Module-5

Semiconductors and Devices:

Fermi level in Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductor, Expression for concentration of electrons in
conduction band & holes concentration in valance band (only mention the expression),Relation
between Fermi energy & Energy gap in intrinsic semiconductors(derivation), Law of mass action,
Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor (derivation), Hall effect, Expression for Hall
coefficient (derivation) and its application. Photo-diode and Power responsivity, Construction and
working of Semiconducting Laser, Four probe method to determine resistivity, Phototransistor,
Numerical problems.
 Semiconductors
These are the solids, having conductivity less than the conductors and greater
than the insulators. The energy band diagram of a semiconductor is similar to
that of an insulator but, the valence band and conduction band are separated by
a small narrow forbidden energy gap of the order of < 3 eV.
conduction band.
Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor (derivation)
Relation between Fermi energy and energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor or
Hall Effect
 Power Responsivity
The photo responsivity of a photodiode is defined as the ratio of the
output photocurrent measured in Ampere to its input optical specified
in Lux.

The lux (symbol: lx) is the SI derived unit of illuminance and luminous
emittance, measuring luminous flux per unit area. It is equal to one
lumen per square meter. In photometry, this is used as a measure of
the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes
through a surface
• Plot a graph of reverse current (I) versus input optical intensity in Lux.
• Calculate the slope of the above graph to obtain photo responsivity.
 Photo Transistor
Construction, Working, Characteristics and Applications
The symbol of Photo Transistor is similar to the transistor.
The arrows shows the light incident on the base terminal.
 Construction of Photo Transistor

• When compared to normal transistor, in photo transistor the base and collector
area is large.
• The base area is increased to increase the amount of current generated.
• Because more the light falls more the current is generated.
• Earlier it was made up of single semiconductor material like silicon or
germanium.
• Recently photo transistors are made up of Gallium and Arsenic to obtain higher
efficiency.
• Finally photo transistor is placed inside a metallic case and a lens is kept at the
top of the case to absorb the incident radiation
• From the above circuit we can know that base is not connected to any external bias and
only light is incident on the base terminal.

• Collector terminal is connected to the positive side of external supply and output is taken
from the emitter terminal.

• When no light is incident on the base terminal only some leakage current flows and it is
called as dark current.

• When light is incident on the lens at the base collector junction, base current is generated
which is proportional to the intensity of the incident light
• From the above figure we can observe how the collector current varies with the
intensity of the incident light.
• The collector current increases with the intensity of the incident light. Collector
current differs with the wavelength and the intensity of the light
 Four probe Resistivity measurement and Temperature
dependence of resistivity of semiconductor using
four probe & its applications.
• The experimental set up consists of probe arrangement, sample , oven 0-200°C,
constant current generator , oven power supply and digital panel meter(measuring
voltage and current).
• Four probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used apparatus for the
measurement of resistivity of semiconductors.
• This method is employed when the sample is in the form of a thin wafer, such as a
thin semiconductor material deposited on a substrate.
• The sample is millimeter in size and having a thickness w. It consists of four probe
arranged linearly in a straight line at equal distance S from each other.
• A constant current is passed through the two probes and the potential drop V across
the middle two probes is measured.
• An oven is provided with a heater to heat the sample so that behavior of the sample
is studied with increase in temperature
THEORY
At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is proportional to its length L and inversely
proportional to its area of cross section A.

Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter. A semiconductor has electrical conductivity
intermediate in magnitude between that of a conductor and insulator.

• Semiconductor differs from metals in their characteristic property of decreasing electrical resistivity with
increasing temperature.
• According to band theory, the energy levels of semiconductors can be grouped into two bands, valence band
and the conduction band.
• In the presence of an external electric field it is electrons in the valence band that can move freely, thereby
responsible for the electrical conductivity of semiconductors.
• In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in between the conduction band minimum and
valence band maximum.
• Since conduction band lies above the Fermi level at 0K, when no thermal excitations are available, the
conduction band remains unoccupied.
• So conduction is not possible at 0K, and resistance is infinite.
• As temperature increases, the occupancy of conduction band goes up, thereby resulting in decrease of
electrical resistivity of semiconductor.
 Gallium-Arsenide Laser:
Semiconductor laser
• A Semiconductor diode laser is a specially
fabricated p-n junction device that emits
coherent light when it is forward biased.

• The wavelength of the emitted photon

depends upon the activation energy of the
crystal.
Construction
• The gallium arsenide laser diode is a single crystal of
GaAs consists of heavily doped PN sections. The n-
section formed by doping of tellurium and P-section
formed doping with zinc.
• doping concentration is very high is of the order of
1017 to 1019atoms/cm3.
• The overall size of the diode is very small and each of
its side is of the order of 1mm.
• The p-n junction layer of the width varying 1μm to
100μm .
• Its depending upon the diffusion and temperature
conditions that exist at the time of fabrications
Energy level diagram of p-n junction diode laser
(a) Before biasing (b) After biasing.
 Working
• 1) At thermal equilibrium, the Fermi level is uniform across the junction as
shown in fig (a).
• 2) N-side is heavily doped, so the donor levels are broadened and extend
into conduction band. The Fermi level is also pushed into the conduction
band and electrons occupy the portion of conduction band below Fermi
level, when the forward bias voltage is applied Fig(b).

• 3) Similarly, on the heavily doped P-side holes occupy the portion of valence
band that lies below the Fermi level.

• 4) The GaAs laser diode is subjected to a forward bias using a DC source.

Electrons from the n-section and holes from the p-section flow across the
junction. An active region is formed in the junction where electrons and
holes recombine and emit photons. This is spontaneous emission.
5) Under normal conditions, the concentration of electrons in the valence band is
greater than that in the conduction band. Thus population inversion is not
possible.

6) If the current flowing through the diode exceed a certain threshold value then
the amount of electrons jumping from the valence band to the conduction band
is great enough for population inversion to be achieved within junction region as
shown in fig (b).

7) Spontaneous emission will take place, and a photon will be released due to
recombination. This photon interacts with an electron in the conduction band
resulting in a stimulated emission which gives the required laser action.

8) Since the energy gap of a GaAs semiconductor is 1.4 eV, From, Eg = hc/λ
λ = 9000 A°. GaAsP laser radiates at 6500 A°.
Applications of semiconductor diodes: Advantages of semiconductor laser:
1. They are compact
1) Optical communication
2. They are efficient
2) Reading devices for compact disc players,
3. They are highly stable
CD- ROMs