Models of waves and their properties

Waves can reflect refract diffract and interfere

A Dutch scientist (Huygens) gave an explanation for the way in which a circular
wave spreads out. His explanation was that each point on the wavefront is
considered to be a source of a new set of disturbances.
Reflection
Bouncing back of a wave as it arrives a barrier.

The law of reflection states

Angle of incidence = angle of reflection

The incident angle: the angle between the normal and the incident ray.

The reflected angle: the angle between the normal and the reflected ray.

Normal ray: the ray that meets the boundary at right angle.

Refraction
The change in the direction of a wave when it passes from one medium to another.

This change occurs when the speed changes.

The relation between the incident angle and refracted angle is given by Snell’s
law.

𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 = 𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑟 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟

The constant is called refractive index it relates the incident angle to the angle
of refraction, the higher the refractive index the more the ray bends from air into
the medium.
sin 𝑖𝑖
1𝑛𝑛2 =
sin 𝑟𝑟

1𝑛𝑛2 is the refractive index for the light traveling from medium 1 to 2.

Examples for the refractive index for different mediums.

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐

𝑛𝑛 = =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣

The amount of refraction depends on the amount of speed changes.

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑣𝑣1
1𝑛𝑛2 = =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 𝑣𝑣2
 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 𝑣𝑣2
2𝑛𝑛1 = =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑣𝑣1
1
1𝑛𝑛2 =
2𝑛𝑛1

Notes:

• If the angle incidence equals 0 then the angle of refraction will equal to 0,
this means that the light doesn’t change direction.
• By plotting (sin r) on y-axis dependent variable against (sin i) on x-axis
independent variable the straight line produced will have gradient equal to
(1/1µ2)
• When light moves into denser medium it slows down and refracts towards
the normal and when light moves into less dense medium it speeds up and
refracts away from the normal.
Total internal reflection
When light moves into less dense medium bends away from the normal.

When the angle of incidence increases the angle of refraction increases.

At a certain angle of incidence the light refracting out escapes at an angle of

90°

The angle of incidence is called critical angle.

Light rays that incident the surface at an angle greater than the critical angle will
reflect back; this is called total internal reflection.

Partial reflection
When light incidents on a reflecting surface, not all the light is reflected and
some is transmitted.
Diffraction
A wave will diffract (spread out) as it goes through a gap or past an obstacle

The wavelength remains the same before and after the gap.

When a wave passes through a gap the diffraction effect is greatest when the
width of the gap is about the same size as the wavelength of the wave.

This apparatus is used to investigate light diffraction.

The slit is placed about 1m from a screen.
The diffraction pattern observed when light passes through a narrow slit shows
a central maximum and areas of maxima with decreasing intensity and
(confusing to see) dark areas called minima.

A diffraction grating consists of very large number of slits with fixed distance
between each slit. The grating causes multiple diffraction pattern which overlap.
This creates an interference pattern with well defines spacing between light and
dark spots.
Interference
When two waves meet they will interfere and superpose. After they have
passed they return to their original forms.

At the meeting point, the two waves will combine to give a resultant wave
whose amplitude (or intensity) may be greater or less than the original two
waves.

The resultant displacement can be found by adding the two displacements

together:

If two waves of the same type and the same frequency combine so that the
crest of one coincides with the trough of the other, they will completely cancel
each other out. This is called destructive interference.

Alternatively, if the two waves combine when their crests coincide; then there
would be constructive interference and the resultant amplitude would be equal
to the sum of the separate amplitudes.
For constructive interference

𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑛𝑛 𝜆𝜆

For Destructive interference

1
𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 = (𝑛𝑛 + ) 𝜆𝜆
2

The same results can be obtained using sound from two loudspeakers driven
by single signal generator to ensure that the two sources are in phase.
The loud speakers must be placed about 2 m apart for sound with 1000 Hz
frequency any listener moving between the loudspeakers he will hear the
intensity rises and falls due to constructive and destructive interferences.

Phase difference and path difference

Interference pattern consists of dark and
bright bands, if the 2 waves arrive in
phase they reinforce each other and the
bright area is seen. This called
constructive interference.

If the 2 waves arrive in phase they

reinforce each other and the bright area is
seen. This called constructive
interference.

If the 2 waves arrive in antiphase (180° out of phase) they cancel each other
and the dark area is seen. This called destructive interference.

The pattern of dark and bright bands called fringes

Notes:

1. The light of the same source leaves slits A and B in phase.

2. AP = BP, so the waves reach to point P in phase. Constructive interference
occurs and bright light is seen.
3. Distance AC is one wave length more than distance BR, so waves reach to
point R in phase. In R constructive interference occurs too.
4. Distance AQ is ½ wavelength more than length BQ, so waves reach to point
Q are out of phase. Destructive interference occurs resulting in a dark area.
5. The interference pattern for coherent sources can be observed.
6. For incoherent waves the phase keeps changing and the interference
pattern cannot be observed.
Polarization
Polarization is a phenomenon in which oscillations can be restricted to one plane
only.

Polarization is a phenomenon exhibited by transverse waves only. (Oscillations

are perpendicular to the direction of propagation).

A wave in which oscillations take place in many different planes is called

unpolarised.

Waves with oscillations in one plane only are called plane polarized.

Some useful applications of polarization

1- TV signal transmission

Transmission of signals from the station is horizontally polarized due to its

antenna, while the boosted signal from relay station is vertically polarized to
prevent these waves from interfering.
 2- In Polaroid glasses (polarizing filters) the light is polarized in one
particular plane. (Long molecules of quinine iodosulfate are lined up so
waves vibrating in one plane are allowed).

If two polarizing filters were placed facing each other so that the molecules are
aligned at 90° no light will be allowed through.

Note: The plane of polarization of the wave is the plane at which the electric
field oscillates.

Some chemical solutions such as sugar solution can rotate the plane of
polarization; the degree of polarization for a certain wavelength depends on the
concentration of the solution.