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 Chapter 8: Atmospheric Circulation and Pressure Distributions

Outline

1) Scale

i) Global/Macro

ii) Synoptic

iii) Mesoscale

iv) Microscale

2) Single-Cell Model

3) Three-Cell Model

i) Hadley Cell

ii) Ferrel and Polar Cells

iii) Viability of the Theory

4) Semipermanent Pressure Cells

5) Upper Troposphere

i) Westerlies

ii) Polar Front and Jet Streams

iii) Troughs and Ridges

iv) Rossby Waves

6) Ocean

i) Currents

ii) Upwelling

7) Major Wind Systems

i) Monsoons

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 ii) Foehn, Chinook, and Santa Ana Winds

iii) Katabatic Winds

iv) Sea and Land Breezes

v) Valley and Mountain Breezes

8) Air–Sea Interactions

i) El Niño, La Niña, and the Walker Circulation

ii) Pacific Decadal Oscillation

iii) Arctic Oscillation and North Atlantic Oscillation

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Chapter 8: Atmospheric Circulation and Pressure Distributions

Teaching Strategies

Student Learning Objectives

▶ List the terms used to describe the spatial scales of weather phenomena.

▶ Describe the general circulation of the atmosphere in terms of the single-cell

model and the three-cell model.

▶ Describe distribution and effects of semipermanent pressure cells.

▶ Explain the distribution of wind and pressure in the upper troposphere.

▶ Explain how the atmosphere affects the movement of ocean waters.

▶ Identify major wind systems such as monsoons; foehn, Chinook, and Santa Ana
winds; katabatic winds; and sea and land breezes.

▶ Explain air–sea interactions such as El Niño/La Niña, Walker circulation, Southern

Oscillation, and Pacific Decadal Oscillation.

Generally, the tutorials will be quite helpful with this chapter. Be sure to incorporate
them when the concepts are introduced to reinforce your presentation.

Scales

Understanding the different scales will help in concepts coming in later chapters. The
synoptic scale can be described as the scale where we “synopsize” all the weather
data into a surface map. This is the scale that will resolve the outlines air masses,
which we discuss later.

Three-Cell Model

There is no question that a globe will aid in presenting the concepts of global
circulation. As some students are visual and tactile learners, this can be an
invaluable aid. Knowing that the Hadley cell transports excess heat to about 30°
north and south latitude is important to understanding the mid-latitude cyclone (or
storm) which we will discuss in a later chapter.

Upper Troposphere

The westerlies occur in both hemispheres. Be sure to make the point that the air
flows from warm to cool, so northward in the northern hemisphere and southward in
the southern hemisphere. In the north the wind is bent to the right whether it is
flowing from Hadley to Ferrel or Ferrel to polar cell. In the southern hemisphere it is
bent to the left, and still results in a westerly flow.

The animations for troughs and ridges will be quite helpful, but note to the students
that some of the graphics have the U.S. “upside down” in order to illustrate the lower
heights as one goes north.
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 Figure 8.13

Oceans

Remember to impress upon the students the concept that it is friction from the winds
around the semipermanent pressure systems that drives the ocean currents. Use the
example of the winds around Bermuda-Azores high as the driving force behind the
Gulf Stream and Canary currents.

Ocean currents are often referred to as “boundary currents,” but in relation to each
ocean. The Gulf Stream would be a western boundary current (on the west side of
the Atlantic Ocean). This can cause some confusion, as most students will think of it
as off the east coast of North America, and therefore an easterly boundary current.
Remember to think of the ocean that the current is in if you use this terminology.

Compare the size of the opening between North America and Europe, and how the
North Atlantic Drift can reach high latitudes with the opening between Asia and North
America. Show the effect by comparing the weather and climate at the latitude of
Scandinavia or Moscow with the same latitude in North America or eastern Asia.

Winds

When learning the difference between valley and mountain breezes, remind the
students that wind direction is determined by where the wind is coming from (a
north wind comes from the north). With this in mind, the mountain breeze is
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identified as coming from the mountain, and the valley (uphill) breeze comes up
from the valley.

El Niño

The El Niño and La Niña animations are two of the best around. They have quite a lot
of information in them, so present them with plenty of time for questions.

There are many studies about the human effects from the teleconnections of El Niño
weather patterns. One is that eastern equatorial Africa gets more rainfall during an El
Niño, which supplies the watershed for one branch of the Nile, the Blue Nile. The
same area is very dry during a La Niña, while the other branch of the Nile, the White
Nile, receives rainfall. Downstream in Egypt, after the two branches merge, there is
no effect. Upstream, in the two watersheds, drought varies between Ethiopia and
Sudan with the change of weather patterns.

Another large-scale effect is the variation in drought in eastern Australia. So much so

that during an El Niño event, firefighters are stationed more in the eastern half of the
country during the southern hemisphere winter, when drought conditions occur and
wildfires become more common.

Refer to the Climate Prediction Center:

http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/precip/CWlink/MJO/climwx.shtml for a
comprehensive listing of all the indices that climatologists and meteorologists use
today and more information about their derivation.

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Chapter 8 Suggested Additional Activities and Exercises

Break the students into groups, and have them come up with as many examples of
the different scales (macro-, synoptic, meso-, and micro-) as they can.

Using a globe, have students identify the Equator, and look to see what kind of
weather is found there (tropical rainforest and jungle in most cases around the
world). Next, have them identify 30° north and south latitude, and locate the deserts
of the Earth. Most students will associate deserts with the Equator. This exercise can
make it easier to visualize the rising air at the Equator, producing the thunderstorms
of the ITCZ, and the subsiding (dry) air at 30° north and south latitude. Note that
the poles, where air is also subsiding, are deserts too, even though their surface is
ice and not sand.

If you have any students from upstate New York, they will know about upwelling.
Ask them about swimming in the lakes. In the summer, a north wind, usually
associated with colder air, will blow warmer surface water towards the southern
shore of Lake Ontario. A south wind, usually meaning warmer weather, will blow the
warm surface waters away, and “upwell” much colder water from depth. This result
is warm water for swimming on cold days, and cooler water when it is hot.

The SOI is derived from the departure from normal of monthly sea-level pressure at
Tahiti minus the departure at Darwin. The NAO is similarly calculated from Iceland
and the Azores. Get a globe or world map and have students find these locations
and compare the areas to the general three-cell and Walker circulations.

Remind the students that the term “trade winds” comes from the winds around the
semipermanent high-pressure systems. The term comes from the fact that the larger
ships involved in trade were “square-rigged,” which meant that they could only
efficiently travel in the direction of the wind. Ask the students what the trade would
have been like if the Earth spun in the opposite direction (and the trade winds and
pressure systems were rotating in the opposite direction).

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Chapter 8 Checkpoint Answers

p. 218

1. Zonal winds are east-west or west-east. Meridional winds are north-south or

south-north.

2. Differential heating can develop large-scale motion, and the rotation of the Earth
could deflect winds from north-south or south-north (meridional flow) to east-west or
west-east (zonal flow).

p. 220

1. Winds converge at the ITCZ, which produces lift and rainfall near the Equator.
Farther poleward, the air dries out and eventually subsides into subtropical highs
with light winds and desert conditions at the ground.

2. The three-cell model does not account for continents and oceans, or for changes
in elevation.

p. 230

1. Jet streams are large “rivers of air” or fast-moving air currents in the upper
atmosphere.

2. The polar jet stream is the result of sharp temperature contrasts over a small area,
and the sub-tropical jet stream is driven by the conservation of angular momentum.

p. 233

1. Ocean currents are driven by friction from the surface winds.

2. The Gulf Stream is a warm, poleward (south to north) moving current off the east
coast of North America. Most of it eventually becomes the North Atlantic Drift, which
helps to bring warm, moist air much farther north into Northern Europe.

p. 234

1. Onshore flow developed from the heating of the land brings moist air from the
ocean, which condenses from orographic uplift from mountains and convection from
the heated land, producing the rainy portion of the monsoon.

2. Cool air from the slopes of the Himalayas compresses and warms as it is forced
downward by upper-level convergence, causing the dry winter portion of the
monsoon.

p. 240

1. Foehns, Chinooks, and Santa Ana winds are katabatic winds which form from
either high- or low-pressure systems that force air down a mountainside. The
resulting compression warms and dries the air.

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2. Katabatic winds are formed from air that is cooled over ice sheets, and flows
downslope because of its density.

p. 252

1. The warmer water in the eastern Pacific during an El Niño promotes the formation
of storms by increased evaporation and lower air pressure.

2. In addition to stormy weather and increased rainfall on the Pacific coasts of North
and South America, El Niño patterns can bring wet and cool weather to the southern
U.S., warmer weather to Alaska, eastern Canada, Brazil, India, and Japan, and more
rain in the central equatorial Pacific, eastern Africa, and Argentina. Drought is
common in the Caribbean, northern South America, and eastern Australia.

p. 253

1. The PDO index (Pacific Decadal Oscillation index) indicates the strength and mode
of the PDO. Positive and negative indices are related to warmer and cooler water in
the eastern tropical Pacific.

2. The NAO (North Atlantic Oscillation) refers to the pressure pattern over the north
Atlantic Ocean. A positive phase means a larger pressure difference between the
Icelandic Low and the Bermuda High, producing a stronger jet stream, which brings
stronger storms to Europe, and milder conditions to the eastern U.S. A negative
phase means weaker storms farther south in Europe, cold and dry in northern
Europe, and stormier weather on the east coast of North America.

Chapter 8 Review Question Answers

1. Single cell (Hadley cell) circulation is heat driven. The three-cell model includes
the Hadley cell, with air rising at the Equator and sinking at around 30° north and
south latitude, the Ferrel cell with air rising at its border with the polar cell, at
around 60° north and south latitude. The polar cell has subsiding air at the poles,
and rising air at its border with the Ferrel cell.

2. The Hadley cell is a heat-driven cell in the atmosphere with rising air at the ITCZ
(intertropical convergence zone), near the Equator, and subsiding air at around 30°
north and south.

3. The Hadley cell most resembles its theoretical description.

4. Air flowing from the subtropical highs at around 30° north towards the ITCZ are
deflected to the right by the Coriolis force, resulting in a northeast wind. Air in the
southern hemisphere flowing towards the ITCZ is deflected to the left, developing a
southeast wind.

5. The Ferrel cell is located from about 30° to 60° north and south latitude, and the
polar cell is generally from 60° north and south latitude to the poles. The polar cells
are dominated by cold air flowing equatorward, and the Ferrel cell circulates air
between the polar cell and the Haley cell.

6. The semi-permanent cells are the Aleutian low over the north Pacific, the Icelandic
low over the north Atlantic, the Siberian high over Asia in the winter, and the
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Hawaiian high in the Pacific, the Bermuda High in the Atlantic, and the Tibetan low in
the summer. Over the oceans, the summer highs are much smaller and the lows are
much stronger in winter. In summer, the highs are larger and farther north. Over
Asia, the summertime Siberian high is replaced with the Tibetan low in winter.

7. The Sahel is an area bordering the southern extent of the Sahara desert. In the
summer, the northward advance of the ITCZ brings rain. In the winter, as the ITCZ
migrates southward, dry conditions prevail.

8. Heights decrease from the tropics to the poles. The difference in height, or the
gradient, is larger in the winter, producing stronger upper-level winds, and heights
are always higher in the summer, as warmer air is thicker. January winter in the
northern hemisphere would have stronger jet stream winds, a larger gradient due to
the temperature contrast and generally lower heights overall. January summer in the
southern hemisphere would be the reverse: higher heights on average, smaller
gradient between warm and cold air, and lighter upper-level winds.

9. Strong temperature contrasts outside the tropics drive strong winds. Air flowing
northward in the northern hemisphere is bent to the right by the Coriolis force,
resulting in a westerly wind. Air flowing southward in the southern hemisphere is
deflected to the left by the Coriolis force, which also results in a westerly wind.

10. Displacing height towards the Equator implies lower heights, thus a trough.
Heights displaced poleward would indicate a ridge.

11. Large temperature changes at the polar front mean a steep gradient which, in
the upper atmosphere, results in strong winds above the area with the largest
temperature contrast.

12. Rossby waves are more common and weaker in the summer, and fewer and
stronger in the winter. Very cold air can be transported equatorward and very warm
air can be transported poleward in a strong wave. Depending on its location, it can
affect different areas with either abnormally warm or cold temperatures.

13. The Eckman spiral refers to the change in speed and direction of ocean currents
with depth. In the northern hemisphere, the current will bend to the right (45°) and
decrease in speed as depth increases.

14. Upwelling is caused by displacement of surface water by wind. The surface water
is replaced by water from below, which is generally colder and more nutrient-rich.

15. The largest scale, global scale, describes long-lasting, large systems. Examples
would be the Haley cell and the prevailing westerlies. Synoptic scale is smaller, and
includes air masses and storms. Mesoscale is smaller still and the phenomena are
shorter-lived. Examples would be sea and land breezes, or a thunderstorm.
Microscale is the smallest, and includes circulations like small eddies in a river, dust
devils, and the like.

16. Winter winds are generally offshore. Air flowing down the Himalaya Mountains
compresses and warms, and brings dry conditions. Summer winds are from the
south and bring warm, moist air from the ocean, which condenses and rains when it
is lifted by orographic effects and convection.

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17. Foehn winds are winds that flow downslope, bringing warmer and drier
conditions due to adiabatic warming. They are driven by high- and low-pressure
systems.

18. Katabatic winds are downslope winds that are driven by the density of air that is
cooled at the top of ice sheets and gravity. The combination allows the air to travel
downslope.

19. Uneven heating of the land and water causes sea and land breezes. A pressure
gradient between air over heated land and the cooler water forms above the shore,
and air flows from over the land to over the water. That air is replaced by rising air
over the land, which is, in turn, replaced by air from off the water, causing the sea
breeze. The reverse is true at night. Sinking cold air at night causes mountain
breezes, and valley breezes are caused by convection from the heating of
mountainsides during the day.

20. The Walker circulation is a circulation pattern over the tropical Pacific which
generally consists of rising air (over warmer water) in the western Pacific, and
subsiding air (over cooler water) in the eastern Pacific. When this flow is disrupted,
warmer water flows eastward to the South American coast. This is the El Niño.

21. The PDO (Pacific Decadal Oscillation) describes the change in ocean temperature
in a large area of the northwestern Pacific and a smaller area of the tropical eastern
Pacific, which varies on a scale of tens of years. The Arctic Oscillation (AO) is related
to the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), which describes the variation in pressure
systems over the North Atlantic Ocean.

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