LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction:
A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a
topic. The review should enumerate, describe, summarise, objectively evaluate
and clarify this previous research. It should give a theoretical base for the
research and help you (the author) determine the nature of your research. A
literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area,
and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain period.
A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually
has an organisational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. The
literature review is a written overview of major writings and other sources on a
selected topic. Sources covered in the review may include scholarly journal
articles, books, government reports, Web sites, etc. The literature review
provides a description, summary and evaluation of each source.
In the present study, a researcher identified several kinds of literature and
reviewed pertinent to the research theme from both Western and Indian
sources and presented the same based on the objectives of the study.

Halim, Lamikanra & Sutton (2016) identified that women have become
exponentially more involved in competitive sports, Since Title IX was passed
in 1972, women's participation in competitive sports has significantly
increased, spanning from high school to professional levels. This rise in female
athletic involvement has brought to light specific challenges they face, such as
the female athlete triad, concussions, exercise safety during pregnancy, ACL
injuries, and ongoing sex discrimination and social injustice. Orthopaedists
need to be aware of these issues when treating female athletes. Title IX, part of
the 1972 Education Amendments Act, prohibits sex-based discrimination in
any educational program or activity receiving federal funding. This law greatly
enhanced women's participation in college sports, which was further
reinforced by the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1988. Before the 1970s,
women were largely confined to club sports with minimal funding and
participation opportunities compared to men. Over the past 40 years, there has
been a dramatic increase in female participation in sports, with high school
female athletes rising from 294,000 in 1972 to 3.4 million in 2014. Despite
these advances, inequalities persist, especially in funding distribution, which
heavily favours men's sports, particularly football. Men’s sports dominate
media coverage, and although women constituted 55% of college students in
2002, they only made up 42% of varsity athletes. Noncompliance with Title IX
is most prevalent in Midwest and Southern schools and those with football
teams. Women are also underrepresented as coaches, and funding disparities
continue to exist. However, participation in sports offers women numerous
benefits, including improved academic success, mental health, and responsible
behaviour, contributing positively to gender equality in the United States.

Knifsend, Graham & Sandra (2012) in their study explored how high school
girls involved in sports perceive gender discrimination from peers and adults
(e.g., teachers, and administrators) over three years compared to non-athlete
girls. While Title IX significantly increased high school girls' sports
participation in the U.S., this study is the first to examine how such
involvement relates to gender discrimination throughout high school.
Understanding this discrimination is vital for female athletes' academic,
emotional, and social well-being. The study also examines ethnic differences
in perceived gender discrimination and tracks the longitudinal trajectories of
this discrimination. The primary goal was to assess how female athletes and
non-athletes experience gender discrimination from peers during high school,
noting that peer support is crucial for positive adjustment. It was hypothesized
that athletes would face greater and more persistent gender discrimination than
non-athletes. The findings suggested that 9th-grade athletes experience
significant discrimination. Title IX, part of the 1972 Education Amendments,
ensured equal funding and opportunities for female athletes. Since its
enactment, the number of girls playing high school sports has dramatically
increased from under 300,000 in 1972 to about 3,000,000 in 2005-2006.

Karafil, Yavuz & Kaplan (2023) observed that in the realm of sports,
numerous expressions and studies are highlighting the gender-based
discrimination women face. These include perceptions that some sports are
more suitable for men than women and the notion that only men should
participate in sports. Additionally, the clothing women wear while engaging in
sports is often judged with a sexist attitude. Research has shown that female
athletes are frequently objectified sexually and face gender discrimination. The
media plays a significant role in this by portraying successful female athletes
or women engaging in sports for health reasons as sexual objects. This
objectification shapes the public's view of women in sports, emphasizing their
appearance over their achievements. Women in sports encounter substantial
gender discrimination, which manifests in unequal opportunities, resources,
and recognition compared to men. This inequality reflects broader societal
issues and keeps alive the stark reality of gender disparity. Discussions on
gender issues in sports cover a range of topics, including the pressure and
control exerted by families, society, and sports institutions, sexist language,
and the concealment of sexual harassment and abuse. Problems also arise from
policies on physical activity, staffing, facilities, and media representation,
which collectively impact women's participation in sports. In Turkey, gender
distribution charts in sports highlight these issues, showing how the male-
dominated structure of society influences women's participation in sports. This
male dominance in sports is a clear indicator of the broader social challenges
women face today.

Scheadler & Wagstaff (2018) identified that despite strides toward gender
equality in sports, female athletes still encounter significant obstacles. Media
representations perpetuate the notion that certain sports are masculine (e.g.,
football, ice hockey) and others are feminine (e.g., gymnastics, figure skating),
reinforcing traditional gender roles and making it challenging for women to
participate in "masculine" sports and vice versa. Female athletes often gain
societal acceptance and media coverage only if they compete in traditionally
feminine sports. When women enter masculine sports, their sexuality is
frequently questioned. The media often devalues female athletes'
accomplishments by focusing on their physical appearance, private lives,
femininity, and sexuality, rather than their athletic achievements. Media
coverage sometimes exploits female athletes' bodies, particularly in sports like
beach volleyball and track and field, which can lead to anxiety, fear, and body
image issues among female athletes. This unequal media attention contributes
to various negative outcomes for female athletes, including anxiety, eating
disorders, and reduced enjoyment and performance in sports. It also maintains
male privilege in sports. Although some may view this unequal attention as
minor, it constitutes discrimination that leads to self-blame, reduced
motivation, lower self-esteem, and diminished future expectations for
achievement among female athletes.

According to Staunton (2023) from the days of ancient Greece to modern

times, women have been fiercely competing in athletics. However, the
evolution of women in sports has faced many challenges. Female athletes have
encountered inequalities in funding and pay, gender stereotypes,
discrimination, and sexism throughout history. Despite these obstacles, they
continue to break barriers and inspire generations with their strength and
determination. In the early history of women in sports, Victorian-era notions of
proper decorum largely excluded women from organized sports until the late
19th century. Although women were playing field hockey and cricket in
England as early as the 18th century, it was after the first wave of feminism
that women began participating more regularly in competitive sports. The first
Women’s World Games, organized by feminist activist Emily Pankhurst in
1887 in London, featured events such as archery, lawn tennis, croquet,
fencing, and Irish dancing. This event marked a step forward for female
athletes, but it would take nearly 50 more years before women were allowed to
compete in the Olympic Games. The history of women's sports is one of
progress and overcoming adversity. While women have participated in sports
for centuries, they were not taken seriously as athletes until the late 19th and
early 20th centuries. Initially, most competitions were open only to amateurs,
but this changed in the 1920s with the establishment of the first professional
women's leagues. Since then, women's sports have advanced significantly.
Today, there are professional leagues for nearly all sports, and female athletes
compete at the highest levels. Although there is still considerable room for
improvement in terms of equality and opportunity, the landscape of women's
sports has transformed dramatically over the last century.

Mannion (2016) in her study found that both the general public and the
producers of sports media view women’s sports in America as less important,
less relevant, and less worthwhile than men’s sports. This has led to problems,
including a lack of representation in the media, a lack of places for young
women to play sports professionally, a lack of female role models for female
athletes, and dangerous playing conditions for female athletes. Investigating
this problem will get to the root of the reasoning for and uncover the extent of
this issue. Previous research in the field has shown that women are not fairly
represented in the media or on the playing field. Harris polls from the last three
years have shown a lack of interest from the public in women’s sports. Other
research has found that when young women do not see female athletes, they
feel discouraged from participating and stop playing. It has also been shown
that women are represented best in sports where their bodies can be sexualized
and they can be shown off as being attractive. This study will investigate these
claims, namely the extent of the lack of representation of female athletes and
the effect it has on public perception of these athletes. This study hypothesizes
that women’s sports media representation is minimal and that the public
perception of female athletes is sexual and delegitimizes their ability to
perform. The research will include a comprehensive look at modern sports
reporting and the opinions of young people on women’s sports to find out if
there is a relationship between the two. The study will discuss how sports
media affects the way female athletes are perceived by the public. This study
will have practical implications in that it will uncover the issues in the
representation of women’s sports in the media and the eyes of the public. It
will provide a springboard for the continuance of changes in the way women’s
sports are represented and how female athletes are perceived. It may have a
positive effect on young sports-playing women to encourage them to stay in
the game.
Ayushman (2023) examined that Women are the foundation of every family
and society, significantly contributing to societal empowerment despite often
being viewed as inferior to men worldwide. Many Indian sportswomen have
fought against prejudice, social exclusion, and cultural bias to build successful
careers. Female athletes have gained esteemed positions in society by taking
on roles beyond just being mothers and earning recognition through
perseverance and hard work. Their achievements in sports have helped
promote gender equality by instilling values like cooperation, independence,
fortitude, and self-assurance. Notable Indian athletes such as Sania Mirza,
Mary Kom, Mithali Raj, PV Sindhu, and Saina Nehwal have broken barriers
and made the country proud. Despite the increasing number of female athletes,
gender equality remains a significant issue in Indian society. Female athletes
face a substantial pay gap compared to their male counterparts, with earnings
and prize money often being significantly lower. Job stability and consistent
income prospects are also more challenging for female athletes, forcing many
to take up additional work. However, female athletes continue to push
themselves and make history despite these obstacles. Outstanding female
athletes like Sania Mirza, Mary Kom, Saina Nehwal, Mithali Raj, and PV
Sindhu have inspired future generations to pursue their dreams. Mirza, a six-
time major champion, has received the Padma Shri and Arjuna Awards. Mary
Kom, the only female boxer to medal in every amateur boxing division, has
also received several prestigious awards. Nehwal, the first Indian badminton
player to earn an Olympic medal, has boosted the sport's appeal in India and
received numerous accolades. Women have battled their way out of a male-
dominated society, achieving their goals through perseverance and
determination. Despite marginalization, their consistent efforts have led to
significant success and a prominent presence in the sports industry, proving
that persistence pays off.

Dutt (2018) viewed the current state and historical context of women's
participation in sports globally, with a focus on India. While women's sports
are generally accepted and some, like figure skating, have female athletes who
are more popular than their male counterparts, many sports do not see women
competing on equal terms with men. Despite increased participation,
significant disparities persist, largely due to conservative institutions and
programs that do not support gender equity. In India, although sports are
emphasized in national education policies and the 2001 sports policy aimed to
increase women's participation, sports remain unpopular among women and
girls. The paragraph highlights various reasons for this, including socio-
psychological issues, lack of family support, economic challenges, security
concerns, domestic responsibilities, and social taboos. Additionally, there are
practical barriers such as inadequate sports equipment, lack of trained
instructors, and insufficient playgrounds, especially in remote and
educationally backward areas. Cultural attitudes also play a role, with many
believing that sports do not benefit girls in their traditional roles or provide
economic advantages. This has led to a preference for indoor games and
activities like music and craft over physical sports, and the overall importance
of sports for health and fitness is not widely recognized by teachers or parents.

Jadhav (2018) observed that in almost every nation sport is an integral part of
the culture. Sports are always used to promote gender equity and empower
girls and women. The integral role of sports in cultures worldwide and its
potential to promote gender equity and empower women. Historically, sports
were not considered suitable for women, leading to low female participation
and limited research in this area. Factors such as sex role stereotyping, male
research bias, and societal reward structures have contributed to this neglect.
Despite the universal nature of sports, which should transcend colour, caste, or
sex, women historically faced numerous restrictions. However, women's
participation in sports is now growing rapidly, particularly in developing
countries. Participation rates remain low in some regions due to social and
environmental factors, including gender, age, education, and financial status.
In parts of India, women are still perceived as burdens and lack autonomy,
affecting their ability to participate in sports. Nonetheless, sports participation
offers significant benefits, such as improved health, cognitive abilities, and
stress reduction. It also contributes to societal development by empowering
women. Encouraging sports from school to university levels and organizing
more events for women can help increase participation. Society needs to
support women's involvement in sports to promote their health and well-being.

Kantanista, Adam & Korcz (2018) examined that female athletes often face
sociocultural and sport-specific pressures to change their weight, body shape,
and appearance, leading to body dissatisfaction. This dissatisfaction involves
negative thoughts about one's body and a perceived gap between the current
and ideal body size. Perception of body image can vary depending on the
context, such as between athletic and daily life settings. Petrie and Greenleaf's
theoretical model suggests that body dissatisfaction results from internalizing
societal and sport-specific pressures, which can moderate the risk of eating
disorders among athletes. The type of sport influences body dissatisfaction,
with aesthetic, thinness-focused sports showing higher rates of body image
disorders. While sports involvement generally protects athletes from body
image concerns, this protection is less effective for women and elite athletes.
Highly trained female athletes' self-perception of body image remains
underexplored, despite its importance in preventing unhealthy weight-related
behaviours. Body dissatisfaction can predict eating disorders, which have
serious health consequences. Thus, promoting body satisfaction is crucial for
the health and well-being of female athletes.

According to Pandey (2022) Women in sports have shown that they are just as
capable as men, using sports as a platform to showcase their talent and
challenge societal norms. This shift has encouraged the participation of many
talented female athletes, leading to greater appreciation and value for women's
contributions in sports. India, a nation passionate about sports, has witnessed a
significant transformation in women's sports. The journey began with Karnam
Malleswari, who won a bronze medal in weightlifting at the 2000 Sydney
Olympics. Since then, athletes like Mary Kom, Saina Nehwal, PV Sindhu,
Sakshi Malik, Mirabai Chanu, and Lovlina Borgohain have achieved
remarkable success at the Olympics, inspiring many others. The impact of
women in sports goes beyond empowerment and equality; it highlights
individual abilities and human potential. Talented and dedicated female
athletes have changed people's perspectives and challenged stereotypes,
proving that women can excel in various sports. Prominent Indian female
athletes such as Geeta Phogat, Mithali Raj, Deepika Kumari, and Dutee Chand
have demonstrated that women can succeed in diverse sports fields. Their
achievements have sparked interest in sports like tennis, badminton, and
boxing, encouraging society to think differently and providing equal
opportunities for both men and women. Despite progress, only 30% of Indian
women currently participate in sports. Increased sports participation would
empower women, helping them develop personal skills, teamwork, and overall
well-being. It would also positively impact families and society, promoting
discipline, fame, independence, mental clarity, and health. Women in sports
are transforming Indian sports and society, paving the way for future
generations to embrace and excel in sports.

A study conducted by Lobpries, Bennett & Natasha (2018) observed in the

context of female athletes, social roles refer to the appropriateness of
behaviours traditionally associated with being a woman and an athlete. Social
Role Theory (SRT) helps understand these roles and the behavioural
expectations for female athletes. Research suggests that women face gender-
based limitations in building their brand due to societal expectations of gender
roles. Men are typically associated with agentic traits (e.g., aggression,
assertiveness), valued in sports and personal branding. In contrast, women are
expected to exhibit communal traits (e.g., kindness, nurturing), challenging
self-promotion as it may be seen as unfeminine. The sports world is often
viewed as a male domain, leading to scrutiny and stigmatization of female
athletes who do not conform to traditional feminine norms. In sports
management literature, SRT explains the gendered roles and behaviours
expected in athletic administration and competition. Female athletes often feel
pressured to portray hyper-feminine images to avoid negative consequences in
building their brand. For female athletes to successfully build their brand
identity, they must communicate their strengths, despite societal norms
discouraging women from self-promotion. The lack of media coverage for
women’s sports exacerbates this issue, as it limits opportunities for
sponsorship and professional advancement. Empirical research is needed to
explore the barriers female athletes face and develop strategies to overcome
these challenges.

According to Staunton (2023) the early history of women in sports is closely

tied to the Victorian era's emphasis on proper decorum for ladies. Until the late
19th century, women were largely excluded from organized sports, though
there were records of women playing field hockey and cricket in England as
early as the 18th century. The first significant shift occurred after the first
wave of feminism, leading to increased female participation in competitive
sports. In 1887, the first Women's World Games were held in London,
organized by feminist activist Emily Pankhurst. This event included archery,
lawn tennis, croquet, fencing, and Irish dancing. Despite this progress, women
had to wait almost 50 more years before competing in the Olympic Games. It
wasn't until 2012 that all events at the Summer Olympics included female
athletes. The history of women's sports is marked by overcoming adversity and
gradual progress. Initially, most competitions were restricted to amateurs, but
the establishment of the first professional women's leagues in the 1920s
marked a significant change. Today, professional leagues exist for nearly
every sport, and female athletes compete at the highest levels. While there is
still much to achieve in terms of equality and opportunity, women's sports
have transformed significantly over the past century. Female athletes have
consistently fought for their right to compete, proving their talent and
deserving status alongside their male counterparts. The continued success of
women in sports inspires future generations and highlights the importance of
advocating for gender equity. By supporting women's sports, we can foster an
inclusive environment that empowers individuals from all backgrounds to
pursue their athletic dreams.

Antil, Burton & Robinson (2012) examined that using athletes to promote and
endorse brands has been a long-standing strategy, beginning in the 1880s with
tobacco companies using baseball celebrity cards to boost sales. By the early
1900s, the popularity of baseball stars like Babe Ruth and Ty Cobb led to
endorsement contracts, making sports celebrity endorsements a common sight.
However, female athletes' endorsements lagged significantly, with notable
examples such as tennis star Suzanne Lenglen in 1934 and Babe Didrikson in
1935. Sports sponsorship has become a massive business, with expenditures
reaching over $11 billion in 2009. Individual athlete endorsements make up a
significant portion, with companies like Nike holding substantial endorsement
contracts. Many athletes earn more from endorsements than from playing their
sport, with Tiger Woods earning 96% of his income. Despite the large market,
female athletes are underrepresented in endorsements. Sports Illustrated's 2011
list of the highest-earning U.S. athletes featured no women, and a 2009 Forbes
list of the world's highest-paid athletes also excluded females. Turner reported
that only 3% of TV ads used female athletes as endorsers, and during Super
Bowl ads from 1997 to 2009, only 8% featured a sole female athlete. This lack
of representation persists despite the significant increase in female sports
participation since Title IX in 1972. Female consumers, who influence 85% of
brand purchases, feel neglected by marketers who often resort to simplistic
strategies like "make it pink." Given this landscape, there is a logical
opportunity for increased use of female athletes as celebrity endorsers to better
connect with female consumers and address their needs.

Malara & Lutoslawska (2016) identified that poor dietary habits in female
athletes are linked to several health issues, including irregular menstrual cycles
(such as anovulatory cycles, oligomenorrhea, and amenorrhea) and decreased
bone mineral density (BMD). This combination of symptoms—disordered
eating, amenorrhea, and low BMD—is known as the female athlete triad and is
observed in 4.3% of all female athletes. The prevalence of eating disorders and
menstrual dysfunctions ranges from 5.4% to 26.9%. Among high school
athletes aged 13-18, 5.9% exhibited two triad components, and 1.2%
experienced all three. Amenorrheic female runners have higher levels of total
and LDL cholesterol compared to those with regular menstruation, and this is
associated with an unfavourable lipoprotein profile and endothelial
dysfunction. Menstrual irregularities can increase the future risk of
cardiovascular disease. Additionally, female athletes with oligomenorrhea
participating in various sports (track and field, field hockey, basketball) have
significantly lower BMD compared to eumenorrheic athletes. This link
between disturbed ovarian hormone secretion and decreased BMD is seen in
runners, dancers, football players, swimmers, and volleyball players. Research
on the female athlete triad dates back to earlier studies on hormone
disturbances in women engaged in intense physical activity.

Wildenhaus (1995) viewed that in the last 25 years, women have excelled in
athletics to an unprecedented degree. As recently as 1972, women were not
allowed to run distances longer than 1500 meters in the Olympics due to
stereotypes about their endurance and strength. However, notable
achievements such as Paula Newby-Fraser's 1988 Ironman Triathlon win and
Florence Griffith-Joyner's 100-meter world record have demonstrated women's
exceptional athletic abilities. Historical context reveals that times of great
strife in American history, such as the Civil War and World War I, have
expanded women's roles in society, including sports. The Civil War led
women to form organizations that promoted sports like archery, ice skating,
and cycling. By 1890, women of the privileged class were visible in sports like
golf and tennis. World War I furthered political reform and women's
workforce participation, culminating in the "Golden Age of Sport" in America,
where female athletes like Babe Ruth and Helen Wills Moody gained fame.
Prohibition and women's suffrage expanded their access to both participant
and spectator sports, previously male-dominated.

According to Oliveira et al (2018) the first record of women participating in

the Olympics dates back to the 1900 Paris Olympics, where women
represented only 2% of the athletes. Over the years, women's participation
increased gradually, with a notable surge following the introduction of Title IX
in the United States in 1972. This law mandated equal sports investment for
both sexes in federally funded educational institutions, leading to a significant
rise in American female athletes' representation in the Olympics. By 2000,
women comprised about 40% of Olympic athletes. Regular physical exercise
is known to benefit health. However, alongside the increase in women's sports
participation since 1972, there has been a rise in health issues among female
athletes. This is due to the negative effects of excessive and improper training,
which was identified in 1992 by the American College of Sports Medicine
(ACSM) as Female Athlete Triad syndrome (FAT). FAT consists of three
interrelated factors: eating disorders, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis. In 2007,
the ACSM updated the term to include athletes "at risk" without meeting all
the 1992 clinical diagnosis criteria. FAT can negatively impact athletic
performance. High-level sports training aimed at maximum performance
requires athletes to push their limits. Without proper support from a
multidisciplinary team, this can lead to the development of FAT components.
For competitive success and health maintenance, it is crucial to monitor
training, especially in high-risk sports. Monitoring by professionals such as
nutritionists, psychologists, physicians, physiotherapists, coaches, and physical
trainers is essential to ensure optimal performance without compromising
athletes' health and development. Regular physical exercise, when
appropriately managed, has a positive effect on health.

George, Leonard & Hutchinson (2011) viewed that in 1992, the American
College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) identified the "female athlete triad,"
which initially included disordered eating, amenorrhea (absence of
menstruation), and osteoporosis (bone weakening). Further research found
these categories too narrow, only representing the end of the disorder
spectrum. By 2007, ACSM revised the triad to encompass a broader scope:
energy availability, menstrual function, and bone mineral density, each on a
continuum from healthy to pathological. Energy availability, the balance of
dietary intake and exercise expenditure, affects physiological functions. Low
energy availability can result from decreased caloric intake and/or increased
exercise, impacting cellular maintenance, growth, and reproduction. Clinical
eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia exist at the severe end, but many
female athletes engage in subclinical unhealthy eating and weight control
behaviours, such as prolonged fasting, low-calorie diets, binge eating, and
purging, without the psychiatric components of clinical disorders.

According to Morre et al (2023) injury and illness surveillance is essential for

protecting athletes' health. To standardize this process, the International
Olympic Committee (IOC) published a consensus statement in 2020. This
statement established guidelines for monitoring and reporting health issues in
sports to ensure consistent definitions and methodologies across studies,
allowing for comparable epidemiological data collection. Since then, various
sport-specific and population-specific extensions have been developed to
enhance the application of the IOC recommendations across different settings.
However, these consensus statements have historically focused on male
athletes, often overlooking female athletes. The 2020 IOC consensus does not
specifically address the unique considerations of female athletes, whose health
outcomes can be influenced by biological, sociocultural, and environmental
factors. For instance, hormonal changes throughout life stages such as puberty,
pregnancy, and menopause impact health conditions. Post-puberty
characteristics, often unreported, may affect injury and illness onset and
recovery. Additionally, issues like breast health remain under-documented due
to the lack of specific diagnostic categories in coding systems until 2020.
Mental health and the gendered sports environment also influence injury risk
and health outcomes, which are more prevalent in cisgender female athletes
compared to cisgender male athletes. These considerations extend to women
and girls with variations of sex development, transgender women and girls,
and gender-diverse athletes. Future recommendations should include a specific
supplement to address the health concerns of these groups comprehensively.

Genel (2005) examined that in the late 1960s, genetic-based testing for female
athletes in women-only events replaced humiliating practices like nude
parades or close genital inspections. This change was driven by the Cold War
era's concerns about the legitimacy of female athletes and utilized buccal
smear tests, which were relatively simple to administer. However, the tests
often misidentified women with certain genetic conditions as males. By the
1990s, led by advocates like Albert de la Chapelle, professionals, including
those from the International Association of Athletic Federations (IAAF),
recommended discontinuing these tests, opting instead for comprehensive
medical assessments. These were deemed unnecessary by the mid-1990s due
to contemporary athletic clothing and doping controls, making male impostors
easier to identify. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) replaced X
chromosome testing with DNA-based methods in 1992 but discontinued these
by 1999 due to high costs and limited benefits. Gender verification now
involves a team of specialists on standby to assess athletes if their sex is
questioned, a policy successfully upheld since the 2000 Sydney Games.
Consequently, laboratory-based gender screening in sports has been largely
phased out.

Scheadler & Wagstaff (2018) viewed that gender inequality in sports

manifests in various ways, significantly impacting female athletes. They
receive not only less overall media coverage but also coverage that is often
unequal. Women's sports are frequently perceived as less exciting and slower
compared to men's sports, which further reduces audience engagement and
experience. This perception is partly due to the limited exposure to women’s
sports, as they are rarely broadcast. For example, less than 10% of sports
media coverage focuses on women’s sports, with less than 2% on those
considered masculine. News staff often do not recognize this disparity,
potentially perpetuating the discrimination. Even in high-profile events like the
Olympic Games, where an equal number of sports are offered for both
genders, coverage remains unequal. In the 2012 Olympics, the US women's
basketball team's gold medal victory received less than a minute of prime-time
coverage, whereas the men's team received about half an hour. Although the
2012 Games marked a milestone with more coverage of women's sports on
NBC, this was mostly limited to sports considered feminine, highlighting the
persistent inequality. Building on Title IX's impact on women's sports
participation, the study hypothesized that more coverage would increase
interest and reduce prejudice based on theories such as Agenda Setting
Theory, Framing Theory, and the Mere Exposure Effect. The idea was that
increased visibility would make women's sports seem more important and lead
to more favourable attitudes due to familiarity. However, the results did not
fully support these hypotheses. While prejudice towards female athletes
decreased significantly after three weeks, it did not continue to decrease after
four weeks, and interest in women’s sports did not increase. The lack of
emotional attachment to the sports or athletes and the monotonous nature of
the study's participation may have contributed to these outcomes. Furthermore,
prejudice decreased regardless of the coverage due to the increased self-
awareness participants experienced from regularly assessing their attitudes. In
summary, the study found that increased coverage of women’s sports can
improve attitudes but not necessarily interest. Emotional attachment and the
nature of the study's format were important factors influencing the results.