(inte PRT PPTs SURES (Ot PEAR Isis fn t c NaTrade names cited in this publication are used solely for the purpose of providing specific information and do not endorse products named or imply criticism of similar ones not men- tioned. Mention of trade name does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by the Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research.TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Penne eet et etree eens eeeeens bette eeeeeee WV Acknowledgment 6.0.06 ssc et ee rete cece sett ares eee een eee v Introduction ©. 6.1... eect eee eee eee ee 1 Botany of the Crop 2 Adaptation . .. 6 Selection of Varieties 6 Cultural Management 7 Pianta atae set 7 vA sat ioe sFemmmmvmagimesoe He artaeit reer tagtatatia tate tee ate aH tee eee 7 Fertilization ::gce cs srscie racer cere eee ees 7 Liming ........ Inoculation . Crop Protection Weed control . . W Disease control . 14 Insect control 7 Harvesting 25 Postharvest Handling 26 Drying . 26 CCT Heep errt eriser rier err IPIr arin nian ereueniararen 26 Storing cee eee eeepc eaten ee sere sietetedeeeeiece 26 Multiple Cropping with Peanut . 27 (Mutritive Value fect 2B Afitomn mi Peat cc cesar 29 Wtiliastion tarts cisctree estates otc eiire sere aistetere eteteetsreleeeeie ie eties 31 Seed Production and Certification... 0.2... 00 ee cece cee eee eee 32 Estimated Cost of Production of Peanut Per Hectare 34 Marketing 35References... ........- Table 1. Recommended peanut varieties .......+ Cee eee eee een aee 6 2. Peanut plant densities at different methods of planting and row spacings... . 06 eee seen eter eee 8 3. Herbicides suitable for weed control iin PeMMMNt tee ee tee eee eee eee 13 4, Control guide for peanut diseases. . . . 16 5. Insecticide control guide for peanut... 6... es eee eee eee eee 24 6. Specific field certification standard... 6.06... eee eee eee 32 7. Laboratory seed standard for peanut ...... 06.00 sees e eee 33 Appendix Table 1, Peanut, area, production and yield (unshelled), Philippines, 1962-1976 ..... 0.6... 00.00 ec eee 38 2. Composition of Peanut and peanut products, 100 gms EP... 2... 66. c cece eee eee eee eee 39 3. Amino acid contents of peanut (in terms of gm/16 gm N, moisture free basis) .............. 40 Appendix A. The growth stages of peanut plant.................005 40 B, The seven climatic types of the Philippines ............05 4 C. Peanut preparation for snacks... .- 2.00... eee eee eee 43 D. Symptoms and first aids for pesticide poisoning... ... . ... a7 E. Addresses of manufacturers and distributors ............. 52 Figure 1. Stylized peanut plant showing fruit development... 0.00.2. cece cece eee eee 4 2. Diagram of alternate and sequential branching pattern in peanut . 4 3. Relationship between CaCO. application and pH of some soils. . . . 9 4. Rottboellia exaliata .. WW 5. Eleusine indic@ ©... 0.0. o ee eee cece eee eee 12 6, Cyperus rotundus 6... ee eee eee 12 7: /pomoese trilabatse escent ete 1210. . Sequential pest occurrence in peanut plant .............5 12. 13. 14, 15. 17. 18. 19. . Leaf spot . Larva of a corn earworm ona bean leaf . . Rosette Leaf rust Damage of a leafminer on a bean leaf.............. 000. Larva of a common cutworm on a bean leaf Black bean aphid ............ 00. e ee Sra tie teraeteeeerarteT ee Typical damage of a leaf roller GeO sme aaa arte a targa arr raredT treated et aT PeCeE EEE Larva of a semi-looper ona bean plant ......2--- 220-005 Adults of June beetle 20.22... 2. eevee eee Larva of tiger moth caterpillar on a peanut plant .......... Peanut plants with and without corn inter-planted in rowsFOREWORD The main objective of the Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research is to harness the full force of research in agriculture, forestry and fisheries for development. To help do this, a mechanism has been developed to gather and put together the latest and most relevant research findings into “packaged” techno- logy so that it could be more easily used to improve production and subsequently, the livelihood of our people. PCARR continues to work under the philosophy that research is of little use until it is applied for production purposes. The information presented in this publication is the latest that is available. For some subject matter, there is substantial research data on which recommenda- tions can be made. In many cases, however, there may only be scanty empirical data available. Worse, there are instances when there are no research data available and one, therefore, must resort to whatever is practiced at the moment which seems to work. While scientists generally do not like to give information that is not based ‘on sound research, because of the urgent need by farmers for information on “packages of related recommendations” on which to base their decisions, PCARR has seen fit to collect and disseminate information of this nature provided it is so stated in the publication. The knowledge that information on certain activity areas is lacking, however, makes it easier for PCARR to encourage scientists to research on these areas and give them high priority. PCARR will update the Philippines Recommends Series whenever new infor- mation becomes available. The best available expertise in the country form the technical editing committees that rigidly screen each publication. The publication is printed in such a way as to make it easy to remove any outdated portion and repiace it with the latest recommendations. This should make it easier for extension workers to have at their fingertips the most up-to-date infor- mation to guide them in their work with farmers thus making themselves more effective. Peanut being a highly nutritious and well accepted legume is included in our Government's campaign for increase food production to combat malnutrition. It has multifarious and potential uses thereby making it necessary to boost its production to augment our farmers’ incomes and national revenues in the long run. The Philippines Recommends for Peanut may help our Government in its pursuit for high and profitable peanut production. Lastly, PCARR acknowledges with thanks the generous support given this undertaking by the many scientists and research agencies. It is to these individuals and agencies that we owe this publication. We trust that this close linkage between research and extension will greatly benefit our people. fh - Tham ba JOSEPH C. MADAMBA Director General ivACKNOWLEDGMENT We are grateful to Director General Joseph C. Madamba for entrusting to us the wreparation of the manuscript; Drs. Abelardo Samonte and Nyle Brady, Directors Domingo Panganiban and Carmen Intengan for permitting the respective members © serve in the committee and Messers Benjamin Legaspi and Conrado Bartolome =or the varietal information. We also acknowledge with appreciation the excellent =vork done by peanut researchers in the University of the Philippines at Los Bajios, Sollege of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bureau of Soils, Bureau of wAgricultural Economics, National Food and Agriculture Council, and the private mgencies whose research findings and production practices are embodied in this Wublication, The figures contained herein were provided by or taken from the following: Mrs. Rosita Matias, peanut cover; PANS Manual 2 (Figs. 1 & 2), Dr. Henry Samonte (Fig. 3), Mr. Modesto Madrid, Jr. (Figs. 4-7), Dr. Florendo Quebral (Figs. 8-10), Dr. Romeo Rejesus (Figs. 11-19), and Mr. Wilhelmino Herrera (Fig. 20). Prepared by: THE PEANUT COMMITTEE 1978 FLORENDO C. QUEBRAL, Ph. D. Associate Professor & Coordinator for Extention College of Agriculture University of the Philippines at Los Bafios ISAAC C. CAGAMPANG, Ph. D. Associate Professor University of the Philippines at Los Bafios, ROMEO S. REJESUS, Ph. D. Associate Professor University of the Philippines Los Bafios HENRY P. SAMONTE, Ph. D. Associate Professor University of the Philippines at Los Bafios EDUVIGIS B. PANTASTICO, Ph. D. Director Crops Research Division Philippine Council for Agriculture & Resources Research Los Bafios, Laguna MODESTO T. MADRID, Jr., B. Se. Instructor University of the Philippines at Los Bafios RENE L, MONDRAGON, M. Sc. Head, Production Division Bureau of Plant Industry San Andres, Metro Manila WILHELMINO T. HERRERA, M. Sc. Senior Research Assistant The International Rice Research Institute Los Bafios, Laguna ESTELITA M. PAYUMO, M. Se, Science Research Assoc Food and Nutrition Research Institute Metro Manila LOLITA NUNEZ-RAGUS, M. Se. Subject Matter Speci Crops Research Division Philippine Council for ‘Agriculture & Resources arch Los Bafios, LagunaPEANUT INTRODUCTION Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) known locally as “mani” and in other countri as goober, pinda, groundnut, monkey nut, “kachang tanah” or “*kachang goreng’ and "ver kadalai” has a very nutritious seed containing high quality protein (25 to 30 percent) and oil (46 to 50 percent). A kilogram of peanuts yields protein almost equivalent to that of a kilogram of pork and exceeds that of eggs, meat from fowls, and beef. In industry, it is a major source of food shortening, confectionery and other food and industrial products. The national average yield of peanut remains low (Appendix Table 1) in spite of its favorable price in the local market. The low yield level can be attributed to two factors, namely: the employment of low level of technology by local peanut farmers, and the more common use of peanut as an intercrop with other upland crops like corn, cassava, etc. rather than as a primary crop. Peanut-growing 1s a profitable endeavor under proper cultural management and efficient marketing scheme. Dissemination of information on modern and up- to-date peanut farming may help the farmers, researchers, extension workers and scientists concerneu in improving the production and handling of this crop.BOTANY OF THE CROP. The peanut plant which belongs to the family Leguminosae and subfamily Papilionaceae is an herbaceous, short- statured annual crop with erect or prostrate central stem. The pinnately compound leaf consists of pairs of leaflets and occasionally, a fifth leaf- let borne on a slender petiole, The leaftlets vary in size and shape, from narrow and slender with circular apex to broad, big and oval. Root system The peanut plant has a well-deve- loped tap root with numerous lateral (primary, secondary, and tertiary) roots extending several centimet2rs below the ground and having nodules containing the nitrogen-fixing bacteria, In general, nodules are either effective (relatively Pinkish and large) or ineffective (whi- tish or pale situated on the lateral roots). Nodule formation starts as early as the appearance or unrolling of the first pair of true pinnate leaves, or 10 or 14 days from germination, The fixation of the nitrogen element may start as soon as the nodules are formed up to 3 to 4 weeks from germination. Nodule formation and nitrogen fixa- tion begin gradually and reach their peak at about the full bloom stage and then slow down until about the pod development stage. Floral biology Flowers which are borne in the axils of the leaves mostly near the base of the plant and sometimes below the ground are papilionate and sessile with yellow petals (standards) and having 8 to 10 stamens, They are perfect and cleistogamous and self-pollination is 2 the rule though some outcrossings may occur. The first blooms develop 4 to 5 weeks after the emergence of the seedling, There are four stages of flo- wering: first, the formation of few flowers; second, rapid flowering period, third, peak period and fourth, declining stage. It has been estimated that only 50 percent of the blooms develop into “pegs” or elongated ovaries; 20 percent of these develop into fruit, of which only 66 percent mature. Twelve to sixteen hours after pol- lination, the egg and sperm fuse to form a zygote which divides to form a two-celled embryo 36 hours after fer- tilization. Five to seven days after pol- lination, the flowers wither, leaving a minute, stalk-like structure and a young fruit (ovary) containing 1 to 3 minute, immature seeds at the tip. In a few days the young fruit exhibits a positive geotropic effect and bends downward. The base of the young fruit is meristematic and the activities of this zone produce an elongated stalk (gynophore) or “peg”. The peg continues to turn downward as it lengthens and then penetrates the soil to a depth of several centimeters. The peg ceases to elongate and the tip containing the developing seeds turns horizontally and enlarges, commencing from the base to the apex, and ma- tures into a peanut fruit. Seed and fruit Strictly speaking, the peanut fruit is structurally dehiscent and not a nut Functionally, it is an indehiscent legume or commonly referred to as a pod containing one to three seeds. The seed or kernel is a straight embryocovered with a thin, papery seedcoat or testa. The seed coat may be purple, red, tan or russet (yellowish brown or reddish brown). Peanut pods are typically cylindri- cal and consist of two main parts — the shell and the kernel. The shell may either be relatively rough with conspi- cuous corrugation or smooth with no noticeable ridging. The shell represents 25 to 40 percent of the pod and the kernel 60 to 75 percent, depending on the variety. The kernel consists of the cotyledon (72.5 percent), seed coat {4.0 percent) and embryonic axis (4.5 percent). Agronomic classification The early system of peanut classi cation was based on two considera- tions: whether the cultivar is a runner or a bunch type. The runner type is characterized by prostrate stems and branches, late maturity and pods pro- duced along the leaf axils of prostrate, side branches above the ground. The bunch type has upright stems, early maturity and pods produced mainly in the nodes below the ground. The present system, commonly used in other peanut-growing countries, groups peanut into three following types: Virginia type — The cultivars belong- ing to this type are highly branched, PEANUT with four or more lateral branches. Alll lateral branches are vegetative in the first (and also usually in the second) node, The foliage is dark green, the pods have three or four large seeds and the seed coat is russet: This type has both the runner and bunch types. Spanish type — The cultivars of this type are moderately branched but with four or more lateral branches. The main stem is generally erect and the lateral branches are of about equal length and with light green foliage. The pods are small and rarely contain more than two seeds per pod. The seeds are also small and have tan seed coat. The shells are thin with conspi- cuous but shallow corrugations. Varie- ties of this type are extensively grown in Africa. Valencia type — This is a bunch type with reddish and upright stems, Branching is sparse, the leaves are large, dark green or somewhat purplish. The pods are S-shaped; the seeds are large and are either long or short. The seed coat may be purple, red or tan. Diagrams of the plant parts of pea- nut and arrangements of branches are indicated in Figs. 1 and 2. The growth stages of the peanut plant are indica- ted in Appendix A.LEAFLET CALYX, STEM PETIOLE FLOWER STIPULE PEG YOUNG POD MATURE POD TAP ROOT ADVENTITIOUS ROOT Alternate branching Sequential branching, Fig. 2. Diagram of alternate and sequential branching patterns in peanut (Arrows (9) indicate vegetative apices. crosses (3) represent reproductive branches; eaves are not shown) ‘occasional secondary (n / 2) branch in sequential type: example of alternate branching on secondary branches, position of cotyledons, telative to which the slightly different attachment of the two lowest branches has been exaggerated for larity, 4. postion of pair of aborted fruiting branches between two pairs Of vegetative branches, ¢. lower vegetative branch of basal pair aborted; £3 ¢Lalternation replacing normal 2/2PEANUT ADAPTATION Soil requirement The peanut plant thrives best on a soil which is moderate to slightly acidic (pH of 5.8 to 6.3), contains adequate amounts of exchangeable calcium (Ca), potassium (K), magne- sium (Mg) and other essential nutrients for normal vegetative growth and deve- lopment of the pods. The most suitable soil types for Peanut are well drained, light textured soils like loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam and sandy clay loam with good ‘organic matter content. Heavy or stiff clays are not advisable because the pegs from which the pods are deve- loped would have difficulty penetra- ting the soil, with subsequent deforma- tion of kernels. A light-textured soil that will not harden or bake is desirable for the following reasons: 1. Pegs bearing the fertilized ovules are able to penetrate the surface and develop normally. Climatic requirement Peanut grows well in a wide range of climatic conditions but prefers a warm temperature with moderate rain- fall during its vegetative growth. Except in areas having heavy rainfall, it can be planted from late May to June during the wet season and from October to early November in the dry season. Dry season planting generally gives higher yeilds than the wet season Planting, During the wet season peanut 2, Pods are well formed. 3. Peanuts may be harvested with minimal injury and loss of pods caused by hardening of the soil. 4, Peanuts are easier to harvest resulting to lower-labor require. ment. Also, the soi should be free from stones, gravel, iron and manganese concretions and other materials that cannot be easily screened or separated from harvested crop. Poorly drained and sloping fields as well as those with shallow top soil (less than 50 cm) and heavy subsoil will not give good yields. tends to be viny and vegetative resulting to poor pod formation. Rotting and germination of the pods may also occur in the field. If supplemental irrigation can be provided, February is the best planting time for this crop in terms of kernel yield and quali The detailed description of the seven climatic types is found in Appendix 8.SELECTION OF VARIETIES Varieties with high seed yield, early and uniform maturity, resistance to insect pests and diseases, bunchy growth habit and good quality nuts (90 and 110 days for dry and wet seasons, respectively) than runner types (120 and 140 days for dry and wet seasons, respectively). In Table are characteristics that insure high 1 the recommended varieties for yield. The bunch type matures earlier Peanuts are indicated. Table 1. Recommended peanut varieties ‘ety Kernel yield Shelling Vari Plant Maturity ariety —““(tonsyha, percentage searann days) Remarks shelled) ceswr 1.3 70 dune (wet) 110_—Pinkish seed coat, no dormancy, susceptible October dry) 90 to leaf spot and peanut rust, 28 percent protein and 44 percent oil contents EGBunch 1.3 70 June (wet) 110_Pinkish seed coat, no dormancy, susceptible October (dry) 90 to leaf spot and peanut rust. BPI, 14 68 June (wet) 110 _Pinkish seed coat, no dormancy, susceptible October (dry) 90 to leaf spot and peanut rust, 26 percent protein and 43 percent oil contents UPLPn2 1.8 72 dune (wet) 110 ish seed coat, no dormancy, susceptible (Moket) October (dry) 90 to leat spot and peanut rust, slightly tolerant to excessive soil moisture, resistant to Scle- rotium disease (stem blight), 25 percent protein and 44 percent oil contentsPEANUT CULTURAL MANAGEMENT Planting Planting can be done either mecha- nically or manually. Manual planting can be accomplished in two ways: one is by sowing the seeds evenly on shal- low laid-out furrows; another is by sowing the seeds in hills (2 to 3 seeds per hill) spaced 20 cm apart on the laid-out furrows. If fertilizers are ap- Plied, they should be applied before planting the seeds which are then co- vered with fine moist soil 2 to 3 cm deep. The population density per hectare is an important consideration for good pod development. Close spacing results to overcrowding and increases compe- tition for sunlight and nutrients. The recommended number of popu- lations per hectare for the different planting methods and specific row spa- cings are provided in Table 2. If possi- ble, the rows should run on east-west direction to allow greater penetration and interception of sunlight. Water Management The wet season planting does not require the application of supple- mented irrigation. In fact, drainage or removal of excess moisture is some- times a problem, especially in areas where the topography is flat and internal drainage is poor. In the dry season supplemental irrigation may not be required in most instances if the planting is done in early October. Normally, there is still suffi- cient soil moisture from October to December. However, the February planting definitely requires supple- mental irrigation. Three to four appli- cations may be enough. If the soil is dry at planting time, irrigation is required before planting or soon after Planting for seed germination, The second application is at two weeks after planting; the third at mid-bloom stage; and the fourth at the pod-filling stage. The amount of irrigation water to apply per irrigation time depends on a number of factors, mainly soil type and evapo-transpiration rate of a given growing area. On the average, however, the amount would range from 40 mm to §0 mm per application which is enough to wet at least 30 cm (one foot) depth of soil. Fertilization The response of peanuts to fertilizer application is less predictable than with most of the other field crops. The soils usually found to be physically suited for peanut production are gen- erally low in organic matter content and have low capacity to absorb and exchange essential nutrients. Peanut can be grown successfully as a second crop when the first crop is heavily fer- tilized, Peanuts are generally able to use efficiently residual nutrients from applied fertilizers. If the residual fer- izers are low, additional fertilization can be done. The response of peanut to fertiliza- tion is greater during the wet season than during the dry season. A starter amount of 25 to 30 kg nitrogen (N} per hectare is applied just before planting. In soils with medium to low fertility and deficient in potassium and phos- phorus, about 200 kg or four bags per hectare of complete fertilizer (14-14-14) are applied before planting. This will supply 28-28-28 kg per hec- tare of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P20) and potassium (K 20). If a trac: 7uaamyaq Wo QZ osz Szl-0z1 1y/spaas & SL y uaamiag Wo 0Z 002 001-06 14/Spaas Z 0s WH (uty 48d) osz Sz1-0zL Wz 00z 001-06 st SL osz $zl—0zL St o0z 001-06 on 0S wa (Jara se9ut) 49d) eee ec (ooo1 * L) ‘aueqoay/sinuead squeig selyisuap yuelg parjays yo By 40 “on Burseds MoH Powe Bunueld eee e6Gaqaeaaas———oOoOoOoOoOouuuTEO0ESsSm eee” “sGuyoeds soy pue Gunueid Jo spoyyaw jueiayyp ie sanisuap iuelg —*Z FV Ltor with fertilizer applicator is used, the placement is five cm from the seed row and approximately 2.5 cm below the seed level. Whether manual or mechanical application of fertilizer is employed, the fertilizer is covered with 2 to 3 cm of fine soil before sowing to prevent fertilizer injury to the germinating seeds and young seedlings. On soils with pH below 5.8 and/or few. in calcium, limestone (CaCO3) a gaigium-magnesium carbonate ma wertaie like dolomite, that reduce the degree of acidity should be applied Calcium is needed in the development of plump and well-filled nuts. The amount of liming materials required to adjust the pH of the soils SOIL pli 1 ,L ee, PEANUT to the satisfactory level depends on the kind of liming materials used and the soil charateristics. This rate is best determined from lime rate studies under field conditions. The changes in pH at different rates of lime applied as calcium carbonate (100% CaCO3) for some soils with very strong to extreme acidity are shown in Fig. 3. ‘Yhe time requirement can be obtained fram the individual curve presented. For example, an unlimed Tugbok sandy clay loam, San Manuel sandy foam, and Adtuyon clay have pH values of 4.7, 4.4, and 4.6, respectively. The lime requirement to adjust the pH to approximately 5.8 is indicated by the horizontal broken line originating from pH 5.8 on the Y-axis that inter- sects the curve. This line is then dropped vertically to th % axis. This final intersection wits, tne X axis indicates the amount \if iisie to be . ° LEGEND a a © — Tugbok Sandy Clay Loam © = Aaftisiien Clay X = Sh Manuel sandy loam a= Jeuggielay a ~ Lipe thay loam - Tons CaC03 (100 o/o pure) per hectare |. 3 Relationship between CaCO; application and pH of some soilsapplied for the particular soil. For the extremely acidic soils mentioned above, the lime requirement are 5.8, 84, and 12.6 tons CaCO; per hectare, respectively. If however, the pH of the soils in some places starts from 5.4, the lime required to raise the pH to 5.8 will be 2.8, 4.4 and 5.1 tons, res- pectively, for Tugbok sandy clay loam, Adtuyon clay, and San Miguel sandy loam. Two-thirds of the lime required should be broadcast 3 to 4 months before planting and plowed under. The remaining amount is broadcast and harrowed in a week before plant- ing. This will allow enough time for the lime to neutralize the acidity of the soil and also make calcium avail- able to the plant. Inoculation Inoculation involves the spreading of a sufficient number of specifically effective rhizobia on the seed surface to increase the chance of the young plant of being inoculated by the appro- Priate bacte: If peanut or a crop with a rhizobial strain capable of effective infection of peanut to form nodules and vice versa (cross-inoculate) has not been grown in the field within the last three years, the peanut seeds should be ino- culated with appropriate rhizobium strains to ensure formation of nitrogen- fixing nodules on the root system. Peanuts will cross-inoculate with beggar weed (Desmodium torturosum), cowpea (Vigna sinensis), partridge pea (Heistera brasiliensis), Kudzu (Pueraria thunbergianal, \espedeza (L. striatal, crotolaria (Crotolaria sp.) lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) and mungo (Vigna radiata). If any one of these crops was planted prior to peanut, it may be unnecessary to inoculate the peanut. The peat inoculant, the most com- mon inoculant form available at the Bureau of Soils and Bureau of Plant 10 Industry, can be applied to seeds in two ways. One method is moistening the seeds with water and pouring the peat-inoculant on them, then mixing until all the seeds are covered with the black substance. The second method is to add just enough water to the inoculant to form a thin paste (or slurry) then pour it on the seeds and mix thoroughly until all the seeds are covered uniformly. The inoculated seeds should be protected from exposure to direct sunlight hecause the bacteria are sen- sitive to sunlight. The seeds should be planted soon after inoculation. Legumes may not respond to ino- culation due to any one or a combi- nation of the following reasons: 1, The inoculant may be ineffective, non-viable, contaminated with antagonistic organisms or un- suited for the particular species or variety of legume being ino- culated. 2. Soil conditions may be unfavo- rable (low pH, lack of soil mois- ture, poor soil aeration, presence of antagonistic soil microflora). 3. Lack of soil nutrient element(s) like Ca, P, K, S, Mo, Bo and Fe. 4. Direct contact with the inorganic fertilizer or toxic chemicals. 5. The soil has already an abundant supply of effective rhizobia for the legume under cultivation. The effectiveness of inoculation can be determined by the following steps: 1. Uproot the legume plant at three weeks after emergence and exa- mine the nodules present on the tap root. These nodules are usual- ly formed by the introduced rhizobia.2. Dissect the nodules with a knife. If the dissected nodules have pinkish to reddish color, they are effective; if pale or grayish they are ineffective. 3. If the legume plants do not have nodules on the tap root but they grow vigorously, probably the soil has a high amount of avail- able nitrogen. If the plants exhibit nitrogen defi- ciency and have only few or no no- dules on the tap root with many small nodules on the lateral roots the ino- culant_ may be effective. The small nodules on the lateral roots are usually ineffective. Under this condition, small amount of nitrogen fertilizer is applied during hilling-up operation. If the growth of the crops is still not im proved, the problem is most likely not the rhizobia but other soil factors. Crop Protection Weed Control The most troublesome and difficult: to-control weed associated with peanut is Rottboellia exaltata L. F. (Fig. 4) which produces approximately 5,000 viable seeds per plant per year. These seeds can remain viable for a year or longer, resulting in flushes of germina- tion, It is highly competgtive because it grows taller and more vigorously than peanut. Other weed species that can smother peanut are Eleusine indica L. (Fig. 5), 2 grass also known as Dina: paiuk, bakis-bakisan, paragis, sabung- sabungan, bag-angan, bikad-bikad, pa- lagtiki, dog's tail); Cyperus rotundus L. (Fig. 6 (sedge-boto-botones, mutha, mata-apulid, sur-sur, malapandang),and Jpomoeae triloba L.\Fig. 7 (broadleaf. kamo-kamotehan, baging) PEANUT Weed control is more critical in peanut production than in other crops because peanuts have slow vegetative growth and cannot compete well with weeds at its very early stages of growth. Weeds therefore should not be al- lowed to grow with the crop during the first four to six weeks after plant- ing as weeds do the most harm during this period. . 4 Rottboellia exaltata L. F. WFig. 5 Eleusine indica L. Fig. 7. /pomoeae triloba L. 12 Fig. 6 Cyperus rotundus L. Weeds in peanut fields can be control- led by: 1. Application of suitable herbi- cides before planting (pre-plant- ing) or immediately after plant: ing (within two days; pre-emer gence), Table 3. 2. Application of herbicides after the weeds and the crops have emerged (post-emergence). 3. Cultivation as early as 2 to 3 weeks up to six weeks after weed emergence (optional for as long as “pre” and~“or’' post- emergence * herbicides provide adequate weed control during the period). 4. Handweeding and hoeing — re- sorted to if and when herbicides and cultivation are unable to provide season-long control, and to eliminate weeds that survived Previous treatments or to pre- vent weed survivors from pro ducing viable seeds. Calibrating Spraying Equipment It is necessary to calibrate the spraying equipment before the actual application of the herbicide to achieve uniform distribution of the chemical and at the correct application rates.TABLE 3. Her! PEANUT ides suitable for weed control in peanut. Common Name Trade Name Rate Remarks Kg a.i/ha Butralin Amex 820 Bentazon Basagran Trifluralin Treflan Pre-emergence — applica- tion; Effective against most annual weeds, par- ticularly against grasses. Post-emergence applica- tion; Directed-post emer- gence for weeds, parti- cularly effective against broadieaves and sedges. Preemergence applica: tion; Effective against most annual weeds, par- ticularly against grasses. Method A: 1. Fill sprayer with water, Mark starting point with a stake. Carry sprayer on back and start spraying while walking at a constant and nor- mal speed. Keep pressure in the spray tank and the distance between nozzle and ground level constant. Stop spraying at the and of one minute. Mark the stop point with another stake. Record distance between the two stakes in meters. Express the walking speed in meters per minute. Repeat the procedure at least three times and compute for the average walking speed. 2. Measure the width of spray or the swath in meters. Calculate area of = spray swath (m) x spray per minute walking speed (m?/min.) (m/min.) 3. Refill sprayer with water. Dis- charge the water into a container for one minute using the same pressure in step 1. Note volume (liters) of water collected. Repeat at least three times to ensure an average nozzle discharge per minute. 4. Compute for the number of liters of spray solution discharge in 1 hectare = nozzle (liter/min) x area (10,000 sq m/ha) area sprayed in 1 min (sq m/min) 5. Calculate number of sprayer loads per hectares: = rate of application per hectare tank capacity of sprayer (liters) 6. Calculate amount of herbi mix in each load of sprayer: = amount of herbicide per ha (cc or gm) number of sprayer loads per hectare le to Method B: 1, Measure an area of 100 sq m (2 m x 50 m; 1m x 100 m;or 3m x 33.3 m). Fill sprayer with water. 2. Determine the time in minutes it takes to spray the measured area at a comfortable pace and constant specd and pressure. Repeat this step at least three times and find the average time. Express the walking speed in meters per minute. 133. With the same pressure used in step 2, discharge the water into a con- tainer at the average time determined above. 4, Measure the amount of water in liters collected in the container and calculate the volume needed per hec- tare. Repeat steps 3 and 4 three times and take the average volume discharge. Example: Two liters were sprayed in 100 sq m. A hectare (10,000 sq m) would therefore require 200 liters of solution. 5. In the actual spraying of the her bicide, dilute the amount of chemical required per hectare (Table 3) with water until the volume of sprayer solu- tion required per hectare is reached and spray this to a hectare. 6. In the absence of a container that can hold the required volume required per hectare, calculate the number of tank loads per hectare. Disease Control The most common diseases of peanut are leaf spot, leaf rust, rosette and damping-off. Rosette (Fig. 8) The disease is caused by a virus. The early symptoms of infection are characterized by the presence of minute, irregular, circular yellow spots accompanied by the upward curling of margins of the leaves. Succeeding leaves thereafter exhibit spindle-shaped chlorotic spots. In the advanced stage of infection the whole plant is greatly stunted with numerous clusters of small leaflets (usually called rosette) The virus is carried into the seeds which become the source of primary infection in the field. The bean aphid Aphis craccivora feeding on infected plants is responsible for spreading the disease in the field. Control. Do not use seeds obtained from infected plants for planting. Spray insecticides to control the bean aphid. Fig. 8. Rosette 14Leaf spot (Fig. 9) It is a destructive fungal disease common during warm humid weather. The symptoms appear as tan to red- dish-brown or black spots on the leaves, Spotting may also be found on the petioles. PEANUT Control. Spray Daconi!,2787 at 1% ‘tbs/gal of water or Benlate at % tbs or Dithane M-45 at 2 tbs/gal of water three times during the growing season at 10 to 14 days interval. Fig. 9. Leaf spot Leaf rust (Fig. 10) This is a leaf disease caused by a fungus. Symptoms are dark-orange to dark-brown blisters on the under- side of the leaves. It usually occurs in the later stage of growth of peanuts and is usually common during the dry season planting. Control. Spray in combination with Dithane M-45 at 2 tbs and Plantax W at 4s tbs/gal of water three times during the growing season at 10 to 14 Hays interval. Damping-Ott The disease is caused by several soil- borne fungi. Humid atmosphere, wet seedbed and thick stand of seedlings are conditions that favor the deve- lopment of damping-off. If infected before emergence, the seeds may rot or the sprouts decay in the soil. The decay may either be soft and watery or dry in appearance. After emergence, the stem of the affected seedlings may rot at the soil level then fall over while the leaves are still green and turgid. The recommended chemicals for the control of these diseases are indi- cated in Table 4. 15Fig. 10. Leaf rust 16 TABLE 4. Control guide for peanut diseases. Common Trade Dosage Remarks Name Name . Benomy! Beniate % thsigal of Good for Cercospora water leat spot Thiophanate: Fungitox Tatbs/aal oF = do - methyl! water Mancozeb Dithane 2tbs/gal of Good for leat spot and water rust Tetra Daconil 1% tbs/gal of —do— chlorisop- 2787 water thab-niteite Carbendazel —_Derosal % tbi/gal of = do~ water Oxyearboxin Plantvax 75W —Yatbr/gal of Good for peanut rust water Captan Orthocide 50 185 g/cavan Good seed treatment (50 kg) material against dampingott Thiram Aratan SF. do - do - Carboxin Vitavex ~do— = do - Chioroneb ——Demosan do - ~ do -Insect Control Peanut is attacked by a number of insect pest species at all stages of growth (Fig. 11). Cutworms, leaf rol- lers/folders, corn semi-looper, corn earworm, aphids, leafhoppers and leaf- miners are the more common pests of peanuts throughout the vegetative stage. Nuts and roots may be attacked by termites, root-feeding grubs and certain species of phytophagous earwig. Although damages are generally tole- rable without standard control mea- sures, pest damage may at times re- quire emergency insecticidal applica- tion. Under intensive cultivation many of the peanut-feeding insects are liable to increase the severity of their damage. Constant surveillance for incipient damage is necessary to contain poten tially serious infestation. Any of the insecticides listed in Table 5 are recom- mended as a general control against insect pests of peanut (If unable to decide, consult local BAExt man or BPI Pest Control Officer). However, use of insecticides is only one of the methods in controlling insect pests. Insect pests Leafminer (Stomopteryx subsecivetla Zeller), Fig. 12 The damage of leafminer may be mistaken for that of bean fly except that the mines enlarge as the larva develops and pupates inside the leat tunnel, The reddish caterpillar (Micro- lepidoptera) remains inside the mine and feeds on the parenchyma of the leaves. As a result of the feeding only the silvery membrane remains and the larva is visible externally. Heavy infes- tation causes premature leaf drop. PEANUT Fig. 12, Damage of a leafminer on a bean leaf ‘Common cutworm (Spodoptera Jitura Fabricius), Fig, 13 The adult moth is dark brown with white streaks on the wings and is generally active at night. The eggs are laid in clusters on the leaves. The larvae vary in color but small orange, half-moon spots along the dorsum slightly at the side are common charac- teristics, regardless of general colora- tion, They are primarily leaf feeders, consuming the interveinal portion of the leaf, leaving the veins intact. The larva generally descends into the soil or bases of the plant during the hotter part of the day. As the larvae complete their development they pu- pate in the soil. 7nuead ul aouasinos0 ysad jenuanbag “LL “614 Pipévey vowwso s9ptoy je9] ueog dusyes Sutanseaqy 49p0) J£91 29)409 sedoo-tw9s wo ‘wiomins uounue) seyndione> Yoossn. 432109 pod uerg seyndsoes yrous 384, pide ue9q 9g luomsta ro) A sais 1594 (-2uaftsu Sunpoor wos) #42994 Jo 29QUONPEANUT Fig. 13. Larva of a Common Cutworm on a bean leaf Bean aphid (Aphis craccivora Koch), Fig. 14 These are uny lice-like insects and wingless individuals. Most of the with colors ranging trom yellowish time, they stay in one place on the or brown to black. They tend to con- plant sucking the sap. Aside from the gregate at the growing points of plants. direct damage due to withdrawal of A colony may consist of both winged sap, aphids also transmit virus diseases. Fig, 14. Black bean aphids 19Bean leaf roller (Lamprosema indicata Fabr.), Fig. 15 The adult is a medium-sized moth, yellow-orange with three black waxy bands across the forewings and two on the hindwings. The larva is foliage green with light brown head. It spends its feeding and development inside rolled leaves, Heavy infestation is noticeable from a distance as rolled leaves are prominent and generally sil- very in appearance due to the larvae feeding on the internal portion of the rolled foliage, leaving only the external membrane. A heavy damage is dange- rous during the vegetative stage. Coffee leaf folder (Homona coffearia Nietner), The adult when in repose is bell- shaped. It is brown and has an un- dulating dark brown crossband on the forewings. The larvae gather several leaves, fold them together and spend most of the feeding stages inside. The feeding characteristics resemble that Fig. 15. Typical damage of a leafroller on a bean leaf of the Pyralid leaf roller as the coffee leaf folder may also roll or fold in a single leaf. The larva of coffee leaf folder is rather distinct with the pro- minent black head. The damage is identical to Pyralid leaf-roller and it may occur throughout the year. Corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera Hubner), Fig. 16 The adult is a light reddish brown moth with a prominent brown dot near the middle of the forewings. The caterpillars have variable colors ranging from green, brown to yellow. They feed on the leaves, buds, flowers, and also exposed pods. Several young pods and developing seeds in pods are consumed. Fig. 16. Larva of acorn earworm ona bean leaf 20PEANUT Corn semi-looper (Chrysodeixis chalcites Esper), Fig. 17 The adult has grayish brown hind- wings. The forewings are prominently marked with Y-shaped brownish yellow spots. The larva is greenish with stripes along the back and side and moves with a characteristic looping motion. It often conceals itself at the base of the plant during the hotter period of the day. The insect is a serious pest during the vegetative stage of the plant, The feeding damage is characterized by consumption of the entire lamina in contrast to that of cutworm where the veins remain, Excessive infestation may completely defoliate the plants. Bean lycaenid (Catochrysops cnejus Fabr.) The adult female is pale ash-gray with purplish tinge and has a promi nent dot in the apical region of the hind wings. The white eggs are laid on the surface of the pod, flower, stem or leaf. The ovate larva is covered with Leafhopper (Empoasca biguttula Ishida) The adult leafhopper is triangular in shape, and yellowish green with light yellow forewings. A small black spot is prominent on each forewing. The adults and the nymphs generally found on the undersurface ot the leaves suck the plant sap. The females insert the eggs into the veins and petioles by the ovipositor. The nymphs Fig. 17. Larva of a ser bean plant looper on a stout white hairs and is light green with dark or reddish dorso-medium line extending the entire length of the body. It feeds on flowers, young buds and exposed pods but the body remains outside while feeding on succulent tissue. are identical to the adults in appearance but are wingless. They are most abun- dant in the months of March, April and May. They feed on legumes like Peanuts and solanaceous plants. They feed on shrubs and other plants in the absence of the regular host. Damage is severe if heavy infestation occurs during the early vegetative stage. 21June beetle (Leucopholis irrorata Chev.), Fig. 18 Most of the adults emerge in May or June. They are cylindrical in shape, 2.5 to 3.0 cm in length, glossy and blackish with a reddish tinge. They are nocturnal in habit, flying actively in the open soon after dark. During the day they are found clinging on the leaves and twigs of trees, The females lay their eggs before flying to neighboring plants. The pale yellow grubs are fleshy, wrinkled, or corruga- ted and normally curved. They stay in the soil and feed mainly on the roots of corn, mongo, peas and peanut. Fig. 18 Adults of June beetle Tiger moth caterpillar (Dasychire mendosa Hubner), Fig. 19 The adult moths have light brown forewings with jagged dark cross bands but the hind wings are pale yellow to brown. The yellowish egg masses are generally covered with hair-like mate- rials. The larvae are defoliators, stripping the leaves heavily under severe intesta- tion, They are black but appear orange- pink at the distance due to yellowish orange stiff tuffs of hair on the 4th and 7th segments and the short and erect bristles along both sides of the body. They pupate in egg-shaped silky cocoons. The insects are abundant in July, September and December.PEANUT Fig. 19. Larva of Tiger moth caterpillar on a peanut plant Earwig The adults are dark-brown to black in color, They have two pairs of rudi- mentary hind wings. The forewing is hidden. The legs are light-colored and the tip of their abdomen is provi- ded with pincer-like structures. They live and lay their eggs in the soil. They are found to be associated with peanut Plants whose stems were cut. Other pests Slant grasshoppers (Atractomorpha psittacina Haan), common katydid (Phaneroptera furcifera Stal.), corn borer (Ostrinia furnacalis (Walker), stink bugs (Nezara viridula Linn.) Sphinx moth (hornworm), Hippotion celerio Linn. and certain species of earwig and thrips should be watched very closely, They are usually present ‘on peanut and at times are rather serious. The general control guide measure is indicated in Table 5. 23“antiaajya $53] aze sionpoud 1ayyo 1ey} Adu! you saop puesg Aseiauidosd yo YONA “Ay191K0103AYd 10} XOVAH 10 UIDdIW uolureleW yore “auil) ISandeY 0} aS0[9 00} vy uormjesn vy uormlesny Jajjou Aeads you 0g “asinbas Aew aseo 49N|NG “XOISASI uor9}{nsig /4apjoy 3e07 ayy se ‘syaam om) 40 auo Alana dM £8 UlAas, [Asequea, 48000 )-1Was WO, yeada: pue sieadde abewep se 93 02 upnseg uouizeiq wiomuea W109 uoos se BulAesds ques Aiqesajaig 93 891 uUpozy soydoios00U0), swuOMIND UOWWO? “paist| sepia! -agasul sayio ayy yo Aeids Je! +0} Ylm uesnjoques yuauejddns e651 z ‘Oa SE uepolys uesinsopug 03 Atessagau aq Aew! 3) ‘39z1}1143) le6/ds1 93 és uomeleWw voiyyeew Jo paas yim sayie6or Buipaas 1e6/ds1 Z dM 0g urodiy OdIW ye sajnueiB uesnjoqioo Ajddy Zuoi/ds z De uepeiny uesnjoque) saulwyjea] “Aneay Ajgeaonou s} uorersayul 1e6/ds) z 93 0g uoiawig uopiweydsoug spiudy uaym play Aesds Alybnosoys ebay Z 2a 891 UUpozy soydoross0u0y) Jaddoyjeay Se awen puerg ‘aueNy UOWWOD syeway aBesog wag 2pr9},2a8U, see ee see ese eee Eee “anuead 40 apin6 jonuos apioncasuy “g 37aVL 24PEANUT Harvesting Harvesting is an important phase in peanut production because its timing greatly affects the yield and qua- lity. Peanut should be harvested at the right stage of maturity as deter- mined through the following indica- tions: 1, The leaves of the majority of the plants should have begun to wither and turn yellow (not to be confused with the yellowing due to diseases). This is more observable in the dry season planting. 2. Based on the expected maturity period of the variety being grown. This period ranges from 90 to 110 days depending on the planting season. 3. Maturity as indicated by the hardness of most of the pods. At this time, pull at random at least 10 to 12 plants per hectare. Open the pods and note the darkened veins of the inner Portion of the shell. The kernels are full grown or round, The vascular strands on the shell become more distinct with maturity. Premature harvesting results to shri- velled and poor quality beans. Delayed harvesting causes rotting or germina- tion of seeds right in the field, espe- cially in soils with high moisture level as is common during the wet season planting. Harvesting can be done by pulling the plants with the aid of spading fork, pitchfork or other digging tools. Another way is by passing a plow on both sides of the row followed by hand-pulling. After pulling, the plants are piled in stacks in the field at any convenient place near the field to aerate and dry the pods. Better quality kernels are obtained from curing in carefully constructed stacks than curing in windrows (loose, continuous row of up-rooted peanut plants placed on the ground). Soon after drying the pods are handpicked to separate the mature from the immature ones. 25POSTHARVEST HANDLING Drying Freshly harvested pods are relatively moist with moisture content ranging from 30 to 35 percent. Unless thev are rapidly dried to a safe moisture level, seed deterioration will rapidly set in. The suggested safe kernel moisture content for short-term open storage of peanut pods is 12 percent. For sealed storage, the moisture content must be reduced to 6 to 8 percent. Locally, sun-drying is a common method of drying peanuts and is reasonably effective. However, mois- ture reduction is slower and more variable so that some reduction in quality may be encountered. Shelting Peanut should be shelled carefully to avoid scratching, splitting, rupturing of the seed coat, breaking of the coty- ledon and separating one or both of the cotyledons from the embryonic axis. Any form of injury on the seed coat is harmful and breaking or split- ting the kernels renders them useless for seed. The break on the seed coat may allow decay and mycotoxin-producing organisms to attack the exposed tissues and rapidly destroy the seed. When the scratch on the seed coat is deep, some oil is freed and exposed, rendering the seed rancid, This condi- tion reduces the quality and viability of the seed. 26 Storing The high humidity and temperature of the ambient environment will result in rapid loss of viability of the stored seeds especially of the oil seeds. This can be due to the relatively high equi- librium moisture content of the oil seeds under such conditions and the combination of high seed respiration and activities of its associated micro- flora. Peanut kernels should be dried to a low moisture content and sealed in moisture vapor-proof packing to maintain seed viability. Peanut stored at moisture content of more than 12 percent will lose viability after five months under ambient storage condi- tions. Storing peanut in the unshelled form is more advantageous than storing in shelled form. The shell acts as a protective covering of the relatively soft seed against mechanical damage and insect infestations. Mechanically damaged or pest-infested points on the seed will act as centers in which rapid decay will occur leading to rapid loss of viability. With regards to storage facilities, an ordinary air-conditioned room with dehumidifiers is advisable to maintain the relative humidity at 40 percent and temperature at 15.5°C. This will maintain the viability of the seed for at least six months or more when stored at a safe moisture level for storage.PEANUT MULTIPLE CROPPING WITH PEANUT Peanut is an alternative crop that is suited in cropping schemes in tight to medium-textured soils in rotation with other annual crops. It is not re- commended for growing in the early part of the rainy season because yield losses from pre-harvest germination and rotting, are highly probable if rain exceeds 100 mm jper month towards harvest time, especially in the heavier soils. Intereropping (the growing of two or more crops in the same field at the same time) corn with peanut as a method of crop intensification is a common practice utilized by tradi- tional farmers in many small farms in the Philippines and other Asian and African countries. The area is planted to solid peanut with rows 40 to 50 cm apart at a population of 160 to 200 thousand plants per hectare and the corn is interplanted at the same time in rows one to two meters apart at a population of 40 to 50 thousand plants per hectare (Fig. 20). The relative maturity periods of the two crops vary, with the taller corn crop usually being harvested first, leaving the peanut to mature without further competition. The peanut yield is significantly higher when the corn is harvested as green ears than when it is harvested dry and when the corn is spaced at the wider distance. Although the yield of peanut is reduced up to 20 to 30 percent when intercropped with corn because of competition, the total productivity of the combination is 30 to 50 percent higher compared to their monoculture yields. The corn borer incidence in the corn may also be reduced consi- derably, probably through enhanced borer-predator relationship in this combination. Peanut may also be intercropped with sugarcane, sorghum, cassava, okra, and between rows of coconut, papaya and citrus trees that have not closed in yet. The peanut is usually intercropped within a week after planting the main sugarcane crop or after ratooning, In this case, two rows of peanut 35 to 50 cm apart are planted per ridge. The peanut is har- vested before the sugarcane canopy Closes in completely. Intercropping with peanut makes better use of the farmer's land resour- ces with a possible higher return on cash inputs. It also provides better labor-use pattern and income distri- bution. Fig. 20. Peanut plants with and without corn interplanted in rows.NUTRITIVE VALUE Peanut is one of the important plant sources of protein, calories and minerals. It can also serve as a useful source of thiamine and ni provided it is not overheated during roasting. The high caloric value is due to the high fat and protein contents present in the kernel, Fats and carbo- hydrates in the form of sugar or sugar syrup added during the processing and Many peanut products further increase the caloric value. One cup of roasted Peanuts provides the energy value of approximately five cups of milk, eight hen’s eggs or 27 medium-sized bananas. The protein content of peanut is approximately 25 to 30 percent, on the dry weight basis. It is limiting in the amino acids, methionine and cys- tine. A secondary deficiency is lysine. Moderate heat treatment, either by boiling or roasting, does not signi- ficantly alter the nutritive value of Peanut protein, Over-roasting, how- ever, has deleterious effects and pea- nuts roasted to a dark brown color were found to be worthless for growth development. Peanuts contain from 46 to 50 per- cent oil. Peanut flavor is closely associated with the oil and on separa- tion, the flavor goes with the oil rather than with the meal. The average 28 fatty acid distribution of peanut oil is as follows: 20 percent saturated fatty acids, 50 percent mono-unsatu- rated fatty acids, oleic acid and 30 Percent linoleic acid. The presence of unsaturated fatty acids in dietary fats has been shown to induce lower- ing of blood cholesterol which in turn is helpful in the prevention of heart diseases. The cotyledon has about 15 percent carbohydrates and the seed coat, one percent. The carbohydrates is in- creased by the addition of sugars to peanut butter, candy bars, brittles and other confections. Raw peanut contains about three Percent ash and peanut meal (product obtained after oil extraction), about four percent. Of the 26 inorganic cons- tituents present in the kernel, calcium, Phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and sulfur are found in high amounts. They are unaffected by heating. Unheated kernels are excellent sources of thiamine and niacin, The seed coat of peanuts contain 25 per- cent of the total thiamine which is lost during roasting and blanching. Thiamine is drastically reduced when nuts are roasted at 150 to 160°C for 20 to 40 minutes.PEANUT AFLATOXIN IN PEANUT Aflatoxin is a potent carcinogen of the liver and causes aflatoxicosis to the following domestic animals in the order of susceptibility depending upon the dose, duration, and age of the animals: duckling, turkey _poult, chicken, piglet, pregnant sow, calf, fattening pig, and mature cattle. The earliest signs of aflatoxicosis are lack of appetite and decrease of weight. The general symptoms of the disease are dullness, restlessness and weakness of the afflicted animals before death. High moisture in the product, warm temperature of 15.5° to 37.7°C combined with a high relative humidity of the environment encourage mold- ing. Seeds damaged physically or by insects or the presence of foreign mat- ter in the stored seeds are other favo- rable conditions to mold development. The two aflatoxin—forming fungi, Aspergillus flavus and A. parasi- ticus, are common molds that grow over a wide range of environmental conditions. They can grow at tem- peratures ranging from 6° to 46°C with optimum from 28 to 38°C, depending on the strain of the fungus. The aflatoxin can be formed in the mi- nimum temperature of 15°C at 98 percent relative humidity to as high as 40°C, with optimum temperature tall- ing at near 30°C. The response to tem- perature is influenced by moisture, amount of aeration, nutrition, genetic composition, and other factors. Since the fruiting bodies of these fungi are constantly present in the air and soil, there is difficulty eradicating them. Once they produce aflatoxin on a Particular substrate, they are very hard to remove or detoxify. It is thereby necessary to prevent their formation on grains and oilseed. Mold-contaminated peanuts usually exhibit some of the following charac- teristics: darker skin coloring before and/or after roasting; darker flesh (after blanching) before and/or after roasting; and resistance to splitting and/or blanching. Molding during the storage can be prevented in many ways as indicated below: 1, The peanut should be initially high in quality. a. should be free from molds, insects, and ranciaity which can be done by: following good growing practices like using good quality seed, fe lizing properly, controlling in- sect pests and diseases, and in- verting peanut plants after digging to prevent pods from touching the ground. 2. The storage conditions must not be conducive to mold pro- duction. a. Observe sanitation on the sto- rage and drying areas by keeping them free from de- bris, insects and rodents, b, Avoid mixing new and old seed stocks or lots with diffe- rent moisture content. c. The storage temperature should be low for long storage life. d. The relative humidity should be low (65 to 70%). e, The ambient air should be well circulated and free of odor. Recent findings at the Food and Nutrition Research Institute, National Science Development Board showed that some raw and locally processed 29Peanut products are contaminated with aflatoxin beyond the permissi- ble level of 20 parts per billion (ppb). Aflatoxin was shown to produce pri- mary cancer of the liver in experimen: tal animals tested. Although no toxic effects have yet been reported in humans, the potential danger cannot: be ignored. The hazard is not only confined to the direct consumption of foods processed from peanuts con- taining aflatoxin. Sensitive and relia- ble tests have shown that aflatoxin is present in the edible tissues and milk of animals fed large amounts of afla- toxin-infected feeds. There are epide- miologic studies associating a fiver cancer in humans with a diet of allegedly moldy foods. These findings Point to the potential health hazard of contaminated peanuts and hence to the need for proper harvesting, drying and storage practices as well as ade- quate and careful sorting of moldy, iscolored, shrivelled and damaged raw Peanuts before processing. The chemi. cal composition of peanut and peanut products as well as the amino acids content of roasted, raw and peanut flour are shown in Appendix Tables 2 and 3.PEANUT UTILIZATION Peanuts are boiled or roasted in the shell to be consumed as a nut. Large amounts are shelled and the kernels are roasted or fried in oil with or with- out the seed coat. Salt and garlic are sometimes added for extra flavor. They are used in the preparation of peanut butter and in various types of candy bars, brittles and confections. Peanut oil is the second largest sources of vegetable oil in the world, next to soybean oil. It is used in the manufacture of cooking oil, salad dressing, margarine and shortening. The crude oil is used for soaps and detergents. Non-food use of the re- fined oils is as a base in numerous cosmetic preparations such as face creams, shaving creams and hair lotions. Other products prepared from pea- nut are flour, protein isolate, cheese, “milk”, paste for shortening, and vegetable seasoning and defatted meal for snack foods. Peanut flour is an excellent supplement to wheat flour and in low-carbohydrate diets. It con- tains four times as much protein, eight times as much fat and nine times as much minerals as wheat flour. Peanut protein isolate is used for fortification of bakery products, milk substitute, infant foods,simulated meat products and other nutritional foods. Non-food uses of peanut protein are for the manufacture of soft woollike cream colored fiber and adhesive products such as plywood glue, wettable glue, Paper coating, binders and window shade sizes. Peanut hay, meal, and hearts are used for poultry and livestock feeds. The seed coats are commercial sources of tannin and thiamine, Peanut shell finds many uses, too, as listed below: 1. fuel for boiler generating the steam for making electricity to operate the shelling plant filler for fertilizers mulch for growing plants roughage for cattle feed when mixed with molasses and mine- ral supplements 5. litter for poultry houses 6. abrasive for polishing stee! and aluminum 7. insulation for farm buildings 8. as a base for the manufacture of crowns for beverage bottles 9. fuel “logs” 10. filler for plastic wood and veneer trash 11. high grade activated charcoal BON 31SEED PRODUCTION AND CERTIFICATION The use of high quality seeds is one of the vital factors leading to increased peanut productivity. High quality seeds are produced from the multipli- cation of seeds with specific genetic and purity approved by the pine Seedboard for planting for commercial production, The following seeds must be produced from lands not producing any other variety of the same crop, or an uncertified crop of the variety for a certain length of time and should be free from volunteer plants of the same crop. Breeder seed — seed directly com trolled by the originating or in certain cases, the sponsoring plant breeder or institution, This provides the source for the initial and recurring increase of foundation seed and must be carefully supervised by a technical personnel of the experiment station. Foundation seed — progeny of the breeder seed and shall be the source of all. other certified seed classes, either directly or through the regis- tered seed. TABLE 6. Specific Certified seed — progeny of the foundation or registered seed and is so handled as to maintain satisfactory genetic identity and purity and has been approved and certified by the Certifying Agency. The seed producer aside from ac- counting the source of his planting seed has to consider uniform and timely application of fertilizer, insect icides and weedicides. Roguing off- types and weeding of noxious weeds are important. Prior to laboratory seed certifica- tion, the seed inspector visits the field before harvest to ensure the absence of noxious weeds or varietal mixtures r to harvest. Disqualificati rejections may be done if there are evidences of off-types and noxious weeds. Field inspection a. General standards: 1. Only one variety of the same crop may be grown for seed Production on a farm. 2. A gap of 2 to 5 meters (or longer) will be kept between the seed farm and the land planted to other varieties of Peanut. id cerfication standard Factor Sieieidis Foundation Registered Certified Other varieties 1 plant per 2 plants per 5 plants per 100 sq.m 100 sqm 100 sqm Other crops ° 1 plant per 2 plants per 100 sqm 100 sq m 32The laboratory seed certification involves the determination of purity, germi- nation, moisture content, mixture of varieties, weed seed, etc, The laboratory standard for peanut is indicated in Table 7. TABLE 7. Laboratory seed standard for peanut Mat eateatete Recapeeed Certified Pure seed (min} 98% 98% 98% Varietal mixture (max) 2 seeds/500 3 seeds/500 5 seeds/500 gms gms ams Other crop seed (max) None None None Weed seed (max) None None None Inert matter (max) 1% 1% 2% Germination (min)* 80% 80% 80% Moisture content (max) 12% 12% 12% “Retest germination if necessary after 3 monthsESTIMATED COST OF PRODUCTION/HECTARE OF PEANUT’ Activities’ Man-days Man-Animal days Value (P8/day) (P18/day) (Peso) A. Labor Land preparation Plowing First 10 180 Second 3 54 Harrowing First 4 72 Second 3 54 Furrowing 3 54 Fertilization 2 36 Inoculation 1 8 Planting 5 40 Care of plants : 3 24 5 5 130 3 3 a7) Irrigation 2 16 Control of pests and diseases 3 24 Harvesting Pulling and curing of plants 10 80 Picking & hauling of pods 6 ‘l 66 Drying & packing 5 40 SUB-TOTAL: 956 Value (Peso) B. Inputs Seeds 135 kg at P6.50/kg (unshelled) 877.50 -Y Depreciation rate on capital is 10 percent per year. Capital Is based on labor and inputs; interest rate is 1 percent per month, Peanut production takes four months from planting to cleaning.Fertilizer 14-14-14 at The marketing of peanut is gene- rally non-systematic resulting to many channels or outlets involved before the harvest reaches the final consumers. However, its demand is always high because of its versatile uses, palatabi- lity and general acceptability. Though semi-perishable, it is easily disposesd PEANUT ®70/bag, 4 bags 280.00 Inoculant 2.50 Insecticides 40.00 Fungicides, 1 kg Benlate at ®20/kg 20.00 Sacks, 36 at P3.50/sack 126,00 Miscellaneous 100.00 SUB-TOTAL: 1,446.00 C. Fixed Costs Depreciation 60.05 Interest on capital 96.08 Land rental 300.00 SUB-TOTAL: 456.13, Total Cost 2,858.13 Cost of producing a cavan (29 kg/cavan) 48.45 Cost of producing a kg 2.20 Gross Income 1,300 kg or 45 sacks unshelled at P101/sack or ®3.50/kg 4,550.00 Net Income 1,691.87 MARKETING of, hence there seems to be an assured local market for peanuts. Farmers generally sell their produce to agent, assembler-wholesaler, retai- ler, wholesaler-retailer, processor and final consumers at the farms, farm. stead, roadside, public market and buyer's place of business. 35REFERENCES AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDE INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES, Information for physicians on pesticide poisoning. Philippines. 1974, ALCANTARA, A, Legume inoculation. IRRI, n.d. BENIGNO, D., F, QUEBRAL and D, PUA. Getting to know the virus diseases of peanut. Agriculture at Los Bafios. Vol, XIV (4): 1-16, 1975. BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS. Philippines. 1976. CAGAMPANG, |. and R. LANTICAN. Peanut production, UPCA Farm Bulletin No, 32, 1973. and _____mtmtmt___ The peanut plant and its production in the Philippines. Mimeographed sheet. 1977. and Peanut-botany and culture. Agrix. 1975. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS. Prevent molds in stored grains and oilseeds. UPCA Circular No. 4, 1971. ESGUERRA, N. and B. GABRIEL, Insect pests of vegetables. UPLB, Dept. of Entom. Tech. Bull. 25: 52-55, 1969. FEAKIN, S. (ed.) Pest control in groundnuts. Pans Manual 2. 3rd ed. Center for Overseas Pest Research. Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Overseas Development Administration London. pp. 186. 1973. FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH CENTER. Food composition Table. Handbook |. 4th ed. 1968. HERRERA, W., B. SAMSON and R. HARWOOD. The effect of row arrangement and plant density on the productivity of corn-rice and corn-peanut intercrop. Phil. J. of Crop Sci, 1(3): 125-128, 1975. HUELGAS, R. and L. PACKALIWAGAN. The economics of soybean and other legumes. IADA, nu ILAG, L. 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Pro- ceedings of the Second Annual Conference of Corn, Sorghum, Soybean and Peanut. UPLBCA. 1971. QUEBRAL, F. Some diseases of field legumes (Mungo, Peanut and Soybean) in the Philippines and their control. PCARR Workshop on Soybean and Other field Legumes. 1973. . 8. GARCIA, F. PUNZALAN and I. CAGAMPANG. Evaluation of fungi- cides for leaf rust and leaf spot control of peanut. The Philippine Agriculturist 59 (7 and 9): 313-316. 1976. . B. REJESUS and B. MERCADO. Pest and disease problems of field le- gumes (soybean, peanut and mungo) in the Philippines. Mimeographed sheet. UPLB, College, Laguna. 1975. REJESUS, R. Perspective in insect pest control of field legumes. In Cropping Sys- tems Specialist’ Training Manual. Los Bafios, Laguna, Handout No. 60 1976. . Insect pests of grain legumes and their control in the Philippines. Proc. inter'l. Symposium on Pests of Grain Legumes. 8-13 November, 1976. IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria (in press), 1977. SALAMAT, L., and L. DUMADAONG. A preliminary report on the occurence of mycotoxins in some Philippine foods. Unpubl. report. FNRI. NSOB, 1977. THE PHILIPPINE HANDBOOK and ALMANAC. 1973. WOODROOF, J. Peanuts: Production, Processing Products. 2nd ed. The AVI Publishing Co. Inc. West Port, Connecticut. pp. 327. 1973. XUAN, V. and V. ROSS. Training manual for rice production. pp. 66-69. The International Rice Research Institute. Los Bafios, Laguna, Philippines. 1976. 37