn through the
birth canal by traction considering these three basic
points: the two front legs and the head. As the legs and
head are pulled out thru the vulva, apply traction to the
legs in arclike manner. Apply a light traction on the
head as it passes thru the vulva.
10. Traction and pulling must always coincide with uterine
contraction. If continuous and forceful contraction
occurs, use epidural anesthetic to ease uterine
contraction.
11. The calf should be pulled out of the vulva in a downward
manner. Pulling it along the direction of the dam’s back
will cause stretching of the spine and locking of the
maternal and fetal hips.
12. As the hip and the hindlegs slide down the birth canal,
gently handle the calf as it reaches the ground. To
prevent soiling the newborn calf, place clean sacks on
the area.
13. In handling the calf, follow the same procedure as in
normal parturition.

Fig. 30. Abnormality of posture: one leg flexed at knee.
Fig. 31. Correction of simple leg flexed (leg back)

presentation. Cup the calf’s foot in your hand and
draw it forward.
Fig. 32. Full leg flexion from the shoulder, showing an attempt
to draw it forward to the simple knee flexion.

Fig. 33. It may be possible to correct a "head back" simply by
drawing the nose around with your hand. On other
occasions, a rope is needed.
a n
Fig. 34. Backwards presentation showing normal (n) and

abnormal (a) positions of the umbilical cord. With
the latter, veterinary assistance is needed.
Fig. 35. Backwards presentation: always check that the tail

is not being forced into the roof of the vagina as it is
in this diagram. It should be lying between the hind
legs during birth.

Fig. 36. Breech presentation: the calf is coming backwards
but with both legs forward so that only the tail is felt
in the vagina. Because there is nothing dilating the
vagina, the cow often does not strain and
consequently many breech births may go unnoticed
for several hours and produce a dead calf.
Dystocia in Small Ruminants
As with large ruminants, the common cause of dystocia

or difficult births in sheep and goats are fetomaternal
disproportion, a malpresented fetus, teratologies or
monstrosities (deformed fetuses), and to a lesser degree,
twinning. A large lamb or kid would have difficulty in
traversing the pelvic canal such that maternal contractions
to expel it are ineffective. In cases of malpresentation,
common deviations are a malpositioned leg or neck, which
may be corrected by traction and repositioning though
caesarian section would have to be resorted to in the latter
case. Breech or posterior presentation also occurs and
assistance is given only if necessary. Lambs or kids with
gross abnormalities known as teratologies or monstrosities
are difficult to expel because anatomical aberrations such as
deformed spine or legs obstruct normal passage through the
birth canal. Only surgical intervention can remove the
deformed fetus. In cases of dystocia wherein the fetus is
anatomically sound, the following measures can be
followed:

1. The lamb or kid can be extracted by gently pulling
on both limbs with a downward motion. This will
prevent locking of the fetal and maternal hips.
Each traction should be timed with contractions by
the dam. In case of abnormal positions, adjust the
fetus before manual extraction is attempted
(Figs. 37a-37c).
Front legs back

a. Reach inside the doe next to the kid’s neck and
follow it to the kid’s chest and then to the elbow
of one front leg. Hook the front leg with a finger
and gently pull it forward and straight.
b. Try the other front leg.
c. Rock one shoulder and then the other gently out
of the doe.
d. Pull with the doe, not against her. Wipe off the
mucus from the kid’s nose with a clean cloth.
e. Using your finger, clean its mouth with mucus
to allow it to breath.
f. Let the doe lick the kid.
g. Towel it dry with fast strokes.
Fig. 37a. Manual extraction of fetus with front legs back.

Legs present, but head twisted back
a. Push legs back into uterus. Slide hand into
uterus and grasp head with palm of hand and
hold steady while bringing legs into diving
position.
b. Guide head with palm of hand and fingers until it
enters pelvic area.
Fig. 37b. Manual extraction of fetus with legs present, but

head twisted.
Breech presentation
a. Rumps first, try to rotate the animal into normal
position, hind legs first, dew claws up.
Fig. 37c. Manual extraction of fetus with breech presentation.

The kid should be born within one hour after hard
labor begins. If this does not occur, wash the doe off
with a mild solution of soap and water. Wash your
hand and put it gently inside to assess the situation.
Have someone hold the goat, if necessary. Move the
kid until it is in a normal birth position.
b. For extremely difficult cases, a veterinarian should

be called in to perform the necessary obstetrical
intervention.
c. To prevent excessive fetal growth in the

final weeks of gestation or pregnancy, do not
overfeed with concentrates pregnant does or ewes.
Overfeeding may result in excessively large lambs
or kids and fat deposition around the peripelvic
areas and uterus, thereby lessening the force of
maternal contractions. Always follow a ratio of 30%
maximum concentrates in feeding regimens with
70% roughage.
d. The occurrence of a deformed conceptus can be

avoided by breeding unrelated animals and
avoidance of using known teratogens at breeding
time. Avoid using these compounds a few weeks
after breeding. It is recommended to deworm animals
before breeding or one month before the estimated
date of parturition.
Retained Placenta
Expulsion of the placenta or afterbirth should occur

within six hours of the birth of the calf. A proportion of cows
will drop the placenta within 24 hours, but after this,
uterine contraction becomes very weak or non-existent.
Several days will have to elapse before attachments to the
cotyledon eventually putrefy and decompose and the
placenta to drop.
Treatment is necessary because cows may develop
bacterial infection in the uterus which can lead to illness,

reduced milk yield, and even death. It could also lead to
reduced conception rate in cows which have not been
adequately treated. Finally, it is unpleasant for
milking cow to have a putrefying placenta hanging
around its udder.
As a general rule, cows are left for three to four days
without treatment, provided that they are not sick. Illness
occurs either because of bacterial infection or simply
because the placenta is degenerating naturally but the
animal is absorbing toxic waste products. Manual removal
of the placenta can also be done because the uterus at this
time has developed a protective barrier to infection and
there is little chance for toxemia or septicemia to develop.
It should be done gently and quickly within 5 to 20 minutes
and in a clean manner.
Pessaries containing antibiotics to kill the infection
and estrogens to help the natural defense mechanism and
stimulate contraction is inserted through the cervix into the
uterus. An alternative treatment (conservative) method is
to inject long acting antibiotics (oxytetracycline LA or
amoxicillin LA) to the animal without manually removing
the placenta. This conservative treatment has resulted in
subsequently better conception rate rather than with the
more “radical” treatment by manual removal.
The practice of tying a weight on the placenta should be
avoided. This causes the cow to strain and result in the
premature and incomplete breaking away of the placenta,
leaving a part of it still in the uterus.
Oxytocin can be used only during the first 24 hours
after calving and should be avoided if the animal is prone to
prolapse or has history of prolapse.
Uterine Prolapse
Uterine prolapse occurs immediately after calving,

sometimes as the calf is expelled, but almost always within
twelve hours of parturition. It is thought to be associated
with slackness of the ligament holding the reproductive
tract in position, and as such it is much common in older
cows. Figure 38a shows that the uterus turns itself inside

out and passes through the cervix and vagina. If the cow
is standing, the prolapsed uterus will be hanging down as far
as her hocks or teats; in other words it is a very large
structure. Also, the uterine cotyledons are clearly visible as
shown in Figure 38b.
Ovary
Uterine cotyledons
One horn of the uterine massively enlarged following

Cervix open the delivery of the calf
Fig. 38a. Prolapse of the uterus. The cervix and vagina

remain in their correct position.
Fig. 38b. Prolapsed uterus placed in a bucket containing

cold sugar solution. The cotyledons, as indicated
by arrows, can be clearly seen.

The mass of exposed internal organ leads to a large
amount of heat being lost from the cow and state of shock
sets in. It is therefore a serious condition which calls for
immediate veterinary attention to have it returned. In the
meantime, it is important to keep the cow quiet, and if
possible, cover the prolapse with a clean sheet. The best way
to deal with a prolapse is to give an epidural anesthetic
before attempting to return it into the pelvic cavity. This
will stop her straining and make its return easier. In place
of epidural anesthesia, a rope tied tightly around the animal’s
abdomen, immediately in front of her udder will stop her
straining. Thoroughly clean the prolapse with water
together with the surrounding areas. Place it in a bucket
containing cold sugar solution for about 20 minutes. This
stops the bleeding and reduces edema (the size of the
prolapse), thus, it would be easier to replace. The prolapse
is then slowly returned into the pelvic cavity. Infuse
antibiotic solution or non-irritating antiseptic (2%
povidone-iodine solution) into the uterus through the
vagina. Vulvar suture will be necessary to prevent
recurrence of the condition (Fig. 38c). Injection of long
acting antibiotics will promote faster healing of the uterus
and prevent genital tract infection. Vulvar wounds caused
Fig. 38c. The same cow after

the prolapsed uterus
was returned into the
pelvic cavity and the
vulva sutured.

by the sutures should be sprayed with wound spray daily.
The sutures should be removed after two weeks.
Vaginal Prolapse
This is a much less serious condition than a uterine

prolapse, and although it is often seen few days after calving,
it can occur at any stage of pregnancy. Fig. 39a shows that
only the vagina and cervix are everted but the uterus
remains in its normal position. Occasionally, a vaginal
prolapse (Fig. 39b) may be accompanied by rectal prolapse
but rectal prolapse can occur as separate condition.
Compared to uterine prolapse, vaginal prolapse is easier to
replace even without epidural anesthesia. Make sure that
the prolapsed structure is thoroughly cleaned before
replacing it. Infuse antiseptic solution (2% povidone-iodine
solution) into the vagina before suturing the vulva. Vulvar
sutures can be removed after two weeks.
Cervix closed
Vulva
Skin of hindleg
Prolapsed cervix appears Vulva
through the lips of the vulva
Fig. 39a. Prolapse of the vagina and cervix.

Fig. 39b. A vaginal prolapse.
Diarrhea/Scouring
Generally, the cause of diarrhea in young animals can be

grouped into microbial, parasitic, and dietetic or a
combination of the three. It is widely recognized that
diarrhea is the most common disease in calves, kids or
piglets and the greatest single cause of death.
In scouring, more fluids are lost via the feces and if not
replaced by additional intake by mouth, dehydration occurs.
The blood becomes thicker and more difficult for the heart
to pump, leading to poor circulation. Body temperature
drops and the animals goes into state of shock. Excess fluid
in the feces carries with it salts and other nutrients, which
would have been absorbed by the linings of the intestines
(villi) if they have not been damaged. Moreover, the capacity
of these villi to produce digestive enzymes will also be
reduced hence, whole milk may pass straight into the large
intestines, ferment, and cause further diarrhea. Establishing
the exact cause of diarrhea is not an easy task and it is an
area where veterinary assistance will be required. For the

farmer, treatment must be the first priority. The guidelines
given below apply to all types of scouring.
1. Withhold milk because the intestines may no

longer possess the enzyme capacity to digest it.
2. Provide fluids to counteract the massive loss through

the feces. Oral rehydration powder containing glucose
and electrolytes are available at drugstores. Added
with potable water, this will not only replenish lost
fluids but salts and nutrients as well. As substitute
for oral dehydration, young coconut juice mixed with
brown sugar and salt can be given orally to the
animal.
3. Administer antibiotics orally and/or by injection if

there is risk of septicemia. As substitute for
antibiotics, decoction of guava leaves or star apple
leaves, or cogon roots can be given orally to control
diarrhea.
Acute Pneumonia
Acute penumonia is a problem frequently associated

with incomplete colostral intake. This results either to
inadequate immunity to the gastro-intestinal tract resulting
in diarrhea or to the respiratory tract, the effect of which is
an increase in the population of commensals in the lungs
leading to acute penumonia. Initially, it is characterized by
lethargy, inappetence, and fever. Respiratory distress
follows in a few days. The condition is highly fatal affecting
approximately 5% of the total calf population. To prevent
acute calf pneumonia, the following measures are
recommended:
1. Make sure the newborn calf stays long enough with

its dam to gain adequate colostral intake. Keep in
mind that it should suckle within the first six
hours of birth.

2. Whenever possible, the calf should be lifted to
suckle as soon as it is reasonably able to stand.
Suckling will need to continue for 15-20 minutes.
3. If the calf is too weak to suckle, bottle feed it with

approximately 8-10% of its birthweight with its
dam’s colostrum. If orphaned, or if the dam is mastitic
or ill, colostrum can be obtained from near-calving
or from newly-calved cows. Immunologically, it is
of no point to collect milk from cows that calved
a few days earlier.
4. If colostrum is unavailable, a suitable milk

replacer or fresh milk can be given but should not
exceed 8-10% the calf ‘s birthweight to prevent
indigestion. Have a veterinarian administer
antibiotic and vitamin ADE shots in such cases.
5. Protect the calf from excessive drafts and

inclement weather by providing a warm, clean, and
comfortable pen.
6. Treat affected animal with long acting penicillin or

tetracycline twice a week for three weeks.

References
Ancheta, P.B.; Dumilon, R.A. Anthelmintic resistance of

small ruminants in the Philippines. Paper presented at
the 36th PSAS Annual Convention, Metro Manila, October
21-24, 1999.
Anon. Worm control program. Animal Husbandry and Agric.
J. 15 (10): 13-14, 38, 1981.
Barger, I.A.; Siale, K.; Banks, D.J.D.; Le Jambre, L.F.
Rotational grazing for control of gastrointestinal
nematodes of goats in a wet tropical environment.
Veterinary Parasitology 53:109-116, 1994.
Blood, D.C.; Radostits, O.M. Veterinary medicine. London,
Bailliere Tindall, 7th edition, 1989.
Blood, D.C.; Radostitis, O.M.; Gay C.C. Veterinary medicine.
London. English Language Book Society and Bailliere
Tindall, 8th Edition, 1994. 1310p.
Blowey, R.W. A veterinary book for farmers. Farmers Press
Ltd., Norwich, England, 1985.
Bowmann, D.D.; Lynn, R.C. Georgi’s parasitology for
veterinarians. 6th Edition. W.B. Saunders Co., 1995.
428p.
Chaitow, L.; Trenev, N. Probiotics. England: Thorsons
Publishers Ltd., 1990.
Corwin, R.M.; Stromberg, B.E. Internal parasitism and
deworming of beef cattle- Status in the 1990’s. Veterinary
Medicine, May 1995.
Craig, T.M.; Wikse, S.E. Control programs for internal
parasites of beef cattle. Food Animal Parasitology 178
(4): 579-586, 1995.
Dar, W.D.; Faylon, P.S. Small ruminant development in the
Philippines. In: Sustainable Parasite Control in Small
Ruminants. Le Jambre, L.F.; Knox, M.R. (eds.). ACIAR
Proceedings No. 74: 1996. 110p.
De Padua, L.S.; Pancho, J.V. Handbook on Philippine
medicinal plants. College, Laguna, Philippines: UP Los
Baños, Vol. 4, 1989. 68p.

Eduardo, S.L. Hosts and geographical distribution of
paramphistomid species occurring in ruminants. Phil. J.
of Veterinary and Animal Sci. 3 & 4: 25-70, 1988.
Eduardo, S.L. Artyfechinostomum malayanum from pigs in
the Philippines. Phil. J. of Veterinary Medicine 26(1): 25-
27, 1989.
Georgi, J.R. Parasitology for veterinarians. 2nd Edition. New
York: WB Saunders Co., 1974.
Gray, G.D.; Villar, E.C. Sustainable worm control for small
ruminants in the Philippines. Los Baños, Laguna: ILRI,
and PCARRD, 1999.
Gray, G.D.; Yee, C.A.T.; Villar, E.C. Philippine literature
on helminth control for small ruminants. Los Baños,
Laguna, Philippines: ILRI and PCARRD, 1999. -
(Unpublished).
Gray, G.D. Best bet options for worm control. SparC
Newsletter for sustainable control of helminth parasites
in the tropics. Issue 1, 1999.
IPC Livestock DTC Friesland Manual on Goat Husbadry.
Oenkerk, The Netherlands, 1999. 66p.
Kaufmann, J. Parasitic infections of domestic animals: A
diagnostic manual. irkhauser Verlag, 1997. 423p.
Kingscote, A.A. The appraisal and control of livestock and
poultry parasitic diseases in the Philippines. FAO/UN
Publication No TA2559, 1968.
Kirk, R.W.; Bistner, S.I. Handbook on veterinary procedures
and emergency treatment. Philadelphia. W.B. Saunders
Company. 6th Edition, 1992. 1006p.
Le Jambre, L.F,; Royal, W.M.; Martin, P.J. The inheritance
of thiabendazole resistance in Haemonchus contortus.
Parasitology 78: 107-119, 1979.
Levine, N.D. Textbook of veterinary parasitology. Minnesota:
Burgess Pub House, 1978.
Lyons, T. Probiotics, acidifiers and yeast culture. In:
Biotechnology in the Feed Industry. Alltech Technical
Publications, 1988. pp. 219-234.
Manuel, M.F. Parasitic diseases of ruminants and their
control. Animal Husbandry and Agric. J. 17 (2): 28-30,
1983.

Manuel, M.F. Parasites of economic importance in the
Philippines. Solvay Poultry Health Inc. – Premium
Agrovet Products, Inc. Proceedings of the 3rd Poultry
Health Short Course. 11-14 October 1995. College,
Laguna: CVM, UPLB, 1994.
Manuel, M.F. Parasitic diseases: A major consraint in
poultry production. Solvay Poultry Health, Inc. –
Premium Agrovet Products Inc. Proceedings of the 3rd
Poultry Health Short Course. 11-14 October 1995.
College, Laguna: CVM, UPLB, 1994.
Manuel, M.F. Parasites of economic importance in the
Philippines. Solvay Swine Health, Inc. – Premium
Agrovet Products Inc. Proceedings of the 4th Swine
Health Short Course. 11-14 October 1995. College,
Laguna: CVM, UPLB, 1995.
Manuel, M.F.; Santos, A.V.; Lucas, S. Prevalence of
gastrointestinal helminths affecting backyard piggery
farms. Phil. J. of Veterinary and Animal Sci. 15 (3 & 4):
47-53, 1989.
Marbella, C.O. Prevention and control of gastrointestinal
nematodes of goats in the Bicol region, 1991.
Martin, S.W. Causal inferences: An epidemiologists’
viewpoint. Canadian Veterinary J. 28:105-106, 1987.
Martin, S.W.; Meek, A.H.; Willleberg, P. Veterinary
epidemiology. Principles and Methods. Ames, I.A. (ed.).
Iowa State University Press, 1987.
Mateo, C.D. Herbal medicine in animal health care. Animal
Husbandry and Agric. J. 30 (1): 52, 54-58, 60-61, 1996.
Merck’s Veterinary Manual. 8th Edition, 1998. 2305p.
North, M.; Bell, D. Commercial chicken production manual.
4th Edition. Chapman & Hall, 1990.
Putz, R. Controlling flies in layer houses. Animal Husbandry
and Agric. J., Feb. 1993.
Sainsbury, D. Poultry health management. 4th Edition.
Blackwell Science, Ltd., 2001.
Schillhorn van Veen, T.W. Sense or nonsense? Traditional
methods of animal parasite disease control. 71:177-194,
1997.

Soulsby, E.J.L. Helminths, arthropods, and protozoa of
domestic animals. 7th Edition. London, Bailliere Tindall,
1982. 809p.
Tembely, S.; Hansen, J.W. Helminth diseases of small
ruminants in the tropics: A review of epidemiology and
control strategies. In: Sustainable Parasite Control in
Small Ruminants. Le Jambre, L.F.; Knox, M.R. (eds.).
ACIAR Proceedings No. 74, 1996. 110p.
The Animal Health Care Committee. The Philippines
recommends for animal health care. Los Baños, Laguna:
PCARRD and Squibb Technihelp Service Animal Health
Division, E.R. Squibb and Sons, Philippines Corporation,
1988. 78p. - (Technical Bulletin Series No. 65).
Thrushfield, M. Veterinary epidemiology. Ondon,
Butterworths, 1986.
Tizard, I. Risks associated with use of live vaccines. J. of
American Veterinary Medical Assoc. 11:1851-1858, 1990.
Tizard, I. Veterinary immunology: An introduction. 3rd
Edition. Philadelphia. W.B. Saunders, 1987.
Tongson, M.S.; Mimis, N.M.; Que, E. Post parturient
transmission of Toxocara and Strongyloides larva to
calves and caracalves via the milk. Animal Husbandry
and Agric. J. March 1994.
Umali, E.P. The efficacy of ivermectin against lice and
mites infesting Philippine gamefowls. Undergraduate
thesis. D.V.M. Los Baños, Laguna: UPLB.
Urquhart, G.M.; et al. Veterinary parasitology. 1st Edition.
Longman Scientific J., 1987.
Van Aken, D.; Dargantes, A.; Vadez, L.; Flores, A.; Dorny, P.;
Vercruysse, J. Comparative study of strongyle infections
of cattle and buffaloes in Mindanao, the Philippines.
Veterinary Partasitology 89: 33-137, 2000.
Van Aken D.; Lagapa, J.T.; Dargantes, A.P.; Yebron, M.A.;
Vercruysse, J. Benzimidazole resistance in a field
population of H. contortus from sheep in the Philippines.
Phil. J. of Veterinary and Animal Sci. 20:73-78, 1994.
Van Aken D.; Vercruysse, J.; Dargantes, A.; Shaw, D.J.
Epidemiology of Mecistocirrus digitatus and other
gastrointestinal nematode infections in cattle in
Mindanao, Philippines. Veterinary Parasitology 74: 29-
41, 1998.

Velasquez ,C.C.; Eduardo, S.L. Index catalogue of parasites
of Philippine vertebrates. Metro Manila, Philippines:
NAST, 1994.
Villapando, R.L. Incidence of coccidiosis in selected swine
farms with emphasis on suckling piglets. Undergraduate
thesis. Los Baños, Laguna: DVM, UPLB, 2001.

Appendix A
Republic of the Philippines

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Office of the Secretary
Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City 1100 Philippines
Administrative Order No. 12

Series of 1992
Subject: Classification of Animal Diseases
In order to provide the basis for monitoring, prevention, control

and eradication of animal diseases and in the regulation of animals,
animal products and by-products, animal feeds, veterinary drugs and
products, the following classification of diseases affecting animals is
hereby established:
First Priority Diseases - are communicable diseases which

have the potential for very serious and rapid spread, are of serious
socio-economic or public health international trade of animals,
products and; are presently the priority of the government for
prevention, control and eradication programs
Foot and Mouth Disease (01 , A24 , C 1)

Hemorrhagic Septicemia
Anthrax
Blackleg
Hog Cholera
Newcastle Disease
Rabies
Second Priority Diseases - are communicable diseases

which are considered to be of socio-economic and/or public health
importance and which are significant in the internal trade of animals,
products.

Swine Plague
Swine Erysipelas
Fowl Cholera
Fowl Pox
Pullorum
Brucellosis
Leptospirosis
Bovine Tuberculosis
Emerging Diseases - are communicable disease which have

been recently detected to be present in the country but still confined
in limited areas or farms.
Johne’s Disease
Swine Pleuropneumonia
Japanese B. Encephalitis
Egg Drop Syndrome
Viral Arthritis/Malabsorption Syndrome
Swollen Head Syndrome
Diseases of Farm Concern - are diseases which commonly

affect farm animals and their prevention and control are of primary
concern of the farm.
1. Multispecies
Anaplasmosis
Babesiosis
Collibacillosis
Fascioliasis
Keratoconjunctivitis
Mycoplasmosis
Trypanosomiasis
2. Hogs
Atrophic Rhinits
Aujeszky’s Disease
Porcine Parvovirus
Salmonellosis
Swine Influenza

3. Poultry
Avian Malaria
Avian Encephalomyelitis
Coccidiosis
Coryza
Infectious Bronchitis
Infectious Bursal
Infectious Laryngotracheitis
Marek’s Disease
4. Sheep/Goat
Orf
Disease of Companion Animals - are diseases of horses, dogs,

cats and exotic pets which are present in the country.
Equine Infectious Anemia

Canine Distemper
Canine Parvovirus Enteritis
Canine Adenovirus 1
Canine Parainfluenza
Feline Panleukopenia
Psittacosis/Ornithosis
Ehrlichiosis
Babesia canis
Theleria canis
Canine herpes
Feline herpes
Exotic Disease - are diseases of animals which are not and no

longer present in the country based on the classification of OIE
listings of diseases, A. and B.
Foot and Mouth Disease (Asia 1, SAT 1, SAT 2, SAT 3)

Blue Tongue
Rinderpest
Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia
Mucosal Disease/Bovine Virus Diarrhea
Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis
Enzootic Bovine Leukosis
Heartwater
Peste des Petits Ruminants

Q ever
Dermatophilosis
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
African Swine Fever
Vesicular Stomatitis
Vesicular Exanthema
Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia
Nairobi Sheep Disease
Scrapie
Maedi-Visna
Caprine Arthritis/Encephalitis
Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia
Enzootic Abortion of Ewes
Pulmonary Adenomatosis
Transmissible Gastroenteritis
Teschen’s Disease
Porcine Reproductive Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS)
Glanders
Horse Pox
Infectious Arteritis of Horses
Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis
Lumpy Skin Diseases
Avian Influenza
Duck Virus Hepatitis
Duck Virus Enteritis
Done in Quezon City, this 4th day of October, in the year nineteen
hundred and ninety two.
This Order shall take effect immediately.
ROBERTO S. SEBASTIAN
Secretary
Recommending Approval:
MANUEL D. ROCHA
OIC, Office of the Director

Appendix B
Guide in Collection and Transport of Specimens for Laboratory Examination
Examination
Desired Specimen Collection Transport Remarks
Parasitologic
Microscopic exam Blood or tissue Blood sources from Place match stick or clean Prepare minimum of four
for blood/ tissue impression peripheral blood or bond paper between slides slides. Use only clean,
of parasites smears heart blood (live or to prevent sticking before unused slides. Clean new
dead animal). packing in case commercial slides with mild soap and
Tissue impression or home-made slide box is water, then air dry before
smears from liver, spleen. not available. use.
To fix smear, air dry Dispatch to laboratory,
FOR
or dip slide in absolute ASAP, otherwise refrigerate

methanol for 1 minute for the meantime.
then air dry.
Unclotted blood Collect 5 ml by drip method Dispatch tubes/vial ASAP Decomposed blood is
or by venepuncture of within 24 hours packed unsuitable for parasite
peripheral veins. If animal with cracked ice in dip examination.
is to be sacrificed, collect proof container. Send ASAP to laboratory,
from heart blood. Use test otherwise refrigerate the
tubes or boiled antibiotic specimen. Do not freeze
vials as container with specimen.
anticoagulant.
Commercial blood collection
tubes with citrate or EDTA
anticoagulant are available.
Appendix B. (Continued).
Examination
Microscopic exam Feces or stomach/ For feces, collect 1-2 tbsp Collect sample in “unused” For unusual or interesting
for intestinal intestinal from rectum or from clean plastic bags or jar. parasite specimen, hand
parasitism contents newly voided manure Place bag in plastic cup or carry to the laboratory or
uncontaminated with soil, in cardboard box. to parasitologist.
dirt, and the like.
Parasite At least 5-10 Wash parasites with 70% Place specimen in plastic/glass
identification whole parasite ethyl alcohol (or rubbing jar with liberal amount of
specimens or alcohol) and preserve in preservative. Seal container
FOR
one to two same or in 10% formalin. with tape.

tissue slices
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
containing the
parasite.
Serologic
Examples: 2.5 ml blood Collect by drip method or Sealtight the container and Avoid sending hemolyzed
HI, AGPT, SN serum venepuncture from peri- transport packed in cracked specimen. Serum should
Plate or tube pheral veins, e.g., wing vein or tubed ice within 2-4 hours. be clear (straw colored or
agglutination in poultry, ear vein in pigs, Serum may be frozen in case colorless)
jugular vein in cattle, of delay in transport to the lab.
carabao, and goat. Sterile
test tubes or clean antibiotic
vials, boil in water for
15 minutes, then air dry.
These can be used as
container. Let blood stand
to clot in 2-10 minutes.
Loosen clot with sterile
toothpick or hypodermic
needle, then refrigerate
the specimen in slanting
position for 30 minutes
to separate serum from
clot. Pour serum (or collect

with medicine dropper) into
a new set of test tubes
or vials.
Necropsy Preferably live Transport chicken/animal in The specimen should reach

for poultry and specimen showing appropriate crate or well- the laboratory alive and
small animals, e.g., symptoms of ventilated box with due during office hours unless
rabbits, kids, piglets illness observed, consideration not to spread prior arrangements have
e.g., for chicken infection or cause been made with the lab for
with respiratory inconvenience to the off-hour arrival.
problem, collect general public. Observe
FOR
birds in early to kindness to the birds when

late stages of the transporting them.
illness or those
with mild to
severe symptoms
(total of 3-4 birds
at least).
Routine Slice of affected Preferably transport in Keep bloody tissues in

histopathology tissues/or gams, tightly sealed (drip-proof) separate container. Do not
exam 0.5 cm x 2 cm plastic jars or containers send frozen or decomposed
piece of affected specimens. Collect tissues
area to include ASAP after the animal died.
adjacent normal
Appendix B. (Continued).
Examination
area. Pressure in
10% formalin or
70-80% ethyl/
isoprophyl alcohol.
Preservative
should be at least
valance of tissues.
Bacteriologic/ Consult your In case of notifiable diseases,

FOR
Virologic exam, e.g., veterinarian or write rabies, pseudorabies,

isolation, antibiotic to laboratory anthrax, tuberculosis,
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
sensitivity test specimen. The brucellosis, and the like,

specimen depends notify the nearest veterinary
a lot on the disease office or laboratory
or condition suspected government or private for
or observed. For appropriate action.
poultry and small
animals, send live
specimens.
Note: Properly label container of specimens indicating species, age, sex, owner, address or owner name and address of laboratory. It is a
good practice to accompany specimen with note or letter stating more details of the case, e.g., symptoms, morbidity rate, mortality rate, and
suspected disease.
Appendix C
List of Regional Animal Disease Diagnostic

Laboratories (RADDL)
Region Address Tel./Fax. Nos.
I Tebag, Sta. Barbara, (075) 523-39-28

Pangasinan
II DA-RFU No. 02, (078) 844-3101/846-
Tuguegarao, Cagayan 4834
III Capitol Compound, (045) 961-2934
San Fernando, Pampanga
IV Marauoy, Lipa City, Batangas (043) 756-0015
V Cabangan, Camalig, Albay (056) 826-0147/826-
0424/826-0147
VI Fort San Pedro, Iloilo City (033) 336-9737
VII M. Velez St., Cebu City (032) 255-3063/255-
3064/254-4005
VIII Brgy. Diit, Tacloban City (053) 325-7805
IX RADDL, Tumaga, 992-6350/992-4165
Zamboanga City
X A. Luna St. Cagayan (088) 856-2753-55/
de Oro City 725-725
XI San Gabriel, Mintal, (0918) 597-5263
Davao City
XII Sinsuat Ave., Cotabato City (064) 421-5857/421-
3789
CARAGA Capitol Site, Butuan City (085) 342-0457/
342-7447
CAR BFD Compound, Green (074) 445-4973
Valley Rd., Baguio City
ARMM DAF-ARMM, ORG Compound, (064) 421-1248/
Cotabato City 421-1234

Appendix D
Capabilities of the Regional Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratories (RADDL)
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII CAR CARAGA

Laboratory Tests
Pangasinan Cagayan Pampanga Batangas Albay Iloilo Cebu Tacloban Zamboanga Cag. de Oro Davao Cotabato Baguio Butuan
1.Pathology
- Gross Patho. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
- Histopathology 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
- Clinical Patho. X X X X X X X X X 0 X 0 0 0
- Toxicity Test
MIT 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
FOR
2. Bacteriology
- Bact. Isolation 0 X X X X X X X X 0 X X X X
ANIMAL HEALTH CARE
- Antb. Sensitivity 0 X X X 0 X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0
- Fungal Isolation 0 0 X X 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 0 0
- Water Analysis 0 0 0 X X X X 0 X 0 0 0 X 0
3. Serology
- Rapid Plate Test
Brucella X 0 X X X X X X X X X 0 X X
Lepto 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mycoplasma X 0 X X X 0 X X 0 0 X 0 X 0
Salmonella X 0 X X X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0
- HA/HI
ND 0 0 X X 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
IB 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
EDS 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
- AGPT 0 X 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4.Virology
- Rabies
DME X X X 0 X X X X X X 0 X X X
MIT 0 0 X 0 X X X X X 0 0 0 X 0
FAT 0 0 0 0 X X X X X 0 0 0 X 0
- Tissue Culture 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5.Parasitology
- Fecalysis
Direct X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Flotation X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Sedimentation X X X X X X 0 0 X X X X X X
EPG 0 X 0 X X X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Larval Culture 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 0 X 0 0 0
- BPE
Blood smear X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Ani. Inoculation 0 0 0 0 X X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
- Ectoparasite
Skin scraping X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Legend: X = Capable of performing in the RADDL.

FOR
0 = Not being done at the RADDL.

ISSN 0115-7833
ISBN 971-20-0492-9
PFIZER,
Inc.
Logo

ANIMAL HEALTH CARE

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

ANIMAL HEALTH CARE

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ANIMAL HEALTH CARE

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

To Our Valued Reader,

This publication, The Philippines Recommends for

Very truly yours,

Philippines Recommends Series No. 65-A

PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY

ANIMAL HEALTH DIVISION

Los Baños, Laguna

The 2001 Animal Health Care Committee.

Animal diseases have been an important concern in the

In the Philippines, majority of livestock and poultry are

RONALD A. VERGEL DE DIOS

The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and

Regular Vaccination Program 14

Regular Parasite Control Program 26

Preventive Medication Program 61

Guides in Handling First Aid and/or Emergency Case 66

Dr. Jose Q. Molina

Dr. Ronello B. Abila Dr. Andrew M. Bernardo

Dr. Antonio A. Rayos Dr. Edwin C. Villar

Dr. Virginia M. Venturina Dr. Jerosalem A. Arguzon

Agglutination – a reaction in which particles (such as red

Livestock diseases is a problem of considerable

PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 1

PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 3

One of the veterinary medical interventions designed

4 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE

Hygienic Measures to Prevent the Entry

The entry of disease agents to disease-free or healthy

PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 5

In cases where a disease is already present, hygienic

z Whenever possible, confine animals in suitable

1. Confine poultry and pigs raised in the backyard.

6 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE

Fig. 2. Suitable shed/pen for pigs.

Fig. 3. Recommended night shed or holding area for cattle

PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 7

z Proper disposal of dead animals. Animals that died of an

z Check the drinking water supply. Water should be

z Quarantine of premises during outbreaks of diseases.

z Regular grooming of animals. Cattle, carabaos, goat, and

8 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE

Recommended Procedures in Disinfection

1. Remove all loose dirt, litter, and other organic materials

Chemical Compounds Used in Disinfection

Properties of an Ideal Disinfectant

An ideal disinfectant must:

z have a broad antimicrobial activity;

PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 9

Chemical compounds used in disinfection are given in

Table 2. Examples of various types of chemical compounds

Acids(Inorganic Coal-tar Derivatives

10 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE

trisodium phosphate Surface-active Agents

Source: PR for Animal Health Care, 1988.

PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 11

Alcohols 50-70 denaturation of proteins; as skin disinfectants; to form

of cell wall wounds; in sanitazing eating

Oligodynamic metals (silver, traces cell membrane destruction; as disinfectants, in ointments