ORGANIC AGRICULTURE

PCAARRD Training Module No.
4/2012
Organic Agriculture
in the Philippines
A Training Manual
Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural

Resources Research and Development (PCAARRD)
Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
Los Baños, Laguna

2012
First Edition 2012
ISBN 978-971-20-0552-7
Bibliographic Citation:
Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development.
Organic agriculture in the Philippines: A training manual. Los Baños, Laguna: PCAARRD-
DOST, 2012. 443p. - (PCAARRD Training Module No 4/2012).
Philippine copyright © 2012 by PCAARRD-DOST
Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

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Foreword
Most of us think that the term “organic,” means that no pesticides and harsh
chemicals were used to produce a finished product. The production of an organic
product goes far beyond this basic description.
Organic agriculture is a holistic system of crop and livestock production that promotes
the health of agricultural ecosystems while producing healthy food. It uses diverse cultural
and biological practices to control weeds and pests, build soil fertility, enhance biological
cycles and increase biodiversity.
The market potential for organic products is enormous, more so, if they pass the organic
certification process. This assures producers the right to claim their products as organic
and explore the world market.
With the rising concern about antibiotics and pesticide residues, the clamor for healthy
safe foods is growing and the organic market is likewise expected to continue to grow.
This is a timely opportunity for us to enrich our knowledge and enhance our capacity to
engage in organic agriculture production systems.
This Training Manual on Organic Agriculture elaborates the principles and practices of
organic agriculture in the Philippines. It provides practical information on soil management,
organic crop and livestock production, pest and disease management, organic certification,
markets and trade, and guides to farm planning and record keeping.
This was prepared in response to a growing interest in organic farming technologies.
While there may be bits and pieces of information materials that are available elsewhere,
this can be the first time that a comprehensive substantial information on organic agriculture
is published. This is the result of long years of preparation and the contents are products of
knowledge and experiences from both the government and private sectors.
PCAARRD hopes that this publication will be useful in promoting organic agriculture
in the country. We hope to encourage the non-practitioners to discover for themselves the
benefits of organic farming. This is one of our ways of equipping practitioners with sufficient
tools to firm up their knowledge and skills. We look forward to realizing the impact of
this publication both to low-income small holders and big time organic producers.

PATRICIO S. FAYLON
Executive Director
PCAARRD

iii
Acknowledgment
This publication would have not been possible without the leadership, cooperation,
and assistance of the following:
• the PCAARRD management for providing the financial support for organizing the
Technical Committee meetings and for the final printing production;
• for the 17 members of the writing panel for patiently drafting, revising, and
finalizing the contents of their respective modules;
• the agency heads represented by the members of the writing panel for allowing
the participation of their staff in the production of this publication and for sharing
the information they gained from their years of experiences working on organic
agriculture;
• specific agencies such as Organic Farming Production, Training, Consultancy,
Inc.; Organic Certification Center of the Philippines; Alter Trade Foundation, Inc.;
Gratia Plena Social Action Center; and Helen Farms Davao;
• Bureau of Plant Industry-Los Baños National Crops Research and Development
Center; Central Luzon State University; Benguet State University; and University
of the Philippines Los Baños-Agricultural Systems Cluster, Crop Protection Cluster,
and Institute of Plant Breeding;
• Director Rodolfo O. Ilao and staff of the Agricultural Resources Management
Research Division of PCAARRD, particularly Dr. Bethilda E. Umali and Ms. Ofelia F.
Domingo for the overall management, editing, and review of the publication; and
• the Applied Communication Division headed by Dr. Lily Ann D. Lando, assisted by
Mr. Joel Eneristo A. Joven, Ms. Carmelita B. Alamban, Mr. Paul Jersey Leron, and
Ms. Marina T. de Ramos for the final stages of printing production.

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Contents
Foreword .............................................................................................................. iii

Acknowledgment................................................................................................... iv
The Authors........................................................................................................... vii
Introduction to the Training Manual........................................................................ 1
Module 1. Overview of Organic Agriculture

1.1 Overview of organic agriculture: definition, scope,
and benefits - Digna O. Manzanilla . ................................................................ 6
1.2 History, development, and trends in organic
agriculture - Jacqueline Haessig Alleje.............................................................. 28
Module 2. Soil Management

2.1 Soil fertility and nutrient management - Clarita P. Aganon............................... 40
2.2 Farmstead compost production
- Jacqueline Haessig Alleje and Lourdes G. de Villa ................................................. 56
2.3 Organic fertilizer production from solid wastes
- Nenita E. Dela Cruz....................................................................................... 74
2.4 Vermiculture and vermicompost production
and utilization - Joel L. Adorada. .................................................................... 89
2.5 Natural farm inputs - Jacqueline Haessig Alleje and Lourdes G. de Villa.................... 112
Module 3. Organic Crop Production

3.1 Concepts and requirements in organic crop
production - Nenita E. Dela Cruz...................................................................... 126
3.2 Organic seed production - Rodel G. Maghirang................................................ 139
3.3 Seedling production for vegetables
- Jacqueline Haessig Alleje and Lourdes G. de Villa .................................................. 158
3.4 Organic tropical vegetable production - Nenita E. Dela Cruz............................. 167
3.5 Organic production of semi-temperate vegetables - Silvestre L. Kudan . ......... 177
3.6 Organic sugarcane production - Analyn G. Escanes and Julie Ann M. Gepielago. ..... 189
3.7 Organic Arabica coffee production - Valentino L. Macanes . ............................. 208
3.8 Organic rice production - Ross O. Quin and Clarita P. Aganon............................... 222

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Module 4. Pest and Disease Management
4.1 Pest management strategies in organic vegetable
production - Pio A. Javier . ........................................................................... 234
4.2 Pest management in organic coffee
production - Pio A. Javier and Marilyn G. Patricio ................................................. 244
4.3 Insect pest management in organic sugarcane
production - Pio A. Javier . ............................................................................ 256
4.4 Disease management in organic vegetable
production - Marilyn G. Patricio....................................................................... 270
Module 5. Organic Livestock and Poultry Production

5.1 Principles and considerations in organic livestock
production - Jacqueline Haessig Alleje. ............................................................. 310
5.2 Organic poultry production - Mercedes P. Tarun. ............................................. 322
5.3 Natural farming technology for organic hog production in micro-,
small- and medium-scale integrated organic farming systems
- Andry K. Lim (With contributions from Josephine C. Gamboa, Jacqueline Haessig Alleje) ............ 339
5.4 Duck ranger: the organic production of ducks - Rectorino P. Escobin, Jr............ 357
Module 6. Organic Certification, Markets, Trade,

and Policies
6.1 Organic standards and certification - Leilani Ramona K. Limpin........................ 376
6.2 Organic markets and trade - Jacqueline Haessig Alleje..................................... 408
Module 7: Farm Planning and Record Keeping

7.1 Farm planning and record keeping - Jacqueline Haessig Alleje......................... 430

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THE AUTHORS
MR. JOEL L. ADORADA is an Agriculturist II of the Bureau of Plant Industry-

Los Baños National Crop Research and Development Center. He is a BS
Agriculture (entomology) and MS Environmental Science (community-based
resource management) graduate from the University of the Philippines Los
Baños (UPLB). His MS thesis is on “Assessment of Vermicomposting as a
Waste Management Technology and a Livelihood Alternative.” Adorada also
earned a Diploma in Research and Development Management from the UP Open University.
He is currently pursuing his PhD in Entomology (organic seed technology). The author has
developed an efficient vermiculture system that can produce more worms compared with
the conventional methods and a vermitea brewer for organic crop production and protection.
His expertise includes crop protection, organic farming, vermiculture, and vermicomposting.
(E-mail: jladorada@yahoo.com)
DR. CLARITA P. AGANON was a professor at the Central Luzon State

University (CLSU), Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines. She
holds a PhD in Soil Science (Soil Conservation and Management). She was
the director of the Ramon Magsaysay Center for Agricultural Resources and
Environment Studies (RMCARES) at CLSU for 10 years until she migrated to
Canada in 2010. RMCARES was founded through her initiative and funded
through the Countryside Development Fund (CDF) of former Senator Ramon
Magsaysay Jr. She spearheaded the Integrated Ecological Solid Waste Management Program
at CLSU converting biodegradable household, market and agricultural wastes into organic
fertilizer. She conducted several studies on land rehabilitation, protected organic vegetable
cultivation, organic fertilizer production, protected vegetable cultivation, and grafted tomato.
The author is a recipient of several government and non-government awards in the areas
of research and development. She has written and published numerous research articles,
monographs and books either as author or co-author. (E-mail: cpaganon@yahoo.com)
JACQUELINE HAESSIG ALLEJE, a Swiss, is involved in the

development of OA since 1990. Alleje is the founder/owner of Rizal
Dairy Farms. As president of the Organic Farming Production, Training,
Consultancy, Inc. she drives the organic agenda, develops and
improves organic production techniques, trains and serves as a consultant
to assist in the capability building and progress of the organic sector in the
country.

vii
Alleje is also one of the founders of the first organic market in the Philippines in 1994.
In 1995, she co-founded the Organic Producers Trade Association of the Philippines (OPTA).
As member of the technical committee of OPTA, she assisted in setting up the Organic
Certification Center of the Philippines (OCCP) in 2000, for which she concurrently serves
as board and executive committee member. She has been a key player in the development
of national organic standards and government policies in the Philippines. Alleje is also
involved in several organic projects such as the pilot project for the Organic Agriculture
Center of Tanauan, a government-private sector partnership that will serve as a model
for training and onsite research, a main component of Tanauan City’s organic agriculture
master plan. At the international level, she is a world board member of IFOAM since 2005.
(E-mail: jha@ifoam.org; jha@rizaldairy.com)
MS. LOURDES GARCIA DE VILLA is the head agriculturist of Organic Farming—Production,

Training, and Consultancy, Inc. She is actively involved in the development of production
protocols, comparative field trials, and varietal trieals of vegetable crops and is assisting in
training of farmers in Tanauan City.
DR. NENITA E. DELA CRUZ is Professor V of the Research Extension and

Training Office, CLSU and a former director of the Nueva Ecija Fruits and
Vegetables Seed Center. She initiated the CLSU Integrated R&D Program on
Organic Agriculture. She holds a PhD in Soil Science (major in soil physics
and minor in farming systems) from UPLB. From 2001–2010, dela Cruz was
a member of the National Organic Agriculture Board. She has been doing
agricultural and environmental research for the past 30 years.
(E-mail: nenet_dc@yahoo.com)
MS. ANALYN G. ESCANES is a BS Agriculture (agronomy) graduate of

the University of Negros Occidental-Recoletos. She has been involved
in Alter Trade Foundation Inc.’s (ATFI) Bio-Organic Conversion Program
since 1996 and currently the program director of ATFI’s Sustainable
Production and Area Development Enterprise Program. She is leading
a team of agriculturists in assisting Alter Trade’s partner producers in
technical needs for organic conversion and sustainable production.
(E-mail: age_816@yahoo.com)
MS. JULIE ANN M. GEPIELAGO is BS Agriculture (horticulture

[postharvest]) graduate of UPLB. She was the coordinator of ATFI’s
Quality Assurance Program for Organic Products and Internal Control
System. She was responsible for ensuring the effective and efficient
functioning of the Internal Control System in maintaining the integrity

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of ATFI’s organic products. She is currently the project officer of the OCCP where
she is responsible in handling the certification concerns of organic operators and
clients. She is also responsible for the ISO 65 accreditation and quality management
system of ATFI. (E-mail: julieanngepielago@gmail.com)
DR. RECTORINO P. ESCOBIN, JR. is a pioneer member of “The Integrated

Rice-Duck Farming Systems (1982–1987)” team of UPLB. He recently
completed two World Bank-funded development projects – “Duck ranger:
rice-duck systems to the rescue” and “Solar balut: incubating socioeconomic
benefits.” Escobin is a recipient of the “Young Scientist Prize (2005)” of
the British Society of Animal Science/Animal Husbandry Association of
Thailand (BSAS/AHAT) British-Thailand Conference and “Best Paper Award (2009)” of
the Philippine Society of Animal Science (PSAS) Convention. Aside from doing research
on organic farming, he was also involved in various researches on crop-animal systems,
utilization-conservation-genetic improvement of native and exotic breeds, and adaptation
to climate change, among others. He has PhD in Animal Science (animal breeding) and
a cognate in community development. Currently, he is a university researcher and an
affiliate assistant professor of the Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of Agriculture (CA),
UPLB. (E-mail: recescobin@yahoo.com)
DR. PIO A. JAVIER is currently a research professor and head of the Plant
and Environmental Health Division of the Crop Protection Cluster, CA,
UPLB. He finished his BS, MS, and PhD degrees in Entomology, major in
plant pathology at UPLB. He is actively doing research and extension on the
utilization of biological control agents and on developing non-insecticidal
methods for the management of major insect pests of corn, citrus,
sugarcane, and vegetables. In 2008, he was bestowed the UP Research,
Extension, and Professional Services (REPSA) Outstanding Researcher Award, and the 2010
Pest Management Award in Extension and Community Service by the Pest Management
Council of the Philippines. He presently teaches crop protection, economic entomology,
stored product entomology, and biological control courses. (E-mail: paulreivaj42@yahoo.com)
DR. SILVESTRE L. KUDAN started as a laborer at Madaymen, Kibungan,

Benguet where only temperate vegetables are grown. He learned to grow
cabbage, potato, garden pea, and carrot using agricultural chemicals.
In 1970, he enrolled as a self-supporting student at the Mountain
State Agricultural College now Benguet State University (BSU). He
finished his MS in Horticulture in 1989 and his PhD in Horticulture in 2006
at BSU. In 1999, as an anchorperson of the “BSU on the Air” program, he
started promoting the use of plant compost and other organic fertilizers. In 2003, he
developed a 900-m2 BSU greenhouse into an organic vegetable production system to show

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farmers that OA is possible and profitable. He proved that growing early maturing vegetables
such as romaine, spinach, pak choi, and crops that can last up to 6–7 months like tomato
and bell pepper provided high return on investment. (E-mail: silverkudan@yahoo.com)
MR. ANDRY K. LIM is a family farm consultant of the New City

Commercial Center (NCCC) Davao City, with farms situated in Jaoquin
Biao, Calinan, Lasang, and Panabo in Davao City. He was a member and
resource speaker of OPTA, Galing Pilipino Movement on Natural Farming
Seminars, and the Visayas on Natural Farming System (NFS) on Green
Productivity and Eco-Business Development (implemented by
the Asian Productivity Organization through the Development Academy of the
Philippines in the Visayas’ Farm Project for integrated community capability projects in
Banga, Malay, Makato in Aklan and Miagao in Iloilo). He was actively involved in LGU
initiatives in developing and establishing demonstration farms. He has conducted more
than a hundred natural farming seminars and workshops nationwide involving various
public and private organizations, small and medium farmers’ cooperatives and corporation.
He was a recipient of the Department of Agriculture (DA) Secretary’s Award for
Outstanding Organic Agriculture Initiative during its 6th Organic Congress in October 2009.
(E-mail: jozfin_gamboa@yahoo.com)
MS. LEILANI RAMONA KATIMBANG-LIMPIN is the executive director of

the OCCP and a member of the National Organic Agriculture Board (NOAB)
since 2007. She is a BS and Master of Agriculture graduate of UPLB. Prior
to her current position, she worked as a development worker implementing
programs and projects on Organic and Sustainable Agriculture in the
provinces of Laguna, Camarines Sur, Iloilo, Cebu, Leyte, Bohol, Davao del
Norte, and Sultan Kudarat. She also trained farmers on different appropriate technologies
on rice and vegetable and has engaged herself on researches related to OA. She is a member
of the Technical Working Group on Organic Aquaculture Standard, Muscovado Standard, and
the Codex Sub-committee on Food Labeling. (E-mail: lanilimpin831@gmail.com)
MR. VALENTINO L. MACANES is an associate professor of the

Department of Agroforestry, CA at the BSU. He is currently the director
of the Institute of Highland Farming Systems and Agroforestry at
BSU. He is also the program leader and key commodity systems
team leader in Arabica Coffee and Agroforestry Research and
Development in the Cordillera Autonomous Region. He is a researcher,
extension worker, and production manager in agroforestry farming systems particularly
on Arabica coffee production and sericulture. He is a lecturer and trainor in regional and
national seminars, conferences, and trainings. He finished his MS in Agriculture (Plant
Pathology cognate in Horticulture) from BSU. He also earned a Diploma in Sericulture

x
from the Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, Bacnotan La Union and a
Diploma in Agroforestry from UPLB. (E-mail: vlmacanes_bsu_ihfsa@yahoo.com.ph)
DR. RODEL G. MAGHIRANG is a researcher at the Institute of Plant

Breeding of UPLB and program coordinator of the PCARRD-monitored
National Organic Vegetable Research and Development Program. He
is a member of NOAB since year 2010. He has been doing research and
extension on organic vegetable breeding and production since 1995 and
conventional vegetable breeding since 1981. He has also been a resource
person, lecturer and consultant on OA. (E-mail: rgmaghr@yahoo.com)
DR. DIGNA O. MANZANILLA is currently a scientist (social sciences)

at the International Rice Research Institute and the associate
coordinator of the Consortium for Unfavorable Rice Environments
(CURE). She is now involved in socioeconomic studies related to the
field validation and dissemination of rice technologies in South and
Southeast Asia. Prior to her current post, she completed her post-doctoral
fellowship at IRRI in 2008–2010. She holds a PhD in environmental science (social theory
and institutional aspects) and MS and BS in agricultural and resources economics. As
former director of the Agricultural Resources Management Research Division of PCARRD, she
handled research management and science and technology related activities in sustainable
agriculture, OA, soil and water management including sloping land management, and solid
waste management, among others. (E-mail: digs38@hotmail.com)
DR. MARILYN GAGELONIA-PATRICIO is a professor in plant pathology/

entomology and division chief of the Center for Agricultural Resources
and Environmental Studies (RM-CARES) of CLSU. She holds a PhD in
Entomology (Economic Entomology/Pest Management major and Plant
Disease Management minor). She conducts research on the use of
biopesticides in organic vegetable crops production, and a partner in
the establishment of Organic Demo Farm under the Organic Agriculture R&D Program of
CLSU. She attended three disease management training courses in vegetable production
as resource person and facilitator in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Nepal under the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Programme. She is
also the project leader of the project Development of Pest Management Products and
System for Organic Vegetable Production in Central Luzon funded by PCARRD.
(E-mail: marilyngpatricio3025@yahoo.com)

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ROSS O. QUIN’s primary motivation and preoccupation as a longtime community rural
development expert is empowering small farmers and small communities. He is currently
the program manager of the Gratia Plena Social Action Center, based in Nueva Ecija. Gratia
Plena, through its partner, the Full of Grace Organic Agriculture Producers, markets the
organic produce of 27 participating communities and groups not only in Nueva Ecija but
also from Nueva Vizcaya, Abra, Cavite, Zambales, Bukidnon, Cotabato, and Mindoro. Aside
from being a seasoned community organizer, Ross is also recognized for his knowledge
in developing organic technology through indigenous resources, his skills as a trainer on
organic farming, rural development mobilization, and his marketing prowess. He also
helped draft the Philippine National Standard for OA in 1995. His active involvement in the
OA movement has helped elect him as first board chairman of the OCCP, the first and only
accredited local certification body in the Philippines. (E-mail: graplena@yahoo.com)
DR. MERCEDES P. TARUN is an animal science professor at the Isabela

State University, San Mariano Campus, Sta. Filomena, San Mariano, Isabela,
Philippines. She holds a PhD in Agricultural Sciences (Animal Science). She
has served the university as research and extension officer, R&D director,
and campus dean. With her experiences as a researcher, she conducted
various researches related to OA specifically poultry and swine. With her
studies on the production of drug-free animals, she was able to present and
published papers in international scientific journals. She was also invited as a distinguished
research fellow at the National Chung Shing University, Taichung, Taiwan during its 1st
Organic Agriculture Forum last November 2007. (E-mail: mercedes_tarun@yahoo.com)

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Introduction to the Training Manual
The preparation of this manual supports the country’s policy of promoting and developing
organic agriculture (OA) nationwide. The state recognizes OA’s potential in achieving the
goals of food security and safety with environmental integrity.
OA has been attracting public interest because of its economic and environment potentials.
This training manual was developed in response to farmers’ and agriculture workers’
requests for easy-to-follow guide in developing and improving organic production
techniques. It aims to capacitate individuals in their understanding and application of the
principles and practices in OA.
Target Audience
The training manual is for trainers and resource persons engaged in training activities on
OA. It can be used to facilitate trainings for trainers and directly to farmers who would like
to shift to organic farming or improve their existing organic management practices. Trainers
can use this to encourage individual adoption of technologies. The publication presents ideas
in implementing training programs suited to a particular need and situation.
The manual can also serve as a self-study handbook for those who would like to engage in
organic farming. As an educational material, it equips learners with the knowledge and skills
in undertaking organic farm production methods. It is anticipated that users of this manual
are familiar with agriculture basics.
This manual could address the need of a wide range of farmer- participants. Those new
in the field who simply would like to try organic farming would appreciate the simplicity of
the material’s presentation. However, those in advance stage may need additional reading
materials, the list of which, could be seen in the recommended learning resources at the end
of some modules.
Scope and Structure
This book is a systematic consolidation of selected existing and documented OA practices in

the Philippines. It adopts the definition and principles of OA as espoused by the International
Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM).
The manual is composed of seven major parts or modules: overview of OA; soil
management; organic crop production; pest and disease management; organic livestock
and poultry production; and trade, marketing, certification, and policies; farm planning,

1
monitoring and evaluation. These were structured in a way that readers would be able to
get a clear and complete picture of what is OA.
Each module is composed of 1–8 lessons. After each lesson are self-assessment questions
that would stimulate learners to review and evaluate their understanding of the topic.
References and additional learning materials are included at the end of every lesson.
Training Approaches
The approach in undertaking the training is a combination of lectures, discussions,

demonstrations, group exercises, hands-on experiences, observations, and field visits.
A balance mix of these elements enables appreciation and understanding of organic
agriculture concepts and practices.
Suggested activities for the participants of the course are indicated in every module. These
could be on-farm or off-farm activities like actual adoption of a particular organic farming
system.
How to use the Training Manual
The relevance of the topics in this manual will vary depending on the needs of the target
groups and availability of resources in the area. The modular structure of the manual allows
one to select single topic in a module, a combination of topics from different modules, or the
whole course on OA as outlined in this manual.
The style and content of the manual may be too simple for some participants or too
complicated for others. Trainers may modify the materials to suit the requirements of the
audience. Deeper investigations on certain subjects may require additional recommended
readings.
The training manual, though a useful guide, can be complemented with other educational
tools like print, audio, and video materials. This would further enhance the learning process.
Organizing the Training Course
In preparing for a successful training program, the following questions should be asked:
1. Who is your target group? What are their characteristics? What are their reasons and
motivations for participating? What is the maximum number of people that would
encourage participatory learning? Thus, it is best to formulate selection procedure
and criteria for participants.

2
2. What are the objectives of the training? What do you want your participants to
achieve at the end of the training? What kind of awareness, knowledge, attitude,
and practices do you want to develop among the participants? Is it similar to
what the participants want to learn and achieve? At the end of each module,
attainment of these objectives has to be assessed through evaluation and
feedback methods.
3. Which topics should be covered? Which topic must be tackled to achieve the
training objectives? Several topics delivered in so short a time may overwhelm
participants. In selecting topics, consider the time and duration of the training. For
a specific lesson, think of the main message and the important points participants
must know. Topics should be selected according to specific needs of the target
group. Hence, a training need assessment should be carried out.
4. Which training methods should be used? Lectures are important means of

imparting knowledge. However, people learn not just by listening. Knowledge
retains faster in mental faculty if they see, feel, experience, and discover new
things for themselves. A combination of different methods will help make the
training more effective and interesting.
Other Considerations
When planning for the training, consider the time and stick to the schedule. A 20-minute
presentation is still bearable to listeners. More than that, one has to break the monotony
of lectures by introducing exercises, talks from participants, visual materials, and
icebreakers or games that would make participants move.
The choice of a training room is likewise important. The space should be sufficient
enough for interaction and group works. Presentation aids must be available. Chairs and
tables must be arranged in a way that fits the kind of activity scheduled for the day.
For a training to be effective, it must be able to address the participants need to

understand and solve problems related to his experiences. Adult learners want to learn
what they can use. They bring along with them their experiences. As such the tendency
to compare new knowledge with their existing practices is inevitable. Trainees come with
different motivations and expectations. Hence, it is important to know what these drives
are and how these can be addressed in a suitable way.

3
4
Module 1
Overview of Organic Agriculture
1.1 Overview of organic agriculture: definition, scope and
benefits 6
1.2 History, development, and trends in organic
agriculture 28
1.1 OVERVIEW OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE: DEFINITION,
SCOPE, AND BENEFITS
Digna O. Manzanilla
Significance: Clearly defining OA and presenting its

development as a tool for ecologically sound
management of agricultural resources is critical to
the growth of this sector. Many differing views could
easily lead to lack of unified effort and a slackening
of support for what most development workers dub
as a sustainable production system. OA is a rapidly
growing sector, with annual growth rates ranging
from 10% to 30 % in many parts of the globe. Its
unprecedented growth cannot be ignored especially
now that all sectors of society are conscious of the
need to protect and preserve the natural life-support
systems while addressing the goals of food security
and poverty alleviation. Also, consumers are in
search for safe and healthy foods amidst the
gradually deteriorating environmental scenario.
The overall definition of OA, based on International

Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
and Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health
Organization (FAO/WHO) Codex Alimentarius, is
adopted under the Philippine Executive Order No.
481 on the “Development and Promotion of Organic
Agriculture in the Philippines” and the Organic
Agriculture Act of 2010. This is based on existing
norms, principles, and standards wherein organic
farmers utilize crop rotations, green manuring, cover
crops, and natural-based products, among others, to
maintain or enhance soil fertility and bring back soil
vitality and plant health, as opposed to the use of
agro-chemicals. In addition, the principles, specific
aims, and the existing national standards should
provide the training participants the fundamentals
and the basic requirements of OA. This understanding
paves the way for a common language that producers
and consumers alike could identify with and move
towards a common goal.

6
Description: This module provides the overall framework
on OA development and promotion following well-
adopted definition, principles, aims, and standards.
It includes environmental benefits derived from this
sustainable production system, including protecting
human and animal health, in particular and natural
resources, in general. Participants must be able to
understand the full diversity of the definition of OA
and the requirements that form the basic fabric of OA
promotion and application. Both the “certified” and
“uncertified” OA take on significant role in sustaining
the environment and maintaining agriculture’s
contribution to food security and overall welfare
improvement.
Objectives: After completing this module, the participants

should be able to:
1. define OA, its principles, aims, basic

requirements and standards;
2. understand how OA serves as a tool
for ecologically sound management of
agricultural resources; and
3. discuss the benefits from adopting OA,
from various perspectives.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, group exercises, video and

PowerPoint presentations
Specific Strategies: 1. PowerPoint presentations provide basic inform-

ation and framework for group discussions
2. Discussion by participants on their concept of OA
and identification of examples from their area of
responsibility or work.
3. Discussions on the benefits of OA, from the
participants’ point of view or based on experience
Materials and Equipment: LCD for PowerPoint presentations, meta cards for
group exercises, video presentation paraphernalia

7
Estimated Time Frame PowerPoint presentation and discussion: 4 hours
Evaluation Plan: Question and answer self-test

8
Definition of Organic The widely used definition of OA adopts the closely
Agriculture related definitions provided by IFOAM and the FAO/
WHO Codex Alimentarius. Under the definition by
Codex Alimentarius Commission: OA is one among
the broad spectrum of methodologies, which are
supportive of the concern to protect the environment.
Organic production systems are based on specific
and precise standards of production, which aim at
achieving optimal agroecosystems, which are socially,
ecologically, and economically sustainable.
General definition based The IFOAM definition of OA has been adopted in

on IFOAM and the Codex the country under E.O. 481 and the Organic Agriculture
Alimentarius (Food Code) as Act of 2010 which pertain to the development and
adopted in Philippines’ promotion of OA:
E.O. 481 and the Organic
Agriculture Act of 2010 “OA includes all agricultural systems that
promote the environmentally, socially, and
economically sound production of food and
fibers. These systems take local soil fertility as
a key to successful production. By respecting
the natural capacity of plants, animals, and
the landscape, it aims to optimize quality in all
aspects of agriculture and the environment.”
“OA dramatically reduces external inputs by

refraining from the use of chemo-synthetic
fertilizers, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals.
Instead, it allows the powerful laws of nature
to increase both agricultural yields and disease
resistance. OA adheres to globally accepted
principles, which are implemented within local
social-economic, geo-climatical, and cultural
settings. As a logical consequence, IFOAM
stresses and supports the development of
self-supporting systems on local and regional
levels.”
Main Goal of Organic The main goal of OA is to optimize the health and
Agriculture productivity of interdependent communities and
interacting systems of soil life, plants, animals, and
people.

9
OA in simple terms summarizes the diverse
farming systems, which avoid the use of
synthetic chemical inputs (Briones 1997, In:
Briones 2000). It underscores conservation
and fertility enhancement of soil, water,
air, and genetic resources based on scientific
methods.
Need for Systems Perspective

and “Paradigm Shift”
The term “organic” is commonly used to refer

to the origin of material being of animal or plant
origin. However, paradigm shift in the concept
of OA must be anchored on certain context
of the word “organic.” OA as a sustainable
production system does not refer to the
scientific connotation as what is used in carbon
compounds. It refers to agricultural system that
emphasizes on practices, processes, and certain
standards that also have social, economic,
and environmental perspective. Even in the
international definition and as adopted in EO
No. 481 and Organic Agriculture Act of 2010,
the term “organic” is clearly defined not in the
“classical chemical sense” and therefore, has
similar meaning in other languages as “ecological”
and “biological.” Advocates and practitioners of
environmental sustainability should not be limited
to a myopic view of organic agriculture. This concept
is not just referring to the “certified” systems, or to
mere use of a type of fertilizer to improve
agricultural production. “Organic” is also a labeling
term that designates products according to
certain standards. These standards are relevant
to local agroecosystem production. Needless
to say, OA has its own scientific basis, which
also gives credence to elements of the farming
system respecting ecological or environmental
considerations.

10
Principles and Aims Related Terms
There are other terms used to express the core

concept of being “organic.” These are “biological”
and “ecological" in order to provide distinction
and clarification on the nature of the agricultural
system. “Alternative” and “natural” can also be used
interchangeably with “organic.”
This section presents in capsule form the guiding
principles and aims of organic agriculture that
should contribute to a better understanding of this
sustainable production systems as well as defines
critical areas for operational undertakings. The
principles of OA serve to inspire the organic movement
in its full diversity. They guide IFOAM’s development
of positions, programs, and standards.
OA is based on the:
• Principle of Health
• Principle of Ecology
• Principle of Fairness
• Principle of Care
The principles are to be used as a whole. They

are composed as ethical principles to inspire action.
The Principle of Health
OA should sustain and enhance the health of the

soil, plant, animal, human, and the planet as one and
indivisible.
This principle points out that the health of
individuals and communities cannot be separated
from the health of the ecosystems - healthy soils
produce healthy crops that foster the health of
animals and people.
Health is the wholeness and integrity of living
systems. It is not simply the absence of illness, but
the maintenance of physical, mental, social, and
ecological well-being. Immunity, resilience, and
regeneration are key characteristics of health.
The role of OA whether in farming, processing,
distribution, or consumption is to sustain and enhance
the health of ecosystems and organisms from the

11
smallest organism in the soil to human beings. In
particular, OA intends to produce high quality and
nutritious food that contributes to preventive health
care and well-being. In view of this, it should avoid
the use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal drugs, and
food additives that may have adverse health effects.
The Principle of Ecology
OA should be based on living ecological systems and

cycles. It should work with them, emulate them, and
help sustain them.
This principle places OA within living ecological
systems. It states that production is to be based
on ecological processes and nutrient recycling.
Nourishment and well being are achieved through
the ecology of the specific production environment.
For example, in the case of crops, it is the living
soil; for animals, it is the farm ecosystem; for fish
and marine organisms, the aquatic environment.
Organic farming, pastoral, and wild harvest
systems should fit the cycles and ecological balances
in nature. These cycles are universal but their
operation is site-specific. Organic management must
be adapted to local conditions, ecology, culture, and
scale. Inputs should be reduced by reuse, recycling,
and efficient management of materials and energy in
order to maintain and improve environmental quality
and conserve resources.
OA should attain ecological balance through the
design of farming systems, establishment of habitats
and maintenance of genetic and agricultural diversity.
Those who produce, process, trade, or consume
organic products should protect and benefit the
common environment including landscapes, climate,
habitats, biodiversity, air, and water.
The Principle of Fairness
OA should build on relationships that ensure

fairness with regard to the common environment and
life opportunities.

12
Fairness is characterized by equity, respect, justice,
and stewardship of the shared world both among
people and in their relations to other living organisms.
This principle emphasizes that those involved in
OA should conduct human relationships in a manner
that ensures fairness at all levels and to all parties –
farmers, workers, processors, distributors, traders, and
consumers. OA should provide everyone involved with
good quality life, and contribute to food sovereignty
and reduction of poverty. It aims to produce sufficient
supply of good quality food and other products.
This principle insists that animals should be
provided with the conditions and opportunities of life
in accordance with their physiology, natural behavior,
and well-being.
Natural and environmental resources that are
used for production and consumption should be
managed in a way that is socially and ecologically
just and should be held in trust for future generations.
Fairness requires systems of production, distribution,
and trade that are open and equitable and account
for real environmental and social costs.
The Principle of Care
OA should be managed in a precautionary and

responsible manner to protect the health and well-
being of current and future generations and the
environment.
OA is a living and dynamic system that responds
to internal and external demands and conditions.
Practitioners of OA can enhance efficiency and increase
productivity, but this should not be at the risk of
jeopardizing health and well-being. Consequently,
new technologies need to be assessed and
existing methods reviewed. Given the incomplete
understanding of ecosystems and agriculture, care
must be taken.
This principle states that precaution and
responsibility are the key concerns in management,
development, and technology choices in OA.
Science is necessary to ensure that OA is
healthy, safe and ecologically sound. However,
scientific knowledge alone is not sufficient.

13
Practical experience, accumulated wisdom, and
traditional and indigenous knowledge offer valid
solutions tested by time. OA should prevent significant
risks by adopting appropriate technologies and
rejecting unpredictable ones, such as genetic
engineering. Decisions should reflect the values
and needs of all who might be affected through
transparent and participatory processes.
Requirements in Organic Based on the Codex Alimentarius, certain require-

Agriculture Production ments for organically produced foods have to be
satisfied to differ from other agricultural products.
In addition, certain production procedures are
integral parts of the identification and labeling
of, and claim for, such products. OA largely
adheres to the reduction or minimization of
application of external inputs and avoids the
use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.
OA practices cannot ensure that products are
completely free of residues due to general
environmental pollution. However, methods are used
to minimize effects of air, soil, and water pollution.
Organic food handlers, processors, and retailers
adhere to standards to maintain the integrity of OA
products.
Within this purview, an organic production
system is designed to:
• enhance biological diversity within the whole

system;
• increase soil biological activity;
• maintain long-term soil fertility;
• recycle plant and animal wastes to return
nutrients to the land, thus minimizing the use
of non-renewable resources;
• rely on renewable resources in locally
organized agricultural systems;
• promote the healthy use of soil, water, and air
as well as minimize all forms of pollution that
may result from agricultural practices;
• handle agricultural products with emphasis
on careful processing methods to maintain

14
the organic integrity and vital qualities of the
product at all stages; and
• be established in any existing farm through a
period of conversion, the appropriate length of
which is determined by site-specific factors
such as the history of the land and type of
crops and livestock to be produced.
Why the Need to Focus Current agricultural practices are deemed

on Organic Agriculture unsustainable based on various studies. For the most
part, feeding the ever-expanding population is the
main focus of current development agenda, losing
sight of the negative environmental consequences
it creates. In conventional farms, productivity is
dependent on nutrients from imported chemicals
applied to the soil. Land use is optimized through
technologies and management practices that fall short
of requirements for sustainability. In many aspects,
agricultural production activities have exceeded
nature’s capacities to replenish itself and maintain
life-support systems.
Development efforts tend to view resources
as being abundant and its use to feed the growing
population and enhance human welfare is justified.
However, producing food through the conventional
way uses more water, soil, plant, animal, and energy
resources that cause pollution and sometimes,
irreversible environmental damages.
Livestock production generates wastes that can
contribute natural nutrients. Their disposal is seen as
a problem instead of a production resource for
recycling or recovery. Human waste and other organic
materials from urban areas are rarely returned to
the soil.
Various reports show evidences that human
development and agricultural activities leave
environmental imprints that affect not only the current
generation but future generations as well. Grolink
(2005), based on various reports reviewed, indicated
some of these environmental concerns:
• Globally, agriculture uses 60% of the

2.5 trillion liters (T L) of water every year.

15
• Agriculture uses more than 50% of the
habitat areas of the planet, including land
that should not be cultivated and destroys
some 25.9 million (M) ha (100,000 square
miles) of forests and other critical species
habitat annually.
• Worldwide, almost 2 billion (B) ha of land
(15% of vegetated soils) have been degraded
since 1945. Two-thirds of the world’s
degraded lands are located in Asia and
Africa, but human-induced degradation is
most severe in Central America and Mexico,
where one-quarter of the vegetated land is
degraded.
• About 15 M ha of forests are cut down
each year; farmers convert much of it to
agricultural use.
• WHO estimated that 3 M persons are
exposed to single and short-term pesticide
poisoning resulting in 220,000 deaths/year;
735,000 persons suffer from chronic effects
of long-term exposure.
In the Philippines, the following scenarios exist,

as indicated in Industry Strategic Plan for
Environmental Services of the National Academy
of Science and Technology-Philippine Council for
Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research
and Development (NAST-PCARRD):
• Soil erosion is the most common form of land

degradation. It affects soil’s physico-chemical
and biological properties, rendering the land
less productive or unproductive for crop
production. The total area affected by soil
erosion is 13.5 M ha, about 45% of the total
arable lands in the Philippines.
• About 12 M ha or 40.8% of the total land area
is affected by severe low fertility. The most
common deficient nutrients are phosphorus,
potassium, sulfur, and zinc.
• Of the total annual water demand for

agriculture, the irrigation subsector used

16
around 18,527 million m3 or 72.6%; the
livestock/poultry sector, 107 million m3 or
0.42%; and the fishery sector, 6,899 million m3
or 27%.
• Out of 421 rivers, 50 are considered
biologically dead from contaminants coming
from development and agricultural activities.
• In 1994, 65% of 74 designated water-
monitoring stations all over the country
reported that water quality no longer met
the standards for beneficial use.
• Many of our watersheds today are invariably
degraded and characterized by degraded
forests, soil erosion, erratic stream flow,
declining groundwater resource, loss of
biodiversity, microclimate deterioration, and
declining land productivity.
• Forest degradation is mainly due to the
removal of natural vegetation from large land
area by converting forest into agricultural
land and for road construction, and urban
development.
• Sedimentation has reduced the storage
capacity of the country’s major reservoirs,
thereby affecting water supplies for domestic,
industrial, irrigation and power-generation
purposes. Between 1973 and 1998, there
was an estimated 20–30% reduction in area
irrigated during the dry season by a number of
irrigation systems.
• The declining agroecosystem productivity is
also evident in the outbreaks of pests and
diseases. The International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI) showed that intensive rice
monocropping (double or triple cropping)
resulted in dramatic increases in brown plant
hopper (BPH), green leafhopper, and yellow
stem borer, except when non-rice intercrop or
fallow period was employed.
• Pesticides used for protecting crops from insect
pests and diseases have become a cause of
pest and disease outbreaks because of the
development of pesticide resistance in some
insects. Such is the case of the rice tungro

17
outbreak in the 1970s. The continued use
of organophosphate insecticide caused
resistance in the BPH, which eventually led to
the tungro outbreak.
• Heavy application of fertilizers has polluted
the surface and groundwater resources.
The high nutrient contents in surface water
bodies gave rise to algal blooms and red tide
outbreaks as observed in Manila Bay and
other parts of the country.
OA provides ecological services that generally

lead to the sustainability of the natural resources
Benefits of Organic Agriculture and its life-giving functions. As claimed, OA is an
alternative sustainable production system. For
this to be realized, farming activities must meet
the three dimensions of sustainability, that is,
economic, environmental, and social. The organic
farmers have learned to tend factors that will keep
nature resources’ vitality and services to humankind.
The key characteristics of a sustainable system
include:
• relying primarily on local, renewable

resources,
• making efficient use of solar energy and the
production potential of biological systems,
• maintaining the fertility of the soil,
• maximizing the recirculation of plant nutrient
and organic matter,
• not using substances foreign to nature,
• maintaining genetic diversity in the production
system as well as the agricultural landscape;
and
• giving farm animals life conditions that
correspond to their ecological role and allow
them a natural behavior.
Environmental Protection Perspective
• Improvement of soil fertility. Organic fertilizer

from plants and animal materials improves soil

18
structure, adds organic nitrogen, and stimulates
growth of beneficial soil bacteria and fungi. Green
manure plowed into the soil increases organic
matter and humus (Miller 1994). This allows
recycling of nutrients instead of using external
inputs.
• Addresses climate change concerns in two
streams of function. One is through avoidance
due to emission reduction potential of components
of the production systems; second is in
systematically sequestering carbon dioxide in
soils and in plant biomass. The latter is possible
as it follows the key principle of tight nutrient
and energy cycles through organic matter
management in soils, employing improved
practices in cropland management and in
agroforestry.
• Less pollution when farmers use less
chemicals. Replacing chemical inputs with
natural materials leads to recycling of nutrients
and makes efficient use of available biomass
in the farm. This prevents and minimizes the
pollution of the groundwater caused by leaching
of water-soluble pesticides, nitrates from organic
fertilizers, and salts from irrigation waters.
• Prevention of soil erosion and compaction.
Technologies to improve ground cover and
soil quality help arrest soil erosion, increase
water uptake, and revitalize soil characteristics
appropriate to plant growth.
• Protection of groundwater quality. There is
no chemical pollution in the water with organic
farming. Also, technologies adopted can
conserve and recycle water.
• Saving energy. OA promotes the conversion
of biomass, such as crop residues and animal
manure, into biofuels and fertilizers. Organic
farming is more labor intensive.
• Promotion of biodiversity with crop rotations
and sustainable farming practices. OA supports
genetic and species diversity and ecosystem
biodiversity. FAO estimates that about 75%
of genetic diversity of agricultural crops has

19
been lost in the last 100 years and at least one
breed of domestic animal becomes extinct
each week. OA addresses this concern by
respecting the natural capacity of soil, plants,
animals, and ecosystems through the use of
natural ecological functions for higher yield and
disease resistance (IFOAM 2005a). Examples
are the symbiotic relationships among crops,
combining shade-loving crops such as coffee
and cacao, and use of indigenous crop varieties.
Diversity and variation are the foundation of OA.
• Use of renewable energies. The types of energy
source and extent of energy use determine the
quality of life of people and the state of earth’s life-
support system. The only way to go is to reduce
or cut consumption of non-renewable sources and
look for renewable ones.
Producer’s Perspective
• Sufficient production for subsistence and

income. Satisfactory and reliable yields, the use
of manures, compost, and mulches increase both
water infiltration and retention in the soil. The
increase in amount of humus provides for better
soil characteristics and adds micronutrients
that improve crop yields and consequently
increases the farm’s income.
• Builds on local knowledge and traditions.
This aspect strengthens social systems in the
community by respecting and adding on to
acquired knowledge handed down from generation
to generation. OA also fosters good working
condition suited to the farming requirements and
supports smallholder farm development.
• Helps small farmers. Small-scale, intensive
production is encouraged as appropriate for small
landholdings and for farmers with low available
capital. For instance, biointensive mini-farms
require much less area to produce the same yield
of crops. The nutrients contained in farm and
household wastes can be utilized and applied
in a more concentrated way. This enables the
nutrients to be fully effective.

20
• Inexpensive local inputs and low investments.
Most rural credits in conventional agriculture go
to the purchase of external inputs such as
fertilizers and pesticides. OA practices reduce the
use of these materials and instead encourage the
use of biomass and other resources in the farm.
• Use of crop diversification to improve income.
Income can come from a variety of produce from
cropping combinations and intensification of
operations. Some methods combine growing
crops and compost production that add to on-farm
income. This makes the farm less vulnerable to
price fluctuation and demand variations.
Consumer’s Perspective
• Ensures supply of healthy, safe and nutritious

food. The growing demand for organic products
and health consciousness among consumers
emanate from documented cases of exposure to
health hazards. Quijano (2000) showed that even
low exposure to pesticides could cause serious
immune and metabolic disorders, neurological
defects, reproductive anomalies, cancer, and
other chronic diseases in animals and humans.
Of the 10,000 toxic chemicals released yearly
by chemical companies, less than 10% undergo
thorough toxicological evaluation. OA keeps
chemicals out of our food chain.
• Includes social considerations based on its
holistic approach. People are as important as
the organic system (IFOAM Brochure). This type
of social obligation provides added value and
appeals to consumers' acceptability of high prices
for organic products.
The Industry’s Perspective
• The organic industry has a guarantee system

based on certain norms and standards. The
need to assess the product and system or
method and to distinguish organic products from
other conventional commodities necessitated
the setting up of certification system at various

21
levels—international, regional, and even within a
participatory guarantee mechanism in a smaller
group or community. The IFOAM initiated its Basic
Standards for Organic Production and Processing
in 1980. This now serves as one of the platforms
to harmonize standards and certification. From
simple to more complex system of third party
guarantee system, OA has defined a niche in the
world of international and local trade.
• Environmental awareness and consumer
consciousness on food safety and health
contributed to the worldwide value of organic
trade, which has doubled in the last 3 years
(IFOAM brochure). In the Philippines, Organic
agriculture OA occupies only 0.02% (or
even less) of the total agricultural land. But
it is noteworthy that the sector grows at
10–30%, which is quite high compared to the
growth of traditional crop industries.
• OA enhances natural resource accounting and
product pricing. The value of OA deserves to be
analyzed not through simple financial analysis
but through a system that incorporates the true
value of resources. A component of the premium
price of organic products imputes the costs of
benefits derived out of the social obligation and
the protection given to the environment, thus,
coming close to including the scarcity cost of
natural resources.
• Value is added to organic products through
quality improvements and on-farm processing.
Certain standards and quality assurance
regulations ensure improvements in product
quality and integrity. Certain restrictions also
enhance product processing, handling, and
labeling for consumer protection.
• High farm efficiency improves competitiveness.
One example of this is the increasing returns to
labor investment. The labor demand by organic
fertilizer application is well rewarded by higher
yields. Reduced chemical inputs means lower
investment coupled with higher production also
result in higher farm efficiency.

22
Organic Agriculture as a OA as “sustainable agriculture for rural development”
Sustainable Agricultural (SARD). This refers to the management and
Production System conservation of natural resources according to
certain principles that ensure satisfaction of both
present and future needs. Sustainable agriculture
(SA) is associated with a wide range of definitions,
principles, interpretations, scope, and goals. It is used
to describe a broad set of principles for agricultural
development as well as to distinguish specific
technological innovations.
The parameters of organic agriculture have grown
from an original focus on environmental aspects
to include first economic and then broader social
and political dimensions. SA adopts the following
principles:
• Ecological. The core concerns of SA are

to reduce negative environmental and
health externalities, enhance and utilize
local ecosystem resources, and preserve
biodiversity. More recent concerns include
broader recognition of positive environmental
externalities from agriculture (such as carbon
sequestration and flood protection).
• Economic. Economic perspectives on
SA attempt to assign value to ecological
parameters and include a longer time frame
in economic analysis. They also highlight
subsidies that promote the depletion of
resources or unfair competition with other
production systems.
• Socio-political. These are concerns about
the equity of technological change. At the
local level, SA is often associated with farmer
participation, group action, and the promotion
of local institutions, culture and farming
communities. Sustainability also includes
attention to institutional and financial viability.
Balancing these various dimensions is one of the

greatest challenges to the concept of SA, in general
and OA, in particular. One prominent dilemma arises
from the tendency of ecological system analysis to
favor aspirations for local economic self-sufficiency,

23
while economic analyses often point to gains from
trade and specialization (DFID Report/Fact Sheet).
The following table presents a cursory comparison
of conventional agriculture and SA and the general
direction faced in conventional farming system.
OA is the oldest form of farming in the context

of nutrient or soil management. Before the
invention of synthetic agro-chemical, there was
indeed no other way but to use available systems
that were considered “natural,” “economical,”
and “sustainable.” Widespread concern for the
availability of safe, quality, and healthy food provided
the impetus for the fast growth of the organic
movement in many countries.

24
Table 1. Comparison of features/characteristics of sustainable
agriculture and conventional agriculture.
Sustainable Agriculture Conventional Agriculture
General
• Long-term sustainability • Short-term benefits
• Internal solution to internal • External solutions to internal
problems problems
• Emphasis on management • Emphasis on technology solution
solution to problems to problems
• Responsive to feedback • Detachment
and participatory
Technical
• Low external input • High external input
• To maintain soil fertility and • Use of synthetic compounded
productivity, rely upon crop fertilizer
rotation, recycling of crop
residues, animal manure/
cover crops, off-farm organic
wastes and mineral-bearing
rocks
• To manage insects, weeds, • Use of pesticides, herbicides,
and other pests, utilize growth regulators, pharmaceu-
natural cultural and biological ticals, and livestock feed as
controls additive
• R&D emphasis on farming • Emphasis on individual crop
systems and systems
approach
• Diversified enterprises within • Intensive monocropping genetic
the farm, crops grown and erosion
cultivars used; biodiversity
• Use of open pollinated • Use of modern varieties and F1
cultivars, preserve and hybrids
conserve traditional and
improved cultivars
• Emphasis is on working with • Emphasis is on controlling
natural processes natural processes
• Recognizes location specificity • Belief in universal technologies,
of technologies, use of appro- e.g., pesticide and fertilizer use,
priate and indigenous use of imported and packaged
technologies technologies
• Use of technologies that • Use of technologies that exploit
preserve and enrich the and destroy the natural resource
natural resource base base
Economic
• Priority is food security • Export and profit-oriented
• Relies on available • Capital intensive, usually need
indigenous farm resource/ credit
self-reliant
• Places high value on human • Emphasis on commodity exchange
fulfillment and the in the market
environment
Socio-political
• Belief in accountability • Socio-politically detached and
and value laden ignores consequences
Source: IPNS, 1999, In ANGOC. No date.

25
Self-TEST
Answer the following:
1. What is OA as you understood it from the general and commonly used definitions cited in
IFOAM and FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius?
2. What are the four principles of OA based on IFOAM norms and standards? Provide brief
description and example.
a. _________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________________
d. _________________________________________________________
3. List at least five requirements in OA based on the major concepts and principles.
Differentiate it from conventional agriculture.
a. _________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________________
d. _________________________________________________________
e. _________________________________________________________
4. Give your own examples of benefits derived from OA, from the perspectives of
environmental protection, consumers’ protection, industry perspective, and farmer-
producers.
5. OA is location-specific and knowledge-intensive. How can you emphasize this in your

promotion activities for OA? What specific strategies would you adopt?

26
References
ANGOC. Sustainable agriculture in Asia. Prospects for Marketing and Promotion of Organic
Products, n.d.
Briones, A. Organic agriculture: Facts and myths. Proceedings of the Consultation Workshop
on Organic Agriculture. Los Baños, Laguna: PCARRD, 2000. 110p. - (Book Series No.
170).
Codex Alimentarius Commission. Codex Alimentarius. A joint FAO/WHO Food Standards
Program. FAO, Rome, Italy. http://www.codexalimentarius.net.
DFID. Sustainable agriculture. Key Sheets are available on the Internet at: www.keysheets.
org. or through the websites of DFID and the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs
www.biovert.com/html/historiquest2.htm.
Eython, F.; Heeb, M.; Weidmann, G. IFOAM training manual for organic agriculture in the
tropics: Theory, transparencies, didactic approach. October, 2002. - (Compiled by FiBL).
Grolink. Inc. Organic agriculture development. Compilation of materials used for the Training
on Organic Agriculture, 2005. www.grolink.se; info@grolink.se.
IFOAM Brochure. No date. www.ifoam.org.

27
1.2 HISTORY, DEVELOPMENT, AND TRENDS
IN ORGANIC AGRICULTURE
Jacqueline Haessig Alleje
Significance: Organic Agriculture is developed based on a set

of principles expressing ethical values and aims,
the reason why it is often referred to as a holistic
production system. A multitude of definitions reflects
the complexity and diversity of organic agriculture.
The following explicitly defines the importance of
traditional knowledge, often combined with scientific
and experiential knowledge of organic producers:
“Organic Agriculture is a holistic production

management system, which enhances
agroecosystem health, utilizing both traditional
and scientific knowledge.”
A new definition adopted by the International

Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
membership in 2008 reads:
“Organic agriculture is a production system

that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems,
and people. It relies on ecological processes,
biodiversity, and cycles adapted to local
conditions, rather than the use of inputs with
adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines
tradition, innovation, and science to benefit
the shared environment and promote fair
relationships and a good quality of life for all
involved.”
Short-coined definitions alone, however, can

never cover all aspects of organic agriculture. It is
important to acquire knowledge of the origin and the
recent history as well as the current trends in organic
agriculture to develop a common understanding and

28
create a solid base for its adoption and development
in the country.
Description: This module presents the recent history,

development, and trends in organic agriculture
to create a deeper understanding of its origin,
significance, and potentials.
Objectives: After completing this module, participants should be

able to:
• know the history and development of organic

agriculture in a global context; and
• use this knowledge as a basis to develop all
aspects of organic agriculture, from production,
processing, to marketing in domestic and
international markets
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, PowerPoint presentations,

group discussions
Specific Strategies: • PowerPoint and other forms of presentation

provide basic information and framework for
group discussions
• Participants to discuss their understanding of
the development of organic agriculture and its
relevance for future development, potentials,
and hindrances.
• Participants to discuss lessons learned and to
identify needs for policies, support systems,
and other concerns to promote and assist
the development of organic agriculture in the
Philippines.
Materials and Equipment Computer, LCD for PowerPoint presentations, white

Requirements: board, index cards for group exercises, Manila paper,
etc.
Estimated Time Frame PowerPoint presentation and discussion: 4 hours
Evaluation Plan Question and answer self-test

29
History of Organic Agriculture Origin of Organic Agriculture
It is difficult to say when and how organic

agriculture (OA) first appeared in its contemporary
form. It is, however, safe to say that traditional
farming methods, developed by different communities
around the globe, have reached different levels of
sophistication before they were dislodged by the
development of chemical-based agriculture, often
referred to as conventional agriculture. Conventional,
chemical-based agriculture is dependent on
external farm inputs usually produced in chemical
factories and developed into a highly industrialized,
mechanized, capital-intensive industry, led by a few
transnational companies, with ever growing market
shares in the global market.
OA principles and progress are closely related
with that of traditional farming methods, which
are extremely self-sufficient and sustainable over
generations. Together with scientific research and
experiential knowledge of practitioners, organic
agriculture has evolved over the past hundred years
to what it is today, a system that can produce food
and fiber in a sustainable manner.
Pioneers of Organic Agriculture
There are some well known pioneers, which have

helped advance OA in the form we know it today, and
who have inspired the organic movement worldwide
in the 1970s and 1980s, a period when many different
forms of alternative farming systems were developed
to counter the ill effects of the “Green Revolution”
agriculture, which was then proposed as the solution
to food security for an ever growing world population.
Sir Albert Howard
Sir Albert Howard is considered as the father of

the “organic composting” method. He spent almost
three decades, from 1905 to 1934 in India slowly but
steadily developed the organic concept of soil fertility
through compost making.

30
Rudolf Steiner
This Austrian philosopher outlined the principles

of biodynamic agriculture in 1924, emphasizing the
importance of agricultural production in harmony
with nature as well as the natural phenomena and
spiritual dimensions. In the words of Steiner: “Matter
is never without Spirit, and Spirit is never without
Matter.”
Lady Balfour
Lady Eve Balfour published “The Living Soil”

in the United Kingdom (UK), out of which the Soil
Association of the UK was founded in 1946 by a group
of farmers, scientists, and nutritionists who observed
direct connection between farming practice and
plant, animal, human and environmental health.
The book presented the case of an alternative,
sustainable approach to agriculture that has since
become known as organic farming.
J.I. Rodale
J.I. Rodale, who learned about organic food

growing methods in the 1930s, quickly theorized
that to preserve and improve our health, we must
restore and protect the natural health of the soil.
Developing and demonstrating practical methods of
rebuilding natural soil fertility became J.I. Rodale's
primary goal when World War II's sudden shortage
of nitrogen - diverted from fertilizers to munitions,
exposed the natural nutrient poverty of the nation's
soil. In 1947, J.I. Rodale founded the Soil and Health
Foundation, the forerunner of the Rodale Institute.
He also created publications including Health
Bulletin, Organic Farming and Gardening, and
Prevention Magazine, and formed his central message
and philosophy - "Healthy Soil = Healthy Food =
Healthy People®"
Today the Rodale Institute works with people
worldwide to achieve a regenerative food system that
renews environmental and human health.

31
Masanobu Fukuoka
A Japanese farmer, Masanobu Fukuoka,

developed and practiced: “No-plowing, no fertilizing,
no-weeding, do-nothing of natural farming.” To
him, it is not human beings, but nature that grows
crops. With his “Do-Nothing” method, he was able to
grow cereals with yields comparable to the ones in
intensive cultivation. Fukuoka’s most famous books
are “The Natural Way of Farming” and “The One
Straw Revolution.” Masanobu Fukuoka passed away
in 2008.
The Real Heroes of Organic Agriculture
The real heroes of OA are the farmer women

and men who have relentlessly developed organic
farming systems suitable to their respective
environments and conditions, often with very
little means, much hard work, and unrelenting
determination. Together with these pioneering
practitioners, organic consumers, advocates, and
other stakeholders have helped convert OA from a
marginalized, voluntary based to a widely recognized
agricultural production system and global industry.
Development of Organic IFOAM

Agriculture into a Viable
Alternative and Global industry A major strength and important factor of the
worldwide organic movement is its networking
capacity at an international level since its early
stages. The spirit of international solidarity and
global inter-connectivity is best expressed in the
creation of IFOAM in 1972, when the President of the
French farmers' organization “Nature et Progrès”,
issued a worldwide appeal to organize and ensure
a future for OA. From there, people working in
alternative agriculture banded together from, initially,
as far apart as India and England. The German-
speaking European countries (Germany, Austria,
and Switzerland), France, and Canada, too, provided
early key participation in IFOAM activities. By the
1980s, IFOAM had leaders in the US, attracted

32
involvement from African agents of OA, and inspired
and assisted bourgeoning organic movements in
Latin and South America as well as Asia. For the
Philippines, the organic movement and industry, in
the absence of government recognition and support
during its early stage, could not have developed at
same pace without the networking with IFOAM and
its member organization. In 1997, the Philippine
members of IFOAM organized an IFOAM Asia
conference in Tagaytay. Today, Filipino organic
producers and advocates are actively engaged in
IFOAM.
IFOAM, formally founded by seven members in
1974, has evolved into a global umbrella organization
with 750 member organizations in 108 countries in
2008.
IFOAM's mission is leading, uniting, and assisting
the organic movement in its full diversity. IFOAM’s
goal is the worldwide adoption of ecologically,
socially, and economically sound systems that are
based on OA principles.
IFOAM is composed of member organizations
from a variety of sectors:
• Producers
• Inspection and certification
• Trade and processing
• Research and education
• Consultancies and extension services
• NGOs
Though IFOAM is known for its International

Basic Standards (IBS), the mother of all organic
standards, IFOAM and its member organizations
contribute actively in practically all aspects of organic
agriculture and is partnering and networking with
other international NGOs and intergovernmental
organizations to further develop OA and its related
concerns for sustainable development.
To further the development of OA, IFOAM has
formulated a set of principles approved by its
members in 2005. These are:

33
• The Principle of Health
• The Principle of Ecology
• The Principle of Fairness
• The Principle of Care
These principles are the roots from which OA

grows and develops. They express the contribution
that OA can make to the world, and a vision to
improve all agriculture in a global context. They are
extensively discussed in Part 1 of this module.
Benefits, Contributions and Significance

of Organic Agriculture
There are different ways of defining OA, its

contributions, and significance for a sustainable and
peaceful development.
• Organic Agriculture – a Global Industry

From a marginal, dispersed, often voluntary
civil activity in the beginning, OA has developed
into a global industry and is widely recognized
as an ecologically, economically, and socially
sustainable agricultural production system.
• Organic Agriculture and “Green Growth”

In a world of rapid technological, structural,
social, and political changes, OA can be
considered as a pioneering movement and
industry to create sustainable development
based on a set of principles to enhance
possibilities for “green growth” which allows
economic development to meet the basic needs
of all without adding ecological pressure on the
planet.
• Organic Agriculture and Fair Trade

Following the principle of fairness, and by
taking special care of small producers’ interests
as well as the development of local communities,
OA has overlapping interests with the Fair trade
movement in the aim of creating fair trading
practices in the global trade of food and non food.

34
• Organic Agriculture as a Guardian of Indigenous
and Traditional Cultures
Based on its principles of care and fairness,
OA promotes the recognition of indigenous and
traditional practices and for people to be able to
continue practicing and developing their cultural
practices (indigenous farming methods, and
traditional food production methods). In these
efforts, OA has become a natural partner of
movements promoting these concerns.
• Organic Agriculture as a Guardian of Animal

Welfare
The principles of ecology and care make OA
the leading production system with regards to
animal welfare. Farm animals are provided life
conditions that correspond to their ecological role
and allow them a natural behavior.
The World of Organic Recent Statistics Published in Organic

Agriculture Agriculture Worldwide in 2008
Statistical information now available from 138

countries of the world shows the rapid development
of OA. Its share of agricultural land and farms
continues to grow in many countries. According
to a survey on organic farming worldwide, almost
30.4 million hectares (M ha) are managed organically
by more than 700,000 farms (2006). This constitutes
0.65% of the agricultural land of the countries covered
by the survey (see chapter on the main results of
the global organic survey 2008 and corresponding
tables in the annex). In total, Oceania holds 42% of
the world’s organic land, followed by Europe (24%)
and Latin America (16%). As of 2006, the countries
with the greatest organic areas are Australia
(12.3 M ha), China (2.3 M ha), Argentina (2.2 M ha),
and the US (1.6 M ha).
The global survey on organic agriculture also
contained information on the main land uses. At least
some information on land use was available for more
than 90% of organic land, showing that permanent
grassland accounts for two thirds of the organic
agricultural land and cropland for one quarter. In

35
the context of the global survey on organic farming,
data on certified organic wild collection were also
collected. Thirty-three million hectares (33 M ha)
were certified for products harvested from wild
areas (2006). The majority of this land is in
developing countries—quite the opposite of
agricultural land, of which more than two thirds is
in industrialized countries.
Wild Collection
A study carried out by the International Trade

Centre (ITC) and Organic Services in 2005 showed
registered areas of about 62 M ha of organic wild
collection and a total number of 979 organic wild
collection projects. The largest collection areas were
in Europe and Africa (almost 27 M ha each). For the
global statistics, this adds another 62 M ha to the
30.6 M ha of organic agricultural land.
Philippine Statistics
There are no available data for production area

or for sales of self-claimed and organically certified
products. Nevertheless, it can be said that the
development of OA has progressed tremendously
and is about to step out of its infant stage. Signs of a
maturing organic industry are:
• Government’s proactive initiatives and policies

• Local certifier for export to other countries
• Research activities of state universities
• Increased OA training opportunities
• Inclusion of OA subjects in curriculum of
colleges
• Joint venture initiatives of private sector and
government
• Increased supply and diversity of organic
produce at domestic market outside of Metro
Manila
• Increased export of organically certified
produce and products

36
Many challenges are yet to be met and turned
into opportunities for the development of OA. For
people to engage into organic farming and trade, it
is important to continue promoting OA and to
consistently build technical capability for the
production of high quality produce and products
and to improve the competitiveness of organic
production systems for the benefit not only of
individual farmers and rural communities, but of
the whole nation.

37
Self-TEST
A. Answer the following:
1. Who are acknowledged pioneers in organic agriculture?
2. What is IFOAM and what are its missions?
3. What are the benefits of organic agriculture?
4. In the Philippines, there are indications of a growing organic agriculture industry.

Cite some of these indicators.
B. Fill in the blanks:
a. According to a survey on organic farming worldwide, almost ________ million

hectares (M ha) are managed organically by more than _________ farms (2006).
b. _____________ holds 42% of the world’s organic land, followed by ____________

(24%) and ________________ (16%).
c. As of 2006, the countries with the greatest organic areas are ________________
(12.3 M ha), ___________ (2.3 M ha), ______________ (2.2 M ha) and the
____________ (1.6 M ha).

38
Module 2
Soil Management
2.1 Soil Fertility and nutrient management 40
2.2 Farmstead compost production 56
2.3 Organic fertilizer production from solid wastes 74
2.4 Vermiculture and vermicompost production
and utilization 89
2.5 Natural Farm Inputs 112

39
2.1 SOIL FERTILITY AND NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
Clarita Pagaduan Aganon
Significance: Soil fertility and plant nutrition are important

components of crop production. The techniques
used to attain and sustain acceptable level of soil
fertility for crop production significantly differs
between conventional and organic farming.
Conventional farming is heavily dependent on
chemical-based fertilizer inputs unlike in organic
farming. Understanding the techniques and
procedures in soil fertility management is important
in providing adequate and proper nutrition to plants
thus, realizing better yields, attaining cost-efficiency
in farming and ecological balance which are not
attained through the conventional method.
Description: This module explains the concepts, principles,

and practices in managing soil fertility and providing
adequate nutrition to crops without the use of
chemical fertilizers, particularly synthetic nitrogen
sources.
Objectives: After completing this module, participants

should be able to:
1. discuss the essential nutrients needed by

plants and how to improve their availability;
2. identify soil management practices within
the organic standards that will result in
sustainable soil fertility; and
3. discuss and expound these procedures in
relation to crop health.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, on-farm visit, hands-on

exercises

40
Specific Strategies: Lecture-discussion on the following:
• essential nutrients for plant growth

• synthetic vs. organic fertilizers
• nutrient cycling and organic matter
management
• nitrogen fixation
• green manuring
• multicropping/crop diversification
Materials and Equipment Soils of different fertility levels, organic farms,

Requirements: audiovisuals, computer, compost piles, vermicompost
piles, plants with nutrient deficiencies
Estimated Time Frame: 2 days (16 hours)
Evaluation Plan: Self-evaluation test at the end of the module

41
Introduction The soil is composed of four major components:
air, water, minerals, and organic matter. In the
absence of one of these components, a material
cannot be considered a soil. Aside from providing
mechanical support to plants, it serves as a reservoir
of nutrients - both the naturally occurring and those
supplied by fertilizers. Procedures and practices
for maintaining and sustaining the fertility and
productivity of soils for organic crop production
are different from the conventional method.
Conventional farming system essentially utilizes
synthetic fertilizers as major source of nutrients.
Organic crop production depends on organic
material sources and microbial inoculants/organisms
for sustaining soil health and supplying nutrients to
the plants. Such is in harmony with the standards
of OA, which prohibits the use of synthetic fertilizer
inputs.
Essential Plant Nutrients Just like any living organism, plants require
a balanced nutrition for optimum growth. Plants
require 16 essential elements for their growth.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur
in addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are
elements required in higher quantity and thus are
called macro-elements. The rest such as iron,
manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum, chloride
and zinc are called micronutrients since plants
require them in minute amounts.
These elements are inherently present in soils
but due to continuous conventional method of
fertilizer management, their availability are reduced
and become limiting in crop production. Examples
are the sulfur and zinc deficiencies in lowland
irrigated rice fields.
Nitrogen
Among the essential plant nutrients, Nitrogen

(N) is the most limiting and is required by most
crops in great amounts. Nitrogen is necessary in
chlorophyll production, which is responsible for the
green coloration of the leaves. Lack of N results
in yellowing of leaves, beginning with the lower

42
leaves since nitrogen is a mobile element (Fig. 1).
Chlorophyll is needed to produce food for growth and
nutrient uptake. It is also a component of amino acids,
a building block of proteins. Nitrogen supplied by
synthetic fertilizers is highly prone to leaching (washed
out) or volatilization (evaporation), particularly in soils
with low or negligible organic matter or low nutrient
holding capacity.
Synthetic nitrogen sources are not allowed
in organic farming. It follows that N should be
supplied from organic and microbial sources without
sacrificing the quantity and quality of yield. Farm
residues and farm by-products are important sources
of nitrogen as well as biological and non-biological
nitrogen fixation.
Fig. 1. For efficient soil nitrogen management the
Signs of nitrogen deficiency following are suggested:
in string beans due to absence
of rhizobium. • Incorporate farm residues 2–4 weeks
before land preparation to avoid subjecting
the plant to “nitrogen hunger.”
• Practice intermittent flooding and draining in
rice to reduce leaching and other losses.
• Maintain a soil organic matter content of
2% or more to increase nutrient holding
capacity of the soil.
• Avoid a very dry soil condition to enhance
microbial growth and activity
Phosphorus
Phosphorus (P) is essential in root growth and

development and in energy transport in plants.
Phosphorus also encourages flowering and ripening
of seeds. Deficiency of phosphorus in plants is
easily diagnosed by the purplish coloration of the
leaves (Fig. 2), which in extreme level leads to death. It
also hinders plant growth resulting in poor root growth
and delay in flowering and ripening.
Fig. 2. Soils deficient in organic matter are poor in
Phosphorus deficiency
in corn.
phosphates. Soil solution phosphorus is sparingly
available. Among the essential nutrients, P is the
most affected by soil pH. Likewise, only very small

43
quantities of phosphate adsorbed onto soil particles
can be dissolved making its availability to plants
low. The colonization of plant roots with mycorrhiza,
however, can improve the P uptake of plants.
Ways to improve soil P availability and sequestration:
• Grow deep-rooted crops on the perimeter of

the farm
• Combine crops of different families in a
cropping mix
• Maintain soil pH of 6–6.5
• Augment soil P availability by using rock
phosphate in combination with organic
fertilizers or compost.
• Employ mulching to conserve moisture and
as source of organic matter
• Improve the growing conditions for
mycorrhiza by planting trees around the farm
Potassium
Unlike other elements, potassium (K) apparently

does not form an integral part of protoplasm, fats,
and cellulose. Its role is more of catalytic in nature
such as in carbohydrate metabolism and starch
synthesis and breakdown; nitrogen metabolism
and protein synthesis and in stomata movement
and water relations. It is also known for its ability
to develop resistance to diseases in plants. In straw
and grain crops such as rice, K to N content is in a
ratio of 1:3 while in most vegetables it is at a ratio
of 1:1.
Potassium is high in clayey soils. Similar to N, it
is mobile and its deficiency results in a premature
death of older plant parts first. An excessive supply
of N and/or calcium (Ca) often results in K
deficiency. Its deficiency results in stunted plants
with small leaves and small and few fruits. Most
plants that suffer from K deficiency are not
diagnosed early because of the hidden hunger
principle. It is therefore important to have the soil
tested at least every 2 years. In nature, K is supplied
through weathering of minerals in the soil. The

44
need for K is strongly linked to the type of crops being
cultivated. Tuber crops and tomato are especially
sensitive to insufficient supply of K.
Ways to improve K level in soils:
• Incorporate crop residues (especially straw)

and animal manures in the soil after harvest
• Provide permanent plant cover during rainy
period (wet season) to avoid leaching losses
• Increase the humus content of the soil through
application of compost or organic fertilizers
• Employ mulching
• Incorporate carbonized rice hull
Other Macronutrients and Micronutrients
Other macronutrients such as calcium (Ca) and

sulfur (S) and micronutrients are generally found
in soils and are released during weathering of
minerals. Reported deficiencies of these nutrients are
minimal and are easily handled through application
of organic materials and residues or organic fertilizer
in combination with rock phosphates (particularly
for Ca deficiency) and application of fermented
plant juices from ‘kangkong,’ ‘kakawate’ (Gliricidia
sepium), and others.
What is a fertilizer? A fertilizer is any substance that is added to the

soil or to the plant (foliar) to supply the elements
required in plant nutrition.
Organic Fertilizer
This is defined as any product of plant or

animal origin that has undergone substantial
decomposition through biological, chemical, or any
other process where the original materials are no
longer recognizable, free from chemical fertilizers,
any pathogens, soil-like in texture, contains not
less than 20% organic matter (OM), and can supply
nutrients to plants.

45
Synthetic or Chemical Fertilizer
This is a substance that supplies one or more

nutrient elements, which are produced through
chemical processes. They usually contain high
amount of nutrients and dissolve in water.
Chemical-based fertilizers, through the years,
are undeniably responsible for the large increases in
the yields of crops particularly during the advent
of “Green Revolution.” They have contributed to the
boosting of crop production that eventually saved
humanity from hunger. If it was so, why resort to the
use of organic fertilizers and microbial inoculants?
The extensive and intensive cropping registered
successes during the Green Revolution and these
motivated most farmers to continuously use
chemical fertilizers alone for the last 30 years or so.
Because of this, soils developed fertility imbalance.
A shift into the organic approach of managing
soil fertility will give the following benefits and
advantages:
• Provide a more balanced and continuous

supply of nutrients
• Improve soil aeration
• Increase water infiltration and water storage
capacity
• Improve soil tilth by enhancing soil aggregate
stability
• Decrease soil erosion losses due to better soil
aggregation
• Increase the soil nutrient holding and
exchange capacity
• Promote growth of microorganisms
While chemical fertilizers give immediate effects

to plants, there are negative effects that cannot be
eliminated particularly due to its long term use:
• Acidification of the soil particularly due to

heavy application of N–containing fertilizers
• Heavy application of N-containing fertilizers
pose problems of high nitrate accumulation
in plants

46
• Sole use of fertilizers containing only
NPK result in deficiency of other nutrients
particularly micronutrients due to continuous
crop removal without replacement
• Inhibit proliferation of N-fixing microorganisms
in the soil due to excess N supply
• Deprive the soil of organic matter build-up,
resulting in the destruction and degradation
of soil structure
Soil Organic Matter In healthy agricultural soils, the solid material

(approximately 95–98%) is mineral in nature. The
remaining 2–5% of the solid material is organic
matter. Organic matter consists primarily of decayed
or decaying plant and animal residues and is a
very important soil component. The amount of soil
organic matter (SOM) has important implications
for agricultural productivity. SOM is the living
component of the soil because it is the seat of
microorganisms responsible for many biological
transformations in soils. In organic farming, SOM
serves as the main pool of nutrients for crops aside
from symbiotic and non-symbiotic N fixation. Ready
and abundant supply of organic matter is achieved
through nutrient cycling. This means that the farm
operation should be such that all farm wastes and
residues generated in the farm should be brought
back to produce organic matter for the soil.
On the average, SOM contains about 5% N.
However, this N is not readily available to plants
because it is tied up in organic compounds. As organic
matter breaks down or mineralizes, N is released
slowly to plant roots.
Most common sources of organic materials in
the farm (Fig. 3):
• Crop residues after harvest

• Animal manures
• Green manures planted in rotation either as
Fig. 3.
Most common sources of organic legume forage (Centrosema) or edible legumes
materials in the farm. (mungbean)
• Compost
• Household wastes

47
Even in ancient agriculture, continuous cropping
without addition of manures (animal and green
manures) would fail to produce satisfactorily.
Soil low in organic matter should be generously
applied with compost materials or green-manured
as often as possible. The amount of organic fertilizer
or compost application will depend on the nutrient
content. Generally, rates as high as 30 t/ha are applied.
Crop residues can be incorporated in the soil and left
for sometime to decompose (Fig. 4). For a month
or so, N and S may become temporarily tied up.
To avoid temporary tie-up of N and S that results
in deprivation of nutrients by the growing crop, it
is important to apply organic materials that have
undergone decomposition and have attained a C:N
ratio of < 20:1.
Fig. 4. Farm wastes may also be converted to organic
Organic materials undergoing fertilizer or compost by microbial decomposition or
decomposition and nearing maturity. vermicomposting. When compost are to be produced
as source of organic matter and fertilizer, the
following are important points to consider in mixing
the raw materials:
Decomposition
C:N Mixed Period*
Purpose Ratio Materials (weeks)
Increase organic 40–50 Rice straw, rice hulls 10–15

matter in the soil mixed with goat or
or as a growing carabao manures
medium
Growing crops 25–30 Biodegradable market 6–10

and household wastes
As fertilizer 20-25 Grass clippings/straws 4–6

and legume residues
mixed with animal
manures
*Pile height should be 0.5 m or less for faster decomposition.
For those who are interested in vermicomposting,

read the section on “Vermiculture and Vermicompost
Production and Utilization.” Whereas, for the details
of composting procedure, refer to the section on
“Organic Fertilizer Production.”

48
Practices that will Reduce Losses of SOM
• Rotate diverse crops with high biomass

• Use cover crops or close-ground growing crop
• Reduce tillage
• Practice rotational grazing
• Use manure and crop residues
• Do not burn crop residues
Practical methods of assessing

organic matter content
Method Indicator
Visual (Color) Dark brown to black (high SOM)

Visual (Feel Method) Porous
Hydrogen peroxide method Longer bubbling time
(high SOM)
Fig. 5. Soils high in organic matter are dark brown to

Appearance of a soil sufficient black, porous and once pressed in the palm will not
in organic matter. or will show only a light imprint of the fingers and
hand (Fig. 5).
The hydrogen peroxide method is another means
of qualitatively assessing organic matter content in
the soil. A small amount of soil is placed in a bottle
lid half way. Hydrogen peroxide (1 mL) is added
using a medicine dropper. The longer the duration of
bubbling is, the higher is the organic matter content of
the soil.
Green Manures
Although there is no record when man started

using synthetic fertilizers, the value of green manures
in enriching the soil was mentioned in Old Testament.
The best legumes for enriching the soil are field
beans and the most common is mungbean. Green
manures are grown and turned under before seed
maturity. At that stage, the plants have accumulated
maximum biomass and nutrients that mineralize and
become available to the plant at a faster rate.

49
Benefits from Green Manuring
• Enhanced soil aggregation and granulation

brought about by root penetration. The roots
serve as channels for water infiltration.
• Green manures are established at higher
population, three times more than the population
intended for economic production. Hence,
these crops are effective as weed control.
• Green manure legumes enrich the soil not only
with organic matter but with nitrogen through
symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
• Green manures can be used as fodder plants
or even to provide food for human consumption
(e.g., beans and peas).
Nitrogen Fixation While there are enough evidences that green

manuring is an efficient method of enriching the
soil with nutrients, adoption is not extensive due to:
• intensive labor requirement during cutting;

• gives no immediate economic return since
the legumes are not allowed to grow until
maturity;
• legumes other than edible legumes have
costly seeds; and
• some tree legumes (such as Leucaena and
Gliricidia) are hosts to sucking insects.
The exploitation of legumes as host of Rhizobium

for symbiotic nitrogen fixation has been dwindling
due to the availability of synthetic fertilizers. In
addition to symbiotic nitrogen fixation, mycorhizzal
fungi are also sources of microbial fertilizers due
to their ability to colonize the root system and
supply it with phosphorus.
Nitrogen fixation in soils is also brought about
by certain free-living organisms to include blue
green algae and bacteria. The most important are:
Clostridium, Azotobacter, and Azospirilium.
Many local and foreign companies recommend
some microbial inoculants such as Bio-N, Xemas,
Solex, and Bokashi. Among these microbial fertilizers,

50
Bio-N is widely recommended and being promoted
by the government for rice, corn, and vegetables
under the Tipid Abono Program and organic
Agriculture Program.
Multicropping Multicropping as opposed to monocropping is the

growing of several crops/species in the same piece
of land at the same time or in sequence within a
year. There are several types of multicropping:
intercropping, multistorey planting, relay cropping, and
crop rotation.
Intercropping
This is the growing of two or more crops in

alternate rows in the same piece of land in the
same season per year. The crops are of different
family and are supposed to receive benefits from
their association. Examples are corn + mungbean
intercropping, corn + peanut intercropping.
Multistorey Planting
In this system, three or more crops of varying

depths of root proliferation are grown in a storey
fashion. Crops consist of perennials and annuals.
Smaller crops are supposed to have some degree
of tolerance to shading. Examples are mixtures
of papaya+ corn+ legumes + crucifers (lowland
cropping system) with botanical plants around the
perimeter of the farm; ‘lanzones’ + coffee + pineapple
+ ginger (upland/highland cropping system) with
botanicals in the perimeter of the farm.
Relay Cropping
This is the planting of crop even before the harvest

of the main crop. The most common of this type is
the rice-mungbean relay cropping. The mungbean
is usually planted 3–5 days before the rice crop
is harvested and when the soil is still moist. The
objective is to take advantage of the residual moisture
and nutrients from the soil particularly in rainfed

51
areas. Mungbeans are inoculated with Rhizobium
for purposes of N fixation.
Crop Rotation
This is the growing of crops alternately in

different parts of the farm in planned fashion to
protect the soil from erosion and to build the fertility.
The rotation is basically that of crops providing
effective protection/soil building and a row crop.
Again legumes are generally used as protection-
effective crops and cereals/vegetables as row
crops.
In hilly or rolling areas, it is important to provide
hedgerows of grass + legume trees in the buffer
strips to further arrest or control erosion. These
types of multicropping provide some or all of the
following advantages:
• Promote diversification, which enables the

distribution of risk in farming and continuous
supply of different products from the farm.
• Reduce pest infestation by the repellent
effects of the crops or the non-preference of
the pest to the crops. The diversity increases
disease resistance and makes it more difficult
for pests and microbial pathogens to find
certain host plant species.
• Improve soil fertility by mixing legumes, such
as beans that improve N supply of the non-
legumes in a later term.
• Increase nutrient and water use efficiency by
exploiting the different depths of soil layers.
• Provide more dense vegetation through a
combination of several crops resulting in
better soil cover, thus suppressing weeds
more efficiently.
Monocropping is not encouraged in organic

farming because of its technical implications in
nutrient cycling, organic matter management, and

52
pest management. The following are some negative
effects of monocropping:
• Build-up of pest due to continuous availability

of host. Usually, life cycle of the insect pest is
not disrupted since it has unlimited supply of
food;
• Uniform root system allows constant depth
by which nutrients are extracted, hence
nutrient depletion at certain soil depth
becomes very fast;
• Nutrient cycling and organic matter build-up
is lower; and
• Microbial proliferation may be affected.

53
References
Bandel, V. A.; Meisinger, J.J. Basic principles of soil fertility II: Soil properties.
http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/contents/soil-organic-matter.
Chen, Z.S. Compost production: A manual for Asian farmers. Taipei, People's Republic of
China: Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, 2005. 73p.
IFOAM Training Manual on Organic Agriculture for the Tropics. Compiled by the Research
Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) Switzerland, 2004.
Komen, M.E.; Burras, C.L.; Sandor, J.A. Organic carbon, texture and quantitative color
measurement for cultivated soils in North Central Iowa. Soil Soc. Am. J. 67:1823–1830.
Pasuquin, J.M.C.A.; Mutters, R.; Buresh, R.J. New leaf color chart for effective
nitrogen management. webindex/35289B1594D1877485256F9E002143EE/$file05-
1p36.pdf#search=%22leaf%20color%20chart%of%20IRRI%22.
Philippine Rice Research Institute. Practical guidelines in predicting fertility status of
lowland rice soils. Nueva Ecija: Philippine Rice Research Institute-Department of
Agriculture, n.d. - (Rice Technology Bulletin. 205 No. 54).
Soil Basics, 2004. http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Report/Anrep94/anr9406.html
The University of Arizona. Soils and fertilizers. In: AZ Master Gardener Manual. http://cals.
arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/soils.html.

54
Self-Test
This test shall be instituted before and after going through the module.
Write the answers on the space provided for.
1. What are the elements necessary for plant growth?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of inorganic fertilizer usage?
3. What is an organic fertilizer? What are some of its characteristics?
4. Give the advantages of using organic fertilizer.
5. What are the important steps to efficiently manage soil organic matter and some means
to increase its level in the soil?
6. What are nitrogen fixers? How are they classified?
7. What do we get from multicropping in terms of?
a) Soil fertility management

b) Pest control
c) Microclimate
d) Risks in farming

55
2.2 FARMSTEAD COMPOST PRODUCTION
Jacqueline Haessig Alleje and Lourdes Garcia De Villa
Significance: Farmstead compost production can be considered

as the heart and soul of organic farming practices.
It reflects the ideal farm set up, wherein recycling
of nutrients takes place within the farm. OA is often
referred to as a set of agricultural production systems
that emulate nature to allow ecologically sound
production of food and non-food agricultural products
for human consumption. In organic farming, the use
of non-renewable natural resources, in particular
petroleum, and petroleum-based products should be
avoided and/or reduced to a minimum.
Composting not only improves the soil and
creates a safe environment based on a healthy soil,
it grows healthier plants and allows recycling of
kitchen, animal, and other wastes.
Composting as a component of OA has to
observe different regulatory requirements.
Farmers need to know how and what type of
compost to produce and which and how to apply
them depending on the markets for which they grow
their crops and/or livestock.
Example of regulatory requirements:
National Organic Program (NOP) of the U.S. states:

Section 205.203(c) of the soil fertility and crop
nutrient management practice standard in the
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
standard sets forth the fundamental requirement for
processing and applying plant and animal materials.
The section states, “The producer must manage plant
and animal materials to maintain or improve soil organic
matter content in a manner that does not contribute to
contamination of crops, soil, or water by plant nutrients,
pathogenic organisms, heavy metals, or residues of
prohibited substances.”

56
Description: This module explains the significance of
composting, the natural process involved in the
system, and compost application at farm and garden
level for improved crop production and a healthy
ecosystem.
Objectives: At the end of this module, participants are

expected to:
• state the importance of composting, the

natural process of composting, its history
and application at the farm or garden level,
and the regulatory requirements;
• enumerate the different types of composting
methods; and
• install composting areas in their farms and
garden appropriate to their operation.
Learning Approaches: Lecture, demonstration sessions, group

discussions, and hands-on training on compost
production.
Specific Strategies: • Lectures using PowerPoint presentation and/or

posters and pictures will be conducted.
• Participatory discussions to allow sharing of
experiences among participants will be initiated
and encouraged.
• Field demonstrations on the actual composting
procedure will be done.
• Participants will try hands-on composting using
available raw materials.
Materials and Equipment Materials needed

• Animal material: manure, feathers, and others
• Plant material (green): plant waste, trimmings,
leaves,
• Plant material (brown): twigs, wood chips, coco
coir, rice hull
• Other materials: kitchen waste, including trimming,
egg shells, ashes, etc.,
• Optional: Indigenous Microorganisms (IMO),
Fermented Plant Juice (FPJ) or other compost
activators/enhancers

57
Equipment/tools
• Shredding machine (ideal)
• Bolo (cutting knife)
• Fork (to turn heap)
• Shovel
Ideally: Existing compost piles, heaps, chambers for

demonstration
Estimated Time Frame: Lecture with questions, answers, and discussion:

1–2 hours
Demo: Depending on availability of materials, up to
2 hours
Hands-on: Depending on number of participants
Evaluation Plan: A written test will be given to participants to test

if they understand the lecture and hands-on training.
Trainees may be given the exercise of planning
a compost area, its estimated costs, and production
capacity.

58
Introduction To produce compost in or outside organic
production units is an essential component of OA.
IFOAM adapted the following definition of organic
agriculture:
“is a production system that sustains the

health of soils, ecosystems and people. It
relies on ecological processes, biodiversity
and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather
than the use of inputs with adverse effects. It
combines tradition, innovation and science to
benefit the shared environment and promote
fair relationships and a good quality of life for
all involved.”
Organic production systems are designed to:
• enhance biological diversity within the whole

system;
• increase soil biological activity;
• maintain long-term fertility;
• Recycle wastes of plant and animal origin to
return nutrient to the land, thus minimizing
the use of non-renewable resources;
• rely on renewable resources in locally
organized agricultural systems;
• promote the healthy use of soil, water and
air as well as minimize all forms of pollution.
The farmstead production of compost is one of the

most important activities in an organically managed
farm. Through the process of converting biodegradable
materials into compost, the organic farmer assists
“Mother Nature” in recycling nutrients in the farm,
thus closing the nutrient cycle at the farm level to
assure soil health and fertility. Composting is an
art and science by which we create an environment
that improves and accelerates the natural process of
transforming organic matters into readily available
organic fertilizer.
Composting happens when wastes is transformed
into humus, an earth-like substance. This process
is extremely complex when looked at in its full

59
dimensions. But it is safe to say that compost and
composting are essential to life on this planet.
Ordinarily, when we speak of composting or
compost, we refer to the human-assisted process,
which allows humans to augment agricultural food
production.
History of Composting The early Romans, Greeks, and tribes in Israel

knew composting. Writings of Arab scholars in the
10th to 12th centuries, other fundamental scientific
knowledge, and books on agriculture touched on
soil fertility management through composting of
blood, bones, waste wool, ashes and other organic
matters.
In the 20th century, composting became an
essential part of organic agriculture practices
through the works of Sir Albert Howard, Lady Balfour,
and J.I. Rodale.
Despite the important development since the
early days of Modern Organic Agriculture, we are
only beginning to understand the complexity and
interdependence of plants, animals, insects and
people, and their interrelationship with the natural
elements of water, soil, minerals and other natural
resources.
The Benefits of Compost Compost is more than a fertilizer and soil

conditioner. It is the symbol of continuing life on
the planet. Compost in the gardens and farms are
an intentional replication of the natural process of
birth and death. Its benefits will help us understand
why composting is the single most important part of
organic farming and gardening.
Benefits
• Compost piles, compost chambers, and compost

baskets are the human- assisted building blocks
of nature to build a healthy soil, the heart of
organic agriculture.
• Compost improves soil texture and structure to
better retain nutrients, moisture and air for the
support of healthy crops.

60
• Compost assists in erosion control and water
conservation.
• It protects against drought, controls pH, supports
essential bacteria and important microbiological
processes, and feeds earthworms and other
beneficial living organisms.
• Compost stops nutrient loss.
Recycling
Recycling of wastes in urban and rural settings
is essential to a good environment. Compost is made
from renewable and recyclable natural resource.
Chemical fertilizers, however, are made from non-
renewable natural resources. Their production
requires big infrastructures and highly consumes
energy while their transportation uses petroleum
that contributes to global warming.
Builds Soil Structure

Building soil fertility is building soil structure:
the individual particles of sand, clay, and silt will
naturally group together to form soil or aggregates
that enhance aeration and water drainage. The
shapes of the aggregates determine the soil structure.
Compost contains organic matter and can maintain
good soil structure and/or correct soils that are too
clayey (compact) or sandy by adding organic matter.
On the other hand, chemical fertilizers that do
not contain organic matter will gradually deteriorate
soil structures and will require increased fertilization,
cultivation, and irrigation over time.
Fungi and molds are effective organisms to
build soil structure and so are earthworms as they
improve the aggregation of soils.
It is important that any agricultural production
system must contain provisions to constantly feed the
bacteria in the soil to maintain soil structure through
the addition of organic matters.
Conserves Water and Protects against Drought

Soil improved with compost holds more moisture
and protects living organisms against excessive heat,
which is important because the active participation

61
of bacteria and fungi is needed in maintaining a
granular soil structure. Soils rich in humus have
increased water retention capacity that will protect
crops from drought and will require less irrigation.
Stops Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is responsible for gradual loss of
soil fertility and takes place easily when the soil
structure is too poor to keep the particles together
against effects of winds and rains. The solution is
the incorporation of organic materials into the soil
through compost application.
Improves Aeration
Aeration is essential to soil and plant health.
Without air soils tend to become alkaline, organic
matter content decreases, active humus becomes
deactivated. Thus, productivity of soil suffers
substantially. Active humus is needed to maintain
good carbon/nitrogen ratio.
Further, sufficient air is needed to transform
minerals into forms usable by plants, and is
necessary for the formation of a symbiotic relationship
between mycorrhiza fungi and plant roots that is
crucial in feeding plants with essential nutrients.
Compost Production Compost Heap
A compost heap is a cradle of life at the farm.

It is an intricate system of communities of animal,
vegetable and mineral matter, which all play an
important role in breaking down organic matter into
humus.
• Humus, the product of composting is rich in

nutrients and organic matter that are essential
for the soil and plant growth.
• Main elements of humus are nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, iron, and
calcium; the amount will highly depend on the
materials used for the compost production.

62
Composting Process
• Compost is produced from raw organic materials

through complex chemical and microbial
processes. Enzymatic digestion of plant and animal
materials by soil microorganisms, and chemical
processes of oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis
take place. Microorganisms further break down
the products of these processes.
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction during
which one or more water molecules are split into
hydrogen and hydroxide ions.
• Bacteria feed on these decomposition products
to carry on their life processes and to grow and
reproduce.
• The heat produced in a compost pile is the
result of “biological” burning, also referred to as
oxidation. When heat is high, the bacterial activity
is at its peak.
• The organic raw materials in the compost pile
are transformed into simpler form of proteins
and carbohydrates, which then will decompose
further into readily available compounds. And
through the help of some special bacteria, these
compounds finally break down into nitrate
compounds that are easily available or “digestible”
by plants.
• Lastly, the biochemical processes will produce
humus from these substances and the rest of
the decomposed material.
Carbon (C)/Nitrogen (N) Ratio For these complex processes to take place
Moisture, Air, and Temperature in a balanced way, it is important to feed the
microorganisms in the compost pile with both
carbohydrates and proteins. So, materials for the
compost production have to be well chosen (green
and brown colored). Other nutrients and elements
such as phosphorus and potassium are needed in the
process as well.
• To have an optimized compost production,

the ideal ratio of carbon (C), and nitrogen (N)
is 25:1 (Rodale Book of Composting). Too
little carbon will result in nutrient loss; too

63
much carbon will slow down the process of
decomposition, and sometimes lead to low
quality compost.
• Equally important are sufficient moisture
content and air to result in an aerobic
decomposition. It should not be lower than
about 50%.
• The environmental temperature will play
an important role in defining the speed of
decomposition. Higher temperature speeds
up the process, while low temperature slows
it down.
Involvement of Mesophilic Decomposition in a compost pile starts with

and Thermophilic Bacteria the mesophilic microbes, which thrive between
in the Decomposition Process 10 oC and 45 oC. As temperature within the pile
successively increases, the thermophilic microbes
that thrive between 45 oC and 70 oC take over.
The benefit of high temperature in the pile is the
destruction of diseases and weed seeds in the
process. Farmers can monitor the process in the
compost pile by regularly checking the temperature
with a thermometer.
The Compost Food Chain It is important to know that in the process of

decomposition many actors, which are described
as consumers, play a crucial role at a given time
in the complicated process of decomposition. The
production techniques applied to produce compost
have to take this aspect into consideration. The
chain of “feeding” is taking place naturally in the
ecosystem. In the case of compost production, which
is a human-assisted decomposition process, this
“chain feeding” must be ensured and facilitated in
an appropriate way to get high quality compost. The
compost food chain is composed of first, second and
third level consumers, which act as decomposers.
• First level: Bacteria, fungi, protozoa,

earthworms, and snails are used in the
chemical decomposition, and are considered
as the first level consumers.

64
• Second and/or third level: Molds, beetle
mites, beetles, ants, flatworms, roundworms,
centipedes, and spiders are examples of
second and third level consumers.
Common Compost Materials Animal Material
Animal manure and animal by-products such as

feathers and hair.
Plant
• Green material (low carbon - high nitrogen):
plant wastes, trimmings
• Brown material (high carbon - low nitrogen):
twigs, leaves, wood chips, saw dust, coco coir,
rice hull and straw, bagasse from sugar mills,
cocoa bean shell
• Other material: kitchen wastes including
vegetable trimmings, egg shells, tobacco
waste, ash from ground coffee bean
Materials to Enrich and Activate Compost
To ensure that compost have a high nutrient

and nitrogen levels, some materials such as dried
blood, bone meal, limestone, seaweed, leaves from
nitrogen fixing crops such as ’kakawate,’ Flemingia,
and Rensonii can be added. Adding nitrogen-rich
crops may be crucial in compost piles without animal
manure to reach the critical level of nitrogen.
• Limestone is an important source of calcium,

will increase pH, but should not be used in
combination with manure as lime reacts to the
nitrates of the manure.
• Seaweeds are rich in potassium and good
source of other minerals and microelements.
If seaweed cannot be added to compost, they
could be added in the form of foliar fertilizer
applied directly to the plants.

65
Computation of Compost Steps in Computing Compost Requirement
Requirement of the Farm
Measure the dimensions of the compost heap:
length, width and height to compute the cubic meters
as reference for capacity of the compost heap.
Proceed with one batch of compost production.
Count the number of pails of compost that can be
removed from the heap and weigh compost from
three pails. This will give an estimate of how many
kilograms (weight) and/or liters (volume) of compost
can be produced in that particular size of heap. Some
farmers may find it easier to compute their compost
requirement in volume (liters) as the specific weight
of the compost may vary depending on moisture
content.
Based on this information, the number of compost
heaps needed at any given time to provide the specific
requirement of the crops planted, can be estimated.
To estimate the required amount or volume of raw
materials the rule of thumb is a recovery of 50–60%
compost from original amount/input of raw material.
It is important to secure the plant or animal materials/
wastes in advance if sourced outside the farm to
complete the requirement. Insufficient compost
production will affect the production yield of the farm.
Compost Crops Compost Crops in Farm Landscape
It is advisable to include trees, shrubs, and other

crops that are high in nitrogen in farm landscape.
These compost crops are planted as sources of
nitrogen in compost production. In the Philippines,
‘ipil-ipil,’ madre de kakao’, neem, ’madre de agua’,
Flemingia, and Rensonii are ideal for this purpose.
Once they mature, their leaves and branches can be
continuously used for compost production.
Production Areas of Nitrogen Rich Plants
‘Madre de agua,’ Flemingia, and Rensonii can

also be planted in patches with close planting
distance and maintained at the level of shrubs by
harvesting every 60 days.

66
Hedges
The same crops can be planted as hedges to

divide production areas. The leaves of these crops can
be used as green manure.
Composting Methods There are different methods of composting that

can be followed in farmstead compost production.
In this module four (4) possible methods are
discussed. These are:
• Conventional method
• 14-day composting
• Basket composting
• Chamber system
All four methods are aerobic and require adequate

air and to produce quality compost. The following are
examples of techniques to ensure sufficient aeration:
• Regular turning of compost pile, especially at

the beginning
• Sticking bamboo sticks with holes into the pile
• Layering poles into the heap is efficient and
will not require the turning of the pile anymore
All four methods require appropriate moisture,

which is about that of a moist sponge (50–60%).
• In the dry season, water may be added to the

pile, especially during turning of the pile.
• If not covered with a roof, the compost pile
may be covered with big banana or coconut
leaves to protect it from excessive heat.
• In the rainy season, assure good drainage to
avoid waterlogging.
• If there is no roof over the compost pile, it may
be covered with banana leaves, coconut leaves
or plastic to avoid compost to get too wet.

67
Conventional Method Steps in Conventional Composting
of Composting
Duration: long
Investment: minimal
Labor intensity: low
Note: 1. Choose a flat area that is partially protected from

Requires lots of space due to the sunlight and heavy rains.
long duration; thus applicable in big
2. Place a cover lining made of plastic on the
landholdings.
ground of the composting site to prevent
possible leaching of nutrients (optional). If
this method is used, soil can be heaped up to
around 10–20 cm around the plastic to create
a shallow “tank.” This will further protect the
heap from leaching.
3. Gather plant and animal materials and bring
them to the compost site.
4. Chop the crop material manually, or if available,
use a shredding machine to shred plant material
as this will speed up the decomposition process
significantly.
5. Soil and/or ashes may or may not be added to the
compost pile.
6. The compost heap will be established by layering
the biodegradable material:
• 1st layer: crop and other plant residues
(15 cm thick)
• 2nd layer: animal manure to a thickness of
about 8 cm
• 3rd layer: soil (if used), about 3 cm
• Repeat sequences until a 1-meter high pile is
reached.
7. Insert a hollow tube (bamboo stick or PVC pipe)
in the middle of the pile for air to enter
and circulate. This will facilitate aerobic
decomposition. Holes may be put along the
bamboo or PVC pipe to add air circuits.
8. Water the pile until it is sufficiently moist.
Water regularly to maintain moisture for
appropriate decomposition, but not too wet,
as this will hamper microbial activities.
9. Turn over or mix the pile with a spading fork
after 3 weeks, then again after 5 weeks.
10. Harvest the compost in 3–4 months.

68
The 14-day Method Steps in 14-day Method of Composting
of Composting
Duration: short
Investment: minimal
Labor intensity: high
1. Choose an area that is partially protected from

direct sunlight and heavy rains.
2. Place a cover lining made of plastic on the base of
the composting site to prevent possible leaching
of nutrients (optional). If this method is used, soil
can be heaped up to around 10–20 cm around the
plastic to create a shallow “tank.” This will further
Note: protect the heap from leaching.
• Requires manure in big quantities.
3. Gather plant and animal materials, and bring them
• Ideal for smallholdings as the
decomposition time is short, thus to the composting site.
space is occupied for short time 4. Chop the crop material manually, or if available,
only. use a shredding machine to shred plant material
• If the animal manure is not available as the 14-day decomposition time cannot be
in sufficient quantity, microbial or
met with big chunks of plant material.
enzymatic compost activator can be
added to accelerate decomposition. 5. Thoroughly mix the chopped crop residues
with equal amount of fresh manure (ratio is
50:50).
6. Pile the mixture into a heap measuring at least
1m x 1m x 1m.
7. Cover the heap with banana leaves, coconut
leaves or other suitable material such as
damaged jute sacks.
8. By the third or fourth day, the heap should
be generating heat (process of thermophilic
decomposition). If heat is not enough, add
more manure.
9. On the same day (third or fourth), turn the heap
inside out so that the materials from the center
will be placed at the outer sides and to introduce
air into the system.
10. Turn the heap every 2 days thereafter to hasten
decomposition.
11. In 14–18 days, the compost is ready for harvest.

69
Basket Composting Steps in Basket Composting
In basket composting, the degradable home

garbage, garden and farm wastes and leguminous
leaves are decomposed in baskets that are half-
buried in garden plots.
Duration:
• This will depend on the combination of materials.
In the absence of animal manure, it is important
to add crop residues with high nitrogen content.
Depending on crops planted, compost can be
harvested simultaneously with crop. For 30-day
crops, it may have to stay for two cropping cycles.
• The basket will continuously supply small
amounts of nutrients to standing crops until the
compost is harvested (through leaching).
• Can be practiced in home gardens or in addition
to compost heaps if plant material and animal
manure from surroundings are constantly fed into
the basket.
Investment: minimal
Labor intensity: medium
1. Clean the area allotted for plot preparation. Keep

the cut grass and weeds. They can be used for
composting.
2. Dig the area at least 30 cm deep and raise the
bed to make the plots by adding compost from
another source.
3. In the middle of the created plots, measure holes
with 30 cm diameter apart. Dig holes of at least
15 cm depth.
4. Drive uneven number (5, 7, or 9) of stakes 30 cm
long along the edge of these holes. Use of uneven
numbers of stakes makes weaving easy.
5. Weave long thin strips of bamboo or vines along
the stakes to form a basket. If there are no
sources of bamboo or vines, just closely space the
stakes (about 1 cm apart).
6. Place first the most decomposed garbage and
manure into basket.

70
7. Next, place plant materials like leguminous
leaves, cut grasses, and weeds.
8. Fill up basket up to the brim with any available
organic wastes.
9. Earthworm may be added to hasten
decomposition.
10. Plant the seeds or transplant seedlings around
the basket with a distance of 15–20 cm from
the basket to prevent decomposing materials to
“burn” the plants.
11. Water the seedlings while still young. When the
seedlings are big enough, watering may be done
through the basket only, depending on crops
planted. Make sure to mulch crops in the plot.
12. After the crops have been harvested, the
compost is harvestable as well and can be
incorporated into the soil while cultivating.
13. Add new composting materials to the basket for
the next crops.
Chamber Composting Steps in Chamber Composting
Duration: shortest
Investment: high
Note: Labor intensity: low
High initial investment is recovered
by low labor and high quality produce
as the environment can be controlled. 1. Gather the plant and animal materials and bring
Ideally, roofline is bigger than chambers them to the composting site.
to create shaded working area for 2. Chop the crop material manually, or if available,
shredding, bagging, and storage. use a shredding machine to shred plant material.
3. Place the animal manure on the bottom chamber
followed by the shredded crop materials, then
water. At this stage compost activators or IMO
solution or FPJ may be applied as well.
4. Place manure again, then shredded crop material,
water, and spray again with IMO. Repeat the
procedure until the chamber is filled with
biodegradable materials.
5. Allow decomposition process to proceed.
6. Water and turn the materials weekly.
7. When the compost “smells sweet” and is like soil
in texture, it is ready for harvesting.
8. Harvest the compost; sieve to remove parts that
are not well decomposed.

71
Chamber Composting 9. Air-dry the sieved compost. The parts not
well decomposed will be returned to compost
chamber for next batch of composting.
10. After drying, place compost in sacks.
11. Store in dry place until time of usage.
Figures 1–3 show compost in concrete chambers.
Read more about soil fertility and compost

Fig. 1. production:
Compost shade with concrete
chamber.
• IFOAM Training Manual for Organic
Agriculture in the Tropics
• The Rodale Book of Composting, Rodale
Press
• Masanobu Fukuoka, The One-Straw
Revolution
Fig. 2.
Compost in concrete chamber.
Fig. 3.
Compost shade with packed
compost.

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SELF-Test
1. What are the aims of organic production systems?

2. What is the significance of a farmstead compost production in the organic production
system?
3. What does it mean when we say that compost is based on the principle of recycling?
4. How can compost assist in building soil structure?
5. How can compost help save water and protect crops from drought?
6. How can compost help stop soil erosion?
7. How does compost affect aeration in soil, and why is it important?
8. How is compost produced?
9. What are the four essential elements needed to create an ideal condition for compost
production?
10. Name two bacteria types that are actively involved as first stage consumers in the
compost production.
11. Name the second and third stage consumers in compost production.
12. What are the two essential nutrients for microorganisms involved in the process of
compost production?
13. Name examples of common compost material.
14. What are compost crops and how can they be integrated in farm landscape or production
system?
15. What are the four composting methods discussed in this module? Which method would
you use and why?

73
2.3. ORGANIC FERTILIZER PRODUCTION
FROM SOLID WASTES
Nenita E. Dela Cruz
Significance: Improper solid waste disposal poses a big threat

to human health and environment. One way of
properly disposing these wastes is through
composting. The use of compost as organic fertilizer
in crop production improves soil health and
productivity.
Organic fertilizers can be considered as the only
natural, complete, and chief source of plant nutrients.
It contains high organic matter, which is not present
in any synthetic chemical fertilizer. Organic matter
is the main source of carbon and energy for soil
microorganisms responsible in transforming the soil.
Full adoption of organic crop production
technology depends largely on the availability of
organic fertilizer in the market considering the large
volume of organic fertilizer application per unit area
per unit time. One solution is for growers to produce
their own requirement utilizing whatever available
organic residues in their farm.
Description: This module discusses the methods of producing

organic fertilizer for individual farm use. Likewise, it
discusses the factors that influence the quality of
the developed fertilizer.
Objectives: At the end of this module, learners should be

able to:
1. know and understand the science behind

obtaining quality organic fertilizer through
composting;
2. identify possible raw materials for organic
fertilizer production;
3. compare the characteristics of the different
raw materials in terms of degree of

74
decomposition and nutrient composition in
relation to the quality of the product;
4. identify the do's and dont's of composting to
ensure quality of the product; and
5. follow the right steps in producing organic
fertilizer.
Learning Approaches: Lecture discussion, hands-on exercises, group

exercises, and field visits
Specific Strategies: Interactive discussion

Field immersion to have actual exercises in producing
organic fertilizer
Participants will be grouped according to organic
residues they want to use
Group presentation on the results of their production
Open discussion after the group presentation
Material Requirements: Shredding machine, spade, hand tractor, sacks,

weighing balance, soil thermometer
Evaluation Plan: Pre and post test, question and answer

75
Composting Composting is a biological process of organic
material decomposition, which also removes or
abates undesirable properties of organic wastes
such as foul odor and other undesirable physical
properties. The process also degrades phytotoxic
substances, kills pathogens and parasites commonly
found in animal wastes and sewage sludge, and kills
weed seeds that may have clung to the vegetative
materials used (Table 1).
Table 1.Thermal death points of pathogens and parasites.
Organisms Temperature Time

(oC) (minutes)
Salmonella 55–60 30
Salmonella spp. 56 60
Shigella spp. 55 60
Escherichia coli 55 15–20
Streptococcus pyogenes 54 10
Myobacterium diphtheria 55 45
Brucella abortus or suis 61 3
Endamoeba hystolytica 55 -
Taenia saginata 55–60 5
Trichnella spirales 62–65 -
Necator americanus 45 50
Ascaris lumbricoides (eggs) 60 15–20
Source: Gotaas 1956 as cited by Cosico 2004 and PCARRD 2004.
The Microbiological Aspect Composting is a microbiological process of

of Composting decomposing organic substances, which results in a
product that is stable, pathogen-free, and contains
more readily available nutrients when applied to the
soil. In this process, the first to decompose are the
proteins, sugars, and starches, then the cellulose and
hemicelluloses, and lastly the lignin.
A succession of organisms with different
temperature requirements and/or adaptation plays
a role in the decomposition process. At the early
stage of decomposition where temperature range
is between 20oC and 40oC, mesophilic organisms
dominate the decomposition process. Above 40oC,
which is the peak of decomposition, thermophilic
microorganisms dominate. When decomposition
ceases or at the cooling period of the curing stage,
mesophilic microorganisms again predominate.

76
The mesophilic bacteria prepare the compost
pile for eventual attack by the thermophilic bacteria
by raising the compost temperature to a near
40oC. Their number can reach up to 108/g. The
numbers of actinomycetes reach up to 108/g during
the thermophilic stage. During the turning of the
heap, organisms which died during the thermophilic
stage are re-introduced from the cooler part of the
compost pile.
The temperature rises because the organisms
are not able to utilize all the energy during oxidation
of organic matter and thus the energy is dissipated
as heat. Temperature of the compost heap may
reach as high as 80oC if moisture content of the
pile is not maintained at about 70%.
Factors Affecting Factors that affect microorganisms also affect

Composting Rate the composting rate. The following should be
considered to ensure a good quality compost:
Aeration
A continuous supply of oxygen is required to

ensure rapid aerobic, thermophilic composting.
The compost biomass must contain at least 30%
of free space or porosity. The microorganisms need
oxygen for their aerobic metabolism and respiration.
Likewise, oxygen helps oxidize organic molecules
or compounds in the material. This is why the pile
is turned to allow oxygen to enter the mass and
expel the accumulated carbon dioxide generated
by the microorganisms.
Temperature
High temperature is good for speeding up

composting and for killing the pathogens. However,
excessively high and prolonged high temperature
retards decomposition because only a few species
of thermophilic sporangial bacteria show metabolic
activity at temperature of more than 70oC. The
optimum temperature for refuse/sludge mixtures
composting is between 45oC and 60oC. For rapid

77
aerobic composting of organic materials, the
optimum temperature is 55°–65oC.
Moisture
The moisture content (MC) of the organic material

must not be too high nor too low. When the moisture
is too low, the decomposition rate slows down;
while the pile is physically stable, it is biologically
unstable. When MC is too high, the pores are clogged
and aeration is hampered. The optimum range of
MC is 50–60% by weight. For compost preparation,
Yang (1997) gave the optimum MC of 60–65%.
To maintain the MC, watering is needed. If the MC
is above the optimum range, supplement the pile
with rice hull or saw dust, or add fermented compost.
Carbon:Nitrogen Ratio
Organisms use carbon for their growth and

energy and nitrogen for protein synthesis during the
decomposition. Thus, there should be proper balance
of C and N if decomposition is to proceed rapidly.
Organisms use up 30 parts of C for each part of N
thus an initial C:N ratio of 30 for organic materials
may be considered optimum for composting. For rapid
composting, the suggested C:N ratio of waste mixtures
is between 15 and 35. At C:N ratio greater than 35,
the microorganisms must go through many life cycles
until a more convenient C:N ratio for their metabolism
is reached. If C:N ratio is high a slow decay rate can
be expected. On the other hand, a low C:N ratio may
result in nitrogen loss through ammonia volatilization,
particularly if pH and temperature of the compost pile
are high. Thus, it is important to adjust C:N ratio of the
pile by mixing the right kind of organic materials.
pH
The optimum pH for composting various mixtures

of organic materials ranges from 5.0 to 9.0. Bacteria
prefer a pH close to neutral while fungi develop
better in acid environment. When composting
process begins, the pH decreases due to the

78
breakdown of complex carbonaceous materials to
organic acid intermediates by acid-forming bacteria.
Particle Size
Shredding of organic materials into smaller

pieces creates more surface area for biochemical
reactions and faster decomposition. However,
excessive fineness of the substrates may result in
decreased porosity of the compost pile, compaction,
and anaerobic decomposition.
Raw Materials for Composting The availability of raw materials is important in

producing organic fertilizer. Here are possible sources
available within the farm.
Agricultural Waste
This is one of the major sources of raw materials

for organic fertilizer production. This includes crop
residues, animal manure, grasses, and other plant
residues that could be found in the farm.
Crop Residues
Crop residues are chemically complex organic

materials that enter the soil and play an important
role in maintaining soil productivity by providing
nutrients and inputs to organic matter.
The most common and most available is
rice straw followed by corn stalk and cobs. It is
important to know the characteristics of these
materials for efficient composting. Materials that
have high carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio will take
time to decompose as compared to materials with
low C:N ratio. Table 2 presents the characteristics
of different crop residues.
Farm Manure
Farm manure can be a cheap source of plant

nutrients and a valuable soil amendment to improve
soil quality. In solid organic fertilizer (SOF) production,
farm manure serves as source of nutrients needed

79
Table 2. Nutrient composition and C:N ratio of some agricultural
wastes.
Nutrient (%) per Dry Weight Basis

Type of Waste
N P K Ca Mg C:N ratio
Coconut coir dust 0.39 0.06 1.76 0.13 0.11 117.0

Rice hull 0.40 0.05 0.38 0.07 0.04 102.0
Rice straw 0.53 0.27 1.70 0.50 0.48 67.0
Pineapple trunk 1.18 0.08 2.26 0.09 0.10 37.0
Corn stalk 1.13 0.44 1.75 0.37 0.18 43.0
Oil palm frond 0.70 0.07 0.97 0.53 0.14 61.0
Oil palm empty bunch 0.60 0.06 1.92 0.13 0.11 83.0
Cocoa pods 1.00 0.05 1.08 0.12 0.05 na
Source: Zakaria 2006.
by microbial decomposers as well as the

microorganisms needed in the decomposition
process.
If rice straw and or corn stalks or materials that
are high in carbon content are selected as raw
materials, then add animal manure to the compost
pile. It will not only narrow down C:N ratio but also
serve as energy source for microbial decomposers.
Manure can therefore be a valuable asset to
agricultural production if its nutrients and organic
matter are recycled through land preparation and/
or composting. Best management practices will
therefore minimize the impact of manure on the
environment.
Consider the nutrient content of animal manure
in selecting the best type to add to crop residues
(Tables 3 and 4).
Agri-industrial Wastes
These wastes are generated as by-product of

agricultural crop processing. These are also valuable
sources of raw materials in the production of SOF.
You can choose from the following depending on the
availability in your area.
Sugarcane bagasse - the largest portion of waste

from the sugarcane industry produced after extracting

80
Table 3. Nutrient (range) composition of selected animal manure.
Animal
Species Moisture N P K C:N Ratio
% Fresh Manure
Poultry
(as excreted)
Layer 75 0.83 0.31 0.34 7
Broiler 75 1.1–1.6 0.34–0.85 0.46–1.0 8
Duck 75 0.70 0.30 0.50 6
Cattle
Dairy 88 0.31–0.45 0.04–0.10 0.23–0.60 10–14
Beef 88 0.30–0.60 0.09–0.20 0.20–0.60 10–12
Carabao 81 0.25 0.18 - -
Swine
Grower 90 0.42–1.0 0.16–0.30 0.22–0.70 7
Sow 90 0.19–0.47 0.06–0.15 0.12–0.30 6
Boar 91 0.15 0.05 0.10 6
Horse 78 0.28 0.05 0.19 19
Sheep - 0.45 0.10 0.30 10
Goat 64 0.7–2.8 0.40–0.60 2.4 -
Source: PCARRD 2006.
Table 4. Average nutrient composition of organic material (% dry weight

basis).
Organic Material N P K
Chicken manure 3.23 4.27 2.54

Swine manure 0.81 3.00 0.61
Carabao manure 0.60 2.05 0.50
Cow manure 1.87 2.47 2.11
Goat manure 2.81 2.66 1.20
Horse manure 3.13 2.80 1.88
Bat manure (guano) 1.14 16.30 0.94
Source: PCARRD 2006.
the juice from the sugarcane stalks. The bagasse

ash contains 0.28% N, 0.84% P, and 2 to 5% K.
Rice hull - contains very high silica but other

nutrients are less than 1%. The C:N ratio is 91 thus
very slow to decompose. It could be useful as an
absorbent of excess moisture in composting municipal
and household waste.
Carbonized rice hull (CRH) - a better material

than ordinary rice hull. It provides bacteria- and

81
fungus-free material and has a consistency that can
hold onto water and supply nutrients to crops. CRH
could be an important component of SOF. It can be
a source of salt hence precautionary measure has to
be emphasized.
Coir dust - a fibrous material produced from the

thick mesocarp of coconut fruit. It has a very high
lignin content as well as cellulose content, making
it very difficult to decompose. Decomposed coir
dust has high water holding capacity, an ideal
growth medium for seedling production. It is a good
soil conditioner because of its high organic matter
content.
Household and Market Wastes
These wastes are generally better source of

compost materials because of their low C:N ratio.
They can be classified as wet and dry garbage. Wet
household garbage includes kitchen wastes such
as food leftovers, fruits, vegetable peelings, and fish
wastes whereas, the dry garbage includes garden
wastes such as plants, leaf litters, and tree branches.
Wet market wastes are solid fruit, vegetable wastes,
solid biodegradable from slaughterhouse, and food
leftovers from canteens and restaurants.
Other Sources of Raw Materials
These materials include all other plant residues

in the farm that can be harvested anytime. Some
of these are: indigenous plants/multipurpose tree
species, green manure, and grasses that may be
planted within the farm or may be procured from
nearby farms.
Production of Solid Organic Organic fertilizers can be produced from any

Fertilizer (SOF) organic materials that are biodegradable through
biological decomposition under controlled condition.

82
The Process of Composting
It is important to understand the process of

composting. It is primarily a microbiological process
of decomposing organic substances, which results in
a product that is stable, pathogen-free, and contains
readily available nutrients when applied to the soil.
In the early stages of composting, the first to

Fig. 1.
decompose are the proteins, sugars, and starches then
Materials for composting: 3 sacks
solid waste, 1 sack farm manure, and the cellulose and hemicelluloses, and lastly the lignin.
1 sack rice hull ash.
Procedure
A. Composting steps when agricultural wastes are

used as substrates:
1. Collect substrate - In collecting the substrate,

a hand tractor with trailer may be needed.
Collect crop residues separately from animal
manures and rice hull ash or carbonized rice
hull. Bring them to the composting area.
Composting area should have a shade to
avoid direct rainfall that could leach out
nutrients from the decomposing organic
Fig. 2. materials.
Shredding the materials to enhance 2. Mix the materials at a ratio of 3:1:1 (3 solid
decomposition.
wastes, 1 farm manure, and 1 rice hull ash or
CRH (Fig. 1).
3. Moisten the materials then shred to enhance
decomposition. Shredding will reduce the
size of the materials for easier attack of
microorganisms (Fig. 2).
4. In the absence of shredding machine, use
microbial enhancers, which are available in
the market. Follow the procedure listed in the
packet of the microbial enhancers.
5. Pile the shredded materials and cover
with used plastic to minimize evolution of
greenhouse gases and conserve moisture
of the pile. Be sure that the plastic cover
Fig. 3. is perforated to allow aeration in the pile
Shredded materials are piled and
covered with plastic.
(Fig. 3).

83
6. Monitor MC and temperature of the pile every
2 days. (Please refer to lesson on factors
affecting composting process). In monitoring
the pile temperature, insert soil thermometer
in each of the sides of the pile as well as on
top of the pile. Record the temperature. In
the absence of soil thermometer, insert your
hand on the sides of the pile and feel the
Fig. 4. heat of the pile. Presence of heat indicates
After 2 weeks, remove the plastic active composting process. If the pile is dry,
cover and turn the pile. add water. Be sure that enough water is
added to the pile to maintain moist condition.
Get sample of the materials and hold it in
your hands. If water drips from your hand,
there is much water in your pile.
7. After 2 weeks, open the pile and turn it.
Turning can be done by spading the end of
the pile and turning it back. Afterward,
ensure that compost material is moist and
Fig. 5. then cover with plastic (Fig. 4).
Air-dry the compost under 8. After another 2 weeks, the compost is more
a shaded place. or less mature already. Mature compost is
indicated by black/dark colored material,
absence of foul odor, no heat dissipated, and
unrecognizable original compost materials.
9. Air-dry the compost under a shaded place
to avoid direct impact of rainfall. Do not over
dry the compost. Maintain compost MC at
least approximately 30%. Get a handful
sample of the compost and squeeze in your
Fig. 6.
palm. If no water drips and you can form a
Shred the compost. ball, then MC of the compost is approximately
30% (Fig. 5).
10. Shred the compost to have a uniform size
of the material, sieve, and place in a sack
with plastic sack inside. An ordinary sack
will contain 50 kg of the compost material.
Sew the sack and store in a cool dry place
(Figs. 6 and 7).
Fig. 7.
Place the compost in a sack, weigh,
and store in a cool dry place.

84
Table 5. Nutrient composition of composted agricultural wastes.
Nutrient Values (%) Final

Types of Materials C:N
and their Ratio N P K Ca Mg pH Ratio
Rice hull: chicken dung: burnt hull 0.95 1.5 1.53 5.9 0.58 7.9 24
1 : 1 : 0.01 3
Coconut coir dust: chicken dung: 2. 32 2.0 3.12 7.92 0.89 8.4 12
burnt hull 8
0.7 : 1 : 0.01
Oil palm frond: chicken dung: 2.01 1.4 2.34 5.90 0.67 8.6 13
burnt hull 4
Rice straw: chicken dung: rice bran: 1.57 0.7 2.83 - - 8.0 15.6
spent molasses from alcohol factory 7
Pineapple trunk: oil palm frond: 1.51 1.8 2.79 9.99 0.99 - 13.6
chicken dung 2
1 : 1 : 0.4
Below is the average nutrient composition of

composted agricultural wastes.
B. Composting steps when household and market

wastes are used as substrates:
1. Segregation at source - One requisite for solid

waste particularly household and market
wastes is segregation at source. Segregation
is done to ensure that no toxic wastes
like batteries are mixed with the wastes.
Use separate containers for wet and dry
wastes.
2. Collection/Hauling of raw materials - Collect
materials separately. For wet materials,
use plastic drum or equivalent containers
to prevent spill over while in transit. For
dry materials, use hand tractor. The trailer
should have two compartments, one for
biodegradable and one for non-biodegradable.
3. In the succeeding steps, follow from the
procedure in composting of agricultural
wastes.

85
Production Cost For a one-cycle production of 100 bags SOF in
approximately 27–30 days and following the above
procedures, the cost of production is outlined in
Table 6.
Table 6: Cost and return analysis of producing SOF.
Cost and Return analysis (Solid waste mgt cum

Organic fertilizer production)
For one cycle For 12 cycles
I. Gross Sale 15000.00 180000.00

100 bags per month @P150/bag

II. Expenses
Initial investment 245000.00 12250.00

Material recovery facility 100000.00 5000.00*
Shredding machine (1 ton capacity) 75000.00 3750.00*
Hand tractor for hauling 70000.00 3500.00*
Initial investment
Labor 7700.00 92400.00
Collection and hauling of raw materials 20 MD
at P200/MD per production cycle x 12 cycles 4000.00 48000.00
Mixing, shredding and piling, 4.5 MD @ P200/MD 900.00 10800.00
Harvesting and drying, 3 MD 600.00 7200.00
Shredding of composted materials, 2 MD @P200/MD 400.00 4800.00
Sieving and bagging, 4.5 MD @ P200/MD 900.00 10800.00
Hauling and making of CRH, 5 truck load @P100/truckload 500.00 6000.00
Hauling of carabao manure, 2 MD @P200/MD 400.00 4800.00
Input materials 2133.33 25600.00
Gasoline for shredding 800.00 9600.00
Diesel for hauling 333.33 4000.00
Sacks (including plastics and printing of label) each P10 1000.00 12000.00
TOTAL EXPENSES 254833.33 130250.00
NET INCOME (Expenses include initial investment) -239833.33 49750.00
NET INCOME (Expenses exclude initial investment) 5166.67 49750.00
*Depreciation

86
SELF-TEST
A. Reviewing what you learned: Check the box that corresponds to your answer.
1. It is a biological process whereby organic materials are allowed to decompose

naturally under more or less controlled condition to produce an organic product
known as compost.
o Residue incorporation
o Composting
o Fertilizer application
2. Compost is the product of the process described in No.1. It is also known commercially
as:
o Organic compost
o Organic residue
o Organic fertilizer
3. Check the advantages of biological composting:
o Elimination of foul odor

o Degradation of phytotoxic materials
o Killing of pathogens
o Killing of weed seeds
o Killing of parasites
4. These are the group of decomposers that can tolerate high temperature of the
compost pile:
o Mesophilic
o Thermophilic
o Both organisms
o None of the above
5. These are the group of microbial decomposers that prepare the compost pile for attack
of other microorganisms particularly those that can thrive in high temperature.
o Mesophilic
o Thermophilic
o Both organisms

87
6. The rise in the temperature of the compost pile is due to
o Excess energy dissipated during the oxidation of organic materials which are not
utilized by microorganisms
o Excess energy absorbed by the compost pile from the energy coming from the sun
o High temperature in the compost area
7. Moisture is needed in the process of composting. Hence it is necessary to maintain moist

condition of the compost pile. Moist condition represents a more or less MC of
o 30%
o 40%
o 60%
8. If the moisture content of the compost pile is more than what is required during the
composting period, what process is hampered due to clogging of pores?
o Decomposition
o Aeration
o Nutrient cycling
9. C/N ratio of the organic materials will definitely affect the quality as well as the duration
of composting. Thus, what initial C/N ratio is considered optimum for composting?
o 20
o 30
o 40
10. For rapid composting, the suggested C/N ratio of the organic materials should be
between
o 20–25
o 15–35
o 25–40
B. Understanding what has been learned
Answer the following questions.
1. What are the indices of mature compost?

2. If majority of the organic materials have high C/N ratio, how can it be lowered? What
materials can be added to lower the C/N ratio?
3. Enumerate the materials needed to produce organic fertilizer.

88
2.4 VERMICULTURE AND VERMICOMPOST PRODUCTION
AND UTILIZATION
Joel L. Adorada
Significance: Vermiculture and vermicomposting are simple,

environment-friendly technologies that support the
government's initiative on sustainable agriculture and
waste management. The technology produces high
quality soil amendment with high microbial diversity
and most of the essential elements needed by the
crops. Through mass adoption of the technology,
sustainability, social, economic, and environmental
benefits can be realized in the shortest time possible.
Description: This module explains the concepts and principles

in vermiculture and vermicomposting.
Objectives: After this module, participants should be able to:
1. follow the basic procedure of vermi-

composting;
2. identify the various vermi products and its
utilization;
3. get proper exposure on the various techniques
in vermiculture and vermicomposting; and
4. enumerate marketing strategies to attract
users of vermicompost.
Learning Approaches:
Lecture-discussions, on-farm visit, hands-on
exercises
Specific Strategies:
1. Discussion on the do's and dont's of
vermicomposting, its basic procedure and
product utilization
2. Carbon-nitrogen ratio computation
3. Actual farm visit and hands-on exercises in
substrate preparation
4. Observation/hands-on exercises in vermi tea
brewing and application

89
Materials and Equipment Hand gloves, bolo, calculator, raw materials
Requirements: (substrates)
Time Frame: One day (8 hours), excluding farm visit (depends on

distance of the farm)

90
Introduction According to the great evolutionist, Charles Darwin,
“… the earth without worms would soon become
cold, hard-bound, and void of fermentation and
consequently sterile.”
“… worms seem to be the greatest promoters of
vegetation, which would proceed but lamely without
them, by boring, perforating, and loosening the
soil, and rendering it pervious to rains and fibres of
plants, by drawing straws and stalks of leaves and
twigs into it; most of all, by throwing up such infinite
numbers of lumps of earth, the worm-casts, being
their excrement is the fine manure for grain and
grass.”
These phrases were extracted from Darwin’s
book “The Formation of Vegetable Mould through
the Action of Worms,” written in 1881. These words
proved that early scientist already recognized
earthworms as natural cultivators of our vegetation
and effective waste managers.
Concepts
For centuries, earthworms have been used as
a means of decomposing wastes and improving
soil structure. Increasing numbers of businesses
worldwide are successfully employing vermiculture
technology and marketing vermicompost as an
excellent soil conditioner to farmers and gardeners.
Vermiculture or vermicomposting is derived
from the Latin term vermis, meaning worms.
Vermicomposting is essentially the consumption of
organic material by earthworms. This speeds up the
process of decomposition and provides a nutrient-
rich end product, called vermicompost, in the form of
worm castings. Vermicompost comes from different
substrates (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Vermicast or worm casting is the material
Vermicompost from different
substrates.
deposited by the earthworm after the material passes
through the digestive track of the worm (worm
manure). Vermicompost contains some earthworm
castings. It also contains droppings from the
multitude of other creatures that call compost their
home, plus bits of organic matter in various stages
of decomposition.

91
Benefits The application of vermicompost:
• improves soil structure, porosity and water-

holding capacity,
• enhances soil microbial activity,
• supplies the essential nutrients for better plant
growth,
• provides plant growth regulators,
• suppresses soil-borne pests and diseases,
• results in 100% organically produced crops.
Species for Vermicomposting Several species of earthworms are used in

vermicomposting such as red wrigglers and night
crawlers. However, the most widely used species
in the country nowadays is the exotic species –
African night crawler or Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg).
Other popular species include Eisenia fetida
(Savigny) and Lumbricus rubellus (Hoffmeister).
However, they thrive in temperate areas. The endemic
red wriggler species Perionyx excavatus (Perrier) is
also suitable but has lower conversion and breeding
rates as compared with E. eugeniae (Edwards and
Arancon 2004).
Earthworm classification based on niche and
feeding habit:
• Epigeics (Epianecics - Surface Soil)

(Epigeic - Litter)
– Lumbricus rubellus
– Eisenia fetida
– Eudrilus eugeniae
– Perionyx excavatus
• Anecics (Burrowing)
• Endogeics (Surface soil - 80 cm)
Earthworms are hermaphrodite meaning they

have both male and female sex organs, but require
Fig. 2. another earthworm to mate (Fig. 2).
Mating earthworms. Generally, earthworm consumes food equivalent
to its body weight daily. So a kilogram of earthworm
consumes a kilogram of substrate per day. With
regards to reproduction, constant association with
other earthworms promotes possible mating once

92
a week. Nevertheless, old earthworms lay more
cocoon capsules compared with young sexually
matured one (Tan 1985).
African Night Crawler
African night crawlers are night wanderers and

leave their vermi bins for no apparent reasons.
They are epigeic species measuring around 8 in in
length and weigh approximately 2.5 g at full
maturity (Fig. 3). Their life cycle can be completed in
60 days given the temperature of 25°C, pH 7, and
70–80% moisture (Viljoen and Reinecke 1992). On
the average, one earthworm may release
1–65 cocoons per day. The cocoons hatch after
Fig. 3. 55–65 days and each one contains 2.7 hatchlings.
African night crawler. The hatchlings reach sexual maturity after 40 days.
After reaching this stage, they mate after 5 days
and release cocoon a day after.
Basic Requirements Worm Bins
Sheltered culturing of worms is recommended

to protect the worms from excessive sunlight, rain,
and predators. Worm bins are usually set in vacant,
shaded area, basement, or backyards (Fig. 4). These
vary basically on available construction materials
and the desired production capacity. The earthworms
are usually housed in rectangular structures made
up of plastic sheets as flooring and cover, and placed
in a shaded area. The bins are made-up of plastic
sheets with bamboo, wood, or iron bar as support.
Vermi bins are placed normally in a flat area with
Fig. 4. readily available water and farm wastes. Various
Vermi bins under the trees. modifications on the designs are practiced among
various vermicomposting facilities (Villegas 2000).
Substrates
There is no standard formula in substrate

preparation. Waste materials such as dried leaves,
grasses, kitchen leftovers, rice straw and hull, saw
dust, ‘kakawate’ leaves, coco coir dust, banana

93
trunks, water lily, forages, vines, crop residues, cane
wastes, and vegetable trimmings are mixed in varied
proportions. These biodegradable substrates are
manually collected from farms, markets, industries,
household kitchens and yards. The selection and
combination of substrates depend on the purpose
of feeding. Substrates are chopped, mixed or
layered, and watered before undergoing thermophilic
decomposition for 1 month or less depending on
the waste composition and rate of microbial
colonization. Composting is hastened when the
materials are reduced in size because smaller
particles have more surface area for microbial action.
Thus, shredding and pulverizing bulky materials
is useful, efficient, and cost-effective because
the time element for decomposition is reduced
(Henares 2002).
Ideally, a good mix of substrate contains the
proper carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) for rapid
decomposition. Local nitrogenous sources include
animal manure, ‘kakawate’ leaves, acacia leaves,
Fig. 5. ipil-ipil leaves, azolla, vines, kudzu, centrosema,
‘Kakawate’ as nitrogen source. mungbean, peanuts, soybeans, and ‘camote’
(Fig. 5). While common sources of carbon are
leaves, grasses, vegetables, cornstalks, rice straw,
paper, sawdust, and cardboard (Fig. 6). A varied
mixture of substances produces good quality
compost, rich in major and micronutrients (Ulep
1982).
The microbes in compost use carbon for energy
and nitrogen for protein synthesis. The proportion
of these two elements required by the microbes
averages to about 30 parts carbon to 1 part nitrogen.
Accordingly, the ideal C:N ratio is 30:1 (measured
on a dry weight basis). This ratio governs the speed
at which the microbes decompose organic wastes.
Most organic materials do not have this ratio and
to accelerate the composting process, it may be
necessary to balance the amount of carbon and
nitrogen of the substrates (Cosico 2005).
The C:N ratio of materials can be calculated by
Fig. 6.
using Table 1 as reference. Example, the combination
Grass as carbon source. of two bags of cow manure (C:N = 20:1) and one bag

94
of corn stalks (C:N = 60:1) results in C:N ratio of (20:1
+ 20:1 + 60:1)/3 = (100:1)/3 = 33:1.
The essential elements required by the
composting microorganisms are carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, and water. It is necessary that all these
elements be in the proper proportions. If not, the
microorganisms will not proliferate and adequate
heat will not be generated. A composting process
that operates at optimum performance will convert
organic matter into stable compost. Compost is
odor- and pathogen-free and a poor breeding
substrate for flies and other insects. In addition,
it significantly reduces the volume and weight of
organic waste as the composting process converts
much of the biodegradable component to carbon
dioxide.
Procedure in Vermicomposting Waste Segregation
There are six steps to vermi composting

(Fig. 7). Any waste materials from various sources
such as farms, household, market, and industries
can be used as substrate for vermicomposting.
Upon collection of these waste materials, they
need to be properly segregated to ensure that all
non-biodegradable wastes are excluded from the
ACTIVITY BOX 1
Choose at least two waste materials that

are abundant and readily available in the
area. One should be high in nitrogen while
the other should be high in carbon. More than
two wastes can be used as long as there are
enough nitrogenous materials. Use Table 1 to
determine the C:N ratio of the waste materials.
Compute the C:N ratio using a calculator.
Adjust the volume of each material to get a
ratio of 30:1. After the computation, present it
Fig. 7. in class and compare it with the other C:N ratio
General steps in vermicomposting. computed by the other participants.

95
Table 1. Carbon:nitrogen ratios of some common organic
materials (Cosico 1985, 2005).
Material C:N Ratio
Vegetable wastes 12–20:1

Cabbage 12:1
Tobacco 13:1
Leaves 40–80:1
Corn stalks/stover 55–60:1
Soybean stover 32:1
Peanut straw 20:1
Sugar cane trash 116:1
Oat straw 74:1
Wheat straw 80–105:1
Paper 150–200:1
Sawdust 100– 500:1
Coffee grounds 20:1
Grass clippings 12–25:1
Rice straw 50–105:1
Rice hull 91:1
Sesbania, Water hyacinth 18:1
Bark 100–200:1
Fruit wastes 35:1
Poultry manure 6.7–10:1
Horse manure 25:1
Swine manure 8.4–13:1
Cattle manure 16–20:1
Sheep manure 29:1
Human manure 8:1
Sewage sludge 8.7:1
Newspaper 50–200:1
Pine needles 60–110:1
composting bins. Segregate non-biodegradable

materials such as plastic, glasses, wood/twigs,
metal, printed glossy papers, PVC, rubber, and
stones; and biodegradable materials such as meat
and milk products, spicy, and acidic foodstuffs.
These materials attract flies and other pests,
produce undesirable odor, and adversely affect
the quality of the compost if not separated
immediately. Segregation prior to substrate
preparation produces pure vermicompost and
avoids further segregation after decomposition. This
facilitates easy handling and rapid harvesting, and
also saves time and labor when done as early as
possible.

96
Thermophilic Stage
The thermophilic stage starts when the

substrate is thoroughly chopped, mixed, and watered
(Fig. 8). The mixture is then placed in culture units
such as boxes, sacks, bags, containers, or heaped
in beds (Fig. 9). These are lined at the bottom
and sides with plastic sheets or other forms of
retaining devices, such as screens and blocks. The
Fig. 8. compost pile is then covered with a plastic sheet to
Waste chopping/processing. accelerate decomposition initiated by the thermophilic
microorganisms. Microbial action increases the
temperature of the pile to about 50o–70oC. The
higher the temperature, the faster decomposition
takes place. This stage may last for 2–4 weeks.
As the term implies, thermophilic/anaerobic
condition in this process is not thoroughly without
air. The anaerobic condition is only temporary. Excess
water is drained out with only 70–80% moisture
retained in the substrate.
Composting Duration
Earthworm/aerobic decomposition may last for a

month or less depending on the volume of inoculated
worms. The anaerobically decomposed substrate
is stocked with earthworms for vermicompost
Fig. 9.
production. The rule of thumb is a kilogram of
Thermophilic composting
in piled sacks. earthworm would consume one-third to a kilogram of
substrate a day (Villegas 2000).
It is necessary to maintain MC between 50–80%.
Addition of lime or crushed eggshell is recommended
when the pH turns acidic. Increase in acidity is
indicated by the presence of mites. However, adding
too much liming materials will make the pH basic.
To have good earthworm and vermicompost
production, vermi bins are protected from centipedes,
millipedes, leeches, rodents, birds, chicken, and
dogs. Caging the worm bins or elevating them from
the ground would protect them from large predators
Fig. 10. (Fig. 10). Avoid adding fresh materials that attract
Earthworm composting inside flies, rats, etc. For protection from fly infestations,
the vermi house.
avoid adding too much decomposing wastes in

97
the vermi bins. But if too much waste is added, be
sure to cover it with other substrates and wet
newspaper. If the larvae are already in the
bins, trap them using bread dipped in milk or
banana peelings or any fruit. Simply remove
the larvae from these materials when they start
to feed on them. For ant control, plant extracts
from ‘makabuhay,’ pepper, or ‘kakawate’ mixed
with soap can be used as repellent/insecticide
spray around the vermi bins. Frequent watering
would also drive them away. For small predators
such as centipedes and millipedes, simply crush
them in the bin. But if there are too many, then,
harvest the worms and place them in another bin
while placing the vermicompost in sacks to allow
the predators to die inside. The method is also
applicable to earwigs and leeches if they reach
substantial numbers inside the bin (Tan 1985).
Vermicompost harvesting starts when all the
substrates have turned into black granules or
converted into castings. The earthworms and
vermicomposts can be harvested by hand picking,
sieving, feed trapping, or with the use of light on top
of mounds (Fig. 11). The earthworms can also be
allowed to crawl to another prepared mound of
substrate by placing them side by side with the old
mound. It is recommended to withdraw watering a
week before scheduled harvesting and re-stocking of
the earthworms in the available substrate. Air-drying
of the vermicompost at 30% moisture is required
to maintain viability of microorganisms on the
vermicompost.
Nonetheless, separation of the matured
Fig. 11. earthworms is suggested to promote uniform size/
Handpicking. weights, which are essential in fresh feeding every
other month (Villegas 2000).
Harvesting vermicompost with the use of a light
repellant involves manual separation of worms
from the castings. For this purpose, the contents
of the containers are dumped on the ground in the
form of a mound and allowed to stand for a few
hours. Most of the worms move to the bottom of
the mound to avoid light. The worms gather at

98
the bottom in the form of a ball. At this stage,
the vermicompost is removed to get the worms.
The worms are collected for new culture beds
(Fig. 12). The collected vermicompost is dried, passed
through a 3 mm sieve to recover the cocoons,
young worms, and unconsumed organic material.
The cocoons and young worms are used for
seeding the new culture beds. Pure vermicompost
are placed in sacks (Fig. 13).
Fig. 12.
Lateral movement.
Fig. 13.
Pure vermicompost are placed
in sacks.
Estimating Earthworm For beginners, to estimate the earthworm

and Vermicompost Production production per month, a simple computation and
some assumptions are presented here.
Assumptions: Initial stock of 1kg = 500–1,000 pieces

earthworm (EW) at 1–2 g/EW
Average capsule/week = 0.7

Number of EW per egg capsule = 3–5 EW
Expected earthworms per month

1,000 initial stock
x 0.7 average capsule per week
700 capsules per week
x 0.6 percent egg capsule viability
420 viable egg capsules
x 3 hatchlings per capsule

99
1260 hatchlings per week
x 4 weeks per month
5,040 hatchlings per month
x 0.5 survival rate
2,520 live earthworms (mixed sizes)
per month
Plus initial stock = 3,520 worms ~ 2 kg
To estimate vermicompost production, a kilogram

of earthworm will convert a kilogram of wastes per
day. To convert a ton of wastes in a month, at least
25 kg earthworms are needed.
Uses of Vermicomposts Vermicompost products may be utilized in a

variety of ways aside from being an organic
amendment/soil conditioner and potting media
(Fig. 14). Vermicompost can also be used as
compost enhancer, fishpond fertilizer, and vermitea
component.
• Vermicompost is used mainly as soil

conditioner for all types of plants (Figs.
15–16). As a soil conditioner/organic
fertilizer, common practice in vermicompost
Fig. 14. application is through basal application
Vermicompost as potting media during planting or transplanting of plants/
component. trees. For perennials, vermicompost is
applied basally during transplanting and
incorporating it with the soil around the tree
within the canopy level (sidedress) twice
a year. For vegetables and ornamentals,
1–5 kg vermicompost are applied per square
meter area; bigger plants require more and
long-duration plants need monthly application.
Vermicompost is usually air dried and applied
directly on the soil for plant utilization. These
are applied in large volume due to its inherent
low nutrient properties.
Fig. 15. • As component in potting mixes and/or
Bell pepper with vermicompost.
bokashi, vermicompost can also be mixed
with other materials to produce potting mixes
and/or bokashi for specific crops.

100
• As seedling media, small amount of
vermicompost are incorporated on seedling
trays to enhance seed germination.
• As fertilizer in fishponds, 25 kg vermicompost
in sack is submerged per fish pond to promote
algal bloom.
• As compost enhancer, 1-inch thick
Fig. 16. vermicompost is spread on top of organic
Crucifers with vermicompost.
wastes to accelerate microbial decomposition.
• Harvested earthworms are 64% protein. They
are given as fresh feed to fish (‘tilapia,’ ‘lapu-
lapu,’ and tropical fish), eel, crabs, prawn,
duck, chicken, and bird or processed into
vermimeal. It is, however, much more practical
and more profitable to sell live earthworms to
other technology adoptors or reuse them for
the production of vermicomposts.
• One improvement in vermicompost utilization
is the vermitea formulation and use as a foliar
fertilizer. Although the technique in brewing
vermitea is a common practice abroad, its
utilization in the country started only in early
2000.
Vermicompost Tea Brewing

vs Vermicompost Extracts
Vermicompost tea is a water extract of

vermicompost. It is brewed to extract beneficial
microorganisms and enhance its multiplication by
providing the necessary condition favorable for its
growth and multiplication. Once prepared correctly,
the extracted solution is a mixture of a multitude of
microorganisms that have increased in number and
activity using soluble food resources and nutrients
provided in the brewing solution (Ingram 2001).
Vermicompost is preferred in tea preparation since
it has more diverse and abundant microorganisms
than ordinary compost. Vermicompost has higher
levels of macro- and micronutrients than ordinary
compost and it is safer to use since earthworms are
Fig. 17. bio-remediators and known to reduce human and
Improvised vermi tea brewer. plant pathogenic microorganisms. Figure 17 shows
an improvised vermitea brewer.

101
Vermitea is prepared by brewing a kilogram of
vermicompost in 30 L water with ½ kg of sugar for
24 hours. Continuous aeration and agitation is
required to maintain aerobic condition and extraction
of microorganisms.
The application of vermicompost tea has led to
the improvement of the vermicompost utilization.
Vermicompost could not be compared with inorganic
fertilizers in terms of available macronutrients.
Instead, the beneficial microorganisms present in
the brewed solution provide the necessary nutrients
for plant use. However, frequent application is
required to provide the same effect as in inorganic
fertilizers. It is simply applying smaller amounts
of organic fertilizers instead of a single dosage of
inorganic fertilizer. Brewing vermicompost is more
advantageous than brewing ordinary compost since it
has more diversified microflora and microfauna. By
brewing vermicompost, overall effect of vermicompost
is intensively and extensively amplifed. Higher
effectivity and wider coverage are achieved in the
process. The tea can be applied to compost, soil,
and all plant parts.
Initial vermicompost application supplemented
with vermitea is cheaper than applying vermicompost
alone at regular interval. It is cheaper in terms
of labor and materials. It is also easier to apply
(sprayable) than manual vermicompost sidedressing.
With a dilution of 1:15, the projected cost per
backpack sprayer of applying vermitea is only P3.25.
A 30-L brewed solution is good for 1 ha which
makes it more economical than applying
vermicompost per hectare of crop land (Reamon
2006).
According to users of vermitea, weekly application
is enough to gain favorable response from the
plants/trees. The tea can be applied in orchards,
on vegetables, herbs, ornamentals, lawns, and
forest trees either early in the morning or late in
the afternoon, to avoid direct exposure to ultraviolet
rays of sunlight.
In the absence of a brewer, another alternative
to utilize vermicompost in liquid form is through
vermicompost extraction. This can easily be done

102
by mixing vermicompost with water with or without
aeration for 24 hours. The resultant extracts can
be applied in the same way as vermicompost tea.
However, in terms of quality, vermitea is still superior
in terms of microbial abundance and diversity and has
more extracted nutrients.
Vermicompost extraction is a cheaper way to
produce sprayables/flowables out of vermicompost.
The cost will only include acquisition of pail or any
water container, vermicompost, water, and aerator
(with air stone). There will be electricity cost, if an
aerator is used. A simple homemade brewer will
cost around P1,000 while a simple extraction set-up
would only cost less than P500.
Marketing vermicomposts is not as easy as selling
inorganic fertilizers or any other organic fertilizers
such as animal manures. Vermicompost is highly
priced due to its high microbial diversity and quantity.
It is not bought for its nutrient content but rather for
its organic matter, microbes, enzymes, and plant
promoting substances.
Economics and Marketing
Strategies Vermicompost is not a well-known product and
not commonly used by ordinary farmers. It is
therefore necessary to introduce and promote them
to the intended users for them to learn its advantages
over other products. There are many strategies
that can be employed to attract potential users of
vermicompost. One strategy is by giving seminars
or short talks on vermicomposting and its products.
The second strategy is to supply it to existing
agricultural suppliers with leaflets on utilization
and benefits to be derived when used. The third
strategy is by demonstrating the effect of the product
by establishing demo plots and comparing it with
other products. And the fourth strategy is through
participation in agri-fairs, garden shows, and agri-
caravans to showcase the product. There are other
strategies that can be devised based on available
resources and marketing creativity.

103
Several financial analyses are presented here (Tables
2–4). For a successful organic farming operations, it
is important to keep a systematized records of farm
activities at every stage. Annexes A–D are earthworm
and vermicompost monitoring forms.
A simple cost and return analysis is presented
below covering a year-round production with no
worm release to augment vermicompost production.
To prepare a more detailed cost and return analysis
for a large-scale vermicomposting, the following
table can be used as a guide. The table incorporates cost
and benefits not typically reflected in a simple financial
analysis. It includes cost on promotion and marketing,
and extended benefits through savings from the use of
the different vermi products.
Table 2. Financial analysis of a commercial vermicomposting

project (Binoya, et al., 1991).
Year I Year II Year III Year IV Year V
Total Cost 32,147.50 19,500.00 19,500.00 19,500.00 19,500.00

Gross Benefits 84,600.00 84,600.00 84,600.00 84,600.00 84,600.00
Net Benefits 52,452.50 65,100.00 65,100.00 65,100.00 65,100.00
ROI (%) 163.16 333.85 333.85 333.85 333.85
Table 3. Sample of a cost and return analysis for a small-scale

vermicomposting (Villegas 2000).
Unit Price Required Total Cost

(P) No. (P)
A. Cost of Material
1. Earthworms 500.00 1 kg 500.00
2. Worm bin 200.00 55 pcs 11,000.00
3. Bolo & scythe 500.00 1 pair 500.00
4. Plastic sprinkler 150.00 1 pc 150.00
5. Plastic sacks 5.00 430 pcs 2150.00
6. Labor/day 250.00 131 days 22,750.00
TOTAL COST 47,050.00
Kilogram Unit Price (P) Value (P)

B. Production
1. Earthworms
(Breeder) 110.0 500.00 5,000.00
2. Vermicompost 11,512.00 12.00 138,144.00
TOTAL INCOME 193,144.00
NET INCOME 146,094.00

104
Table 4. Sample expenses and returns table for a large-
scale vermicomposting facility (Adorada 2007).
Items Year I
A. Costs/Expenses
Structural expenses (construction materials for
vermi bins and shades)
Material expenses (initial earthworm stock,
substrates, plastic sacks, hand tools, etc.)
Transport expenses (hauling of materials
and delivery of products)
Operational expenses (water, electricity, land,
fuel, etc.)
Manpower expenses (full time and part-time labor)
Promotional and marketing expenses (training,
packaging, leaflets, etc.)
Equipment (shredder, mixers, etc.)
Subtotal
B. Returns
Sales from vermicompost
Sales from compost worms
Savings from fertilizer
Savings from pesticides
Savings from potting mixes
Subtotal
C. Net Benefit (B-C)

D. Benefit-Cost Ratio
E. Return on Investment (%)
ACTIVITY BOX 2
Visit a vermicomposting facility nearest the

area. Interview the owner/workers regarding
their operations. Questions should focus on
the substrate combinations, vermicompost and
earthworm production, harvesting methods,
innovative techniques, and supply and demand for
the product.
After the farm visit, assessment regarding the

practices will be done in the classroom. Evaluate
advantageous and disadvantageous practices
based on scientific knowledge learned from this
module.

105
Annex A

Vermiculture and Vermicompost Production Facility Record Keeping
Earthworm and Vermicompost Production Form

A. Waste Collection and Pre-decomposition Stage .
Substrate
Substrate Combination Collected by: Volume (kg) Date Set Up Date Harvested Volume (kg) Vermi Bin Nos.
Batch No.
106

Annex B


B. Earthworm Decomposition Stage .
Vol. of Pre- Quantity Quantity

Vermi Bin Volume
Set Up by: decomposed Wastes of Worms Date Set Up Date Harvested Sack Nos. Date Released of Worms
No. (kg)
(kg) Inoculated Harvested
107

Annex C


C. Earthworm Production and Marketing .
Quantity
Breeding Bin Quantity of Worms Date Harvested/
Set Up by: Date Set Up of Worms Quantity of Worms Sold Sold to:
No. Inoculated Transferred
Harvested
108
Annex D


D. Vermicompost Marketing and Utilization .
Substrate Nutrient Quantity

Sack No. Dat e Harvested Sold to: Quantity Used Crops/Rate
Combination Analysis Sold
109

SELF-Test
1. Define vermiculture.
2. What are the benefits of vermiculture?
3. State some species for vermicomposting.
4. What are some substrates that can be used in vermicomposting?
5. Present the steps to follow in vermicomposting.
6. What are some uses of vermicompost?
7. How is vermitea prepared?
8. How is vermi extract prepared?

110
References
Adorada, J.L. Assessment of vermicomposting as a waste management technology and a

livelihood alternative. MS thesis. College, Laguna: UPLB, 2007. 144p.
Binoya, F.B. Jr.; Tiolo, A.J. Vermicomposting technology. DENR ERDS Reg 6 Techno
Transfer Ser 2(1): 1–13, 1991.
Cosico, W.G. Organic fertilizers: Their nature, properties and use. College, Laguna: FSSRI-
CA-UPLB, 1985. 136p.
Cosico, W.C. Primer on soil science. College, Laguna: ASC-CA-UPLB, 2005. 182p.
Henares, P.T. Vermicomposting: The buro-buro experience. First Vermi Symposium-
Workshop Paper. PCAMRD, Los Baños, Laguna, 2002. Nov. 25–26, 2003.
Ingram, E.R. The Compost Tea Brewing Manual. 2nd ed. Oregon, USA: Soil Foodweb Inc.,
2001. 67p.
Reamon, J. Personal communication, 2006.
Tan, N.C. Vermiculture in the Philippines. Special Problem manuscript. College, Laguna:
UPLB, 1985. 109p.
Ulep, L.L. The production, processing, and evaluation of the nutritive value of the earthworms
(Perionyx excavatus) as feed for broilers. PhD. dissertation. College, Laguna: UPLB, 1982.
109p.
Viljoen, S.A.; Reinecke, A.J. The temperature requirements of the epigeic earthworm
species Eudrilus eugeniae (Oligochaeta) - A laboratory study. Soil Biol. Biochem.
24(12):1345–1350, 1992.
Villegas, L. Vermiculture and vermicomposting. In: BPI-LBNCRDC Annual Report. Los Baños,
Laguna: BPI-LBNCRDC, 2000.

111
2.5 Natural Farm Inputs
Jacqueline Haessig Alleje and Lourdes G. de Villa
Significance: Long-term soil fertility and plant/animal nutrition

for optimum growth and health of crops/animals
are important components of organic production
systems to achieve ecological and economic
sustainability. Yet, these components are often taken
for granted. Understanding the dynamics of soil
fertility is important in realizing better yields and cost-
efficiency in farming.
Description: This module explains the concept of soil

conditioning; plant and animal care using
indigenous microorganism (IMO); and the process of
fermentation of crop and animal material to produce
natural farm inputs (NFI).
Objectives: After completing this module, participants should

be able to:
1. understand the importance of maintaining

landscapes that promote the growth of
diversity of IMO, the interdependence of
microbiological activity, organic matter, soil
fertility, plant and animal health;
2. enumerate the benefits and economic
significance of production of farmstead, low-
cost farm inputs;
3. produce different liquid farm inputs using IMO
and the fermentation process; and
4. follow the proper time and rate of application
of NFI.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, group exercises

112
Specific Strategies: 1. Discussion on which crops should be integrated
in the farm landscape for the specific purpose of
producing NFI.
2. Discussion on the advantages of farmstead
production versus purchasing of NFI.
3. Actual experience in computing the cost of
producing these farm inputs; learning to evaluate
the economic viability of their application; and
analyzing the practical and cost factors.
4. Group discussions on similar topics or different
aspects of this subject to be reported and
summarized in a plenary session.
5. Hands-on training on producing NFI.
Materials and Equipment 1. For lecture, discussions, group report: LCD or

Requirements: white board, Manila paper, index cards, pens, and
markers
2. For hands-on training: Full set of required
materials depending on product to be produced
Estimated Time Frame: Two days (16 hours)
Evaluation Plan: Actual production of IMOs, FPJ, FFJ, FFA, and

OHN following the procedures shown during the
demonstration

113
Introduction The production of organic crops and livestock
is based on a whole system approach resulting in a
series of processes to ensure a healthy ecology at
the farm, economic success for the producer, and
sustainable communities.
It is thus not surprising that many organic
production techniques and methods have several
uses, benefits, and synergistic effect on the
productivity of the entire farm system.
This section presents the use and production of
farm inputs based on the process of fermentation
using IMO and fermented plant and animal materials.
These farm inputs can be produced at the farm for
its exclusive use and/or for trading with other organic
farmers, or for public trading to increase income of
the farm.
At a community level, it would be interesting
if farmers distribute the production of NFI among
themselves to be more efficient. One farmer
produces fermented banana juice, another processes
fermented juice of nitrogen fixing crops for animal
and crop use, and another farmer produces the
Asian Herb Mixture for use in livestock as alternative
cure for diarrhea.
Use of the farm inputs derived from these
production techniques:
• Improves microbiological activity in soil and

during decomposition of animal and plant
materials for fertilizer production
• Provides better nutrition for plants and
animals
• Contributes to better health care of plants
and animals
• Minimizes environmental pressure from
livestock production
A wide range of research is available on the

benefits and use of IMO and the fermentation of
crop and animal material for farm inputs. This section
discusses the topic based on experiences at the
farm/production level over several years by many
producers in different locations in the Philippines
under different conditions, means, and aims. Some

114
apply it in crop production, others in poultry and
livestock production, or in integrated production
systems of both crop and livestock.
To efficiently introduce this farmstead production
at the farm level, plant crops that are used for specific
needs:
For nitrogen fixation: Flemingia macrophylla,
Desmodium rensonii, Trichantera gigantea (‘madre de
agua’), Gliricidia sepium (‘madre de cacao’), Leucaena
glauca (‘ipil-ipil’), Horseradish tree (‘malunggay’).
For health care: Fruit crops, green leafy
vegetables such as native spinach, 'kangkong,'
'alugbati.'
For pest and disease management: Neem,
finger chili, garlic, ginger, native oregano, chives, basil
and many others (see specifics under production
methods).
The production guide below should only be
taken as a guide, to be adapted by each producer
according to her/his needs, conditions, resources, and
possibilities.
Indigenous Microorganisms The presence of IMO in ecosystems are proof of

(IMO) active life and are present almost anywhere in the
plant and animal kingdom as well as in our bodies.
IMO can be found in the soil, surface of the soil,
on branches, leaves, and many other plant parts.
Collection of IMO can be done from fields, forests floor,
rice paddy, hedges, shrubs, and bamboo trees.
IMO for organic farm input production are usually
gathered from places with high IMO presence such as
forests, bamboo plant, tree trunks, etc.
Benefits
IMO can act as:
• Soil conditioner by enhancing the
microbiological activity in the soil, particularly
in soils where compost has been applied.
• Soil sterilizer by outnumbering pathogens
with “beneficial” bacteria
• Growth and health promoter through the
presence of diversified microorganisms in the
soil, which strengthen the plants and makes

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them more resistant to pests and diseases
and give better yields.
Procedure
Collecting from rice paddy:
1. Cook rice, allow it to cool, and then place in
clean container such as bamboo, wooden
box, or earthen jar.
2. Right after rice harvest, place container inside the
pile of rice straw. Provide moisture in the area.
3. Protect it from animals.
4. Leave for 3 days during hot days and 5 days
during rainy days, then harvest.
5. Weigh and add equal proportion of molasses or
muscovado sugar and place in clean container.
6. Let the mixture mature for another 7 days and
protect it from direct sunlight. The collected IMO
will be ready for use after.
Collecting from bamboo trees:

1. Cook rice and allow it to cool. Then place rice in
clean container.
2. Bury the container near bamboo trees, cover with
plastic and protect it from animals.
3. After 7 days, harvest the collected IMO.
4. Weigh and add equal proportion of molasses or
muscovado sugar and place in clean container.
protect it from direct sunlight.
Afterwards, the collected IMO will be ready for

use.
Collecting from hedges, bushes, and other

natural environments with high biodiversity:
1. Cook rice; allow it to cool, and then place in
clean container.
2. Bury it near bushes or shrubs, cover with
plastic, and protect from animals..
3. After 7 days, harvest the collected IMO.
4. Weigh and add equal proportion of molasses
or muscovado sugar and place in clean
container.

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protect it from direct sunlight. Afterwards, the
collected IMO will be ready for use.
Application
1. Weigh 200 g of IMO, dilute in 16 L of water, and
spray in plots before transplanting or during plot
preparation.
2. Use it as spray on compost to accelerate
decomposition and to kill pathogens.
3. Strain and transfer to a clean container, ready
for use.
Fish Amino Acid (FAA)
FAA is the liquid from the fermented fish entrails,

gut, and gills or from golden snail ('kuhol'). It is a
source of nitrogen and contains abundant amount
of other secondary nutrients. It can be added to the
fertilization program where the application of solid
organic fertilizer is not providing sufficient nitrogen,
particularly in operations during conversion periods or
at the onset of an organic system where soil is poor
to start with. In well-established systems, there might
be no more need to apply FAA, except if farmer wishes
to speed up the growth of green leafy vegetables
such as pechay, pakchoi, lettuce, or if the crops are
stressed during the hot season.
FAA is interchangeable with seaweed-based
foliar fertilizer in places where it is difficult to get
fresh fish entrails, or if farmers prefer to avoid the
production of this “smelly” farm input.
Procedure
• Using Fish Entrails
1. Weigh 1 kg fish entrails, gut, and gills and
mix with 1 kg molasses. Preparation must
be done at night to prevent flies.
2. Place in plastic container. Seal container
with Manila paper and ferment for 10 days,
protected from direct sunlight.
3. Strain and transfer to a clean container,
ready for use.

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• Using golden apple snail (kuhol)
1. Wash, clean, and soak snail for 1 hour.
Crush, grind live shell, and pour molasses
immediately in 1:1 ratio. Preparation must be
done at night to prevent flies.
2. Place in plastic container. Seal container
with Manila paper and ferment for 10 days,
protected from direct sunlight.
for use.
Application
Dilute 1:100 to 2:100 with water. Spray as foliar
soil treatment for crops, and as compost activator or
add to animal feeds.
Fermented Plant Juice (FPJ)
Benefits:
• Source of supplemental nutrient, can provide
potassium
• Can be used during entire growth period as
“supplement”
• Improves digestion of animals
• Strengthens immune system of animals
Procedure:
1. Harvest green, leafy plants such as ‘kangkong’
(water spinach), young banana trunk (3 ft tall)
and leaves, pumpkin leaves, bamboo shoots
(‘labong’) early morning or right after rain.
2. Cut the growing plants or shoots into small pieces
or shred with shredder, put aside.
3. In clean container, put a handful of molasses,
add the prepared vegetables until ¾ full, and add
the remaining molasses. Ratio of plant material
and molasses is approximately 1:1. Seal container
with Manila paper and ferment for 7 days. Protect
from direct sunlight.
for use.

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Application:
Dilute 1:100 to 2:100 with water. Spray this
solution as foliar soil treatment for crops and as
compost activator or add to animal feeds.
Fermented Fruit Juice (FFJ)
Benefits:
• Source of potassium
• Strengthens plant tissues, increases size of fruits
• Increases crop resistance against diseases and
protects it from insects
Procedure:
1. Mix 1 kg of sweet fruits with 1 kg of molasses.
Combination of one or more fruits can be done.
2. Place in a clean container. Seal with Manila
paper and allow to ferment for 7 days, protected
for use.
Application:
Dilute 1:100 to 2:100 with water. Spray as foliar
fertilizer or soil treatment.
Note: Citrus juice cannot be used with other
plants because of its high acid content. Use citrus
juice for citrus crops only, i.e., calamansi juice to a
calamansi tree or pomelo juice to a pomelo tree.
Foliar Calcium from Eggshells
Calcium is one of the nutrients required by fruit-

bearing plants. This element must be present to
induce flowering and during flowering stage of the
plant.
Benefits:
• Source of calcium
• Helps induce flowering
• Prevents blossom-end rot in tomatoes
• Prevents premature falling of blossom, improves
fruit setting

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Procedure:
1. Collect 2 kg eggshells and take out the inside
peel.
2. Pan-fry or toast until eggshell turns brown. Use
swift hand movement when burning eggshells.
Allow it to cool down.
3. In a clean container, mix with 5 gal coconut
vinegar. Ferment for 20 days, protected from
direct sunlight.
4. Strain and place in a clean container, ready for
use.
Application:
Dilute 1:100 to 2:200 in water. Apply as foliar
spray on crops just before flowering and during
flowering stage.
1. Calcium Phosphate Benefits:

• Source of calcium and phospate
• Helps fruit setting and fruit growth
Procedure:
1. Collect 2 kg bones from pig, goat, cow, or fish;
boil to remove meat and fats.
2. Dry and broil until charcoal black.
3. In a clean container, mix the dried and broiled
bones with 5 gal of coconut vinegar and ferment
for 30 days, protected from direct sunlight.
4. Strain and place in a clean container, ready for
use.
Application:
Dilute 1:100 to 2:100 in water. Apply as foliar
spray on crops to induce fruit setting.
2. Oriental Herbal Nutrient OHN is made from plants and herbs such as
(OHN) garlic, ginger, chili (‘siling labuyo’), and neem
seeds. For crop production, garlic and ginger have
anti-fungal and anti-bacterial properties. Neem
controls insects.
In animals, garlic acts as antibiotic and parasite
control. Ginger is good for the upper respiratory
system. Chili enhances blood circulation. Neem seeds
are effective in insect control. OHN is an important

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farm input for the development of the immune
system of plant and animals and the control of
crawling pests.
Benefits:
• Source of phytochemicals
• Improves plant and animal health
• Strengthens immune system
• Insect repellent
Procedure:
First extraction
1. Chop ginger and/or garlic, place in a 2-gal
container. Put about 2.5 kg ginger and/or garlic
(2/3 portion of the container must be filled), add
2.5 L of beer. Cover the container and ferment
for 12 hours.
2. After 12 hours, add half liter of molasses and
ferment for 5 days, protected from direct sunlight.
Strain and place in clean container.
3. This is the mother liquor to which 1/3 gin or
‘lambanog’ measuring about 4 L are added to
ferment for another 10 days.
4. Harvest about 4 L of this fermented mixture for
second extraction.
Second extraction
1. Take about 4 L of the liquid from the first
extraction; add a handful of crushed finger chili
(‘siling labuyo’), ‘makabuhay’ and neem tree fruits
for stronger potency. Add 4 L gin and ferment for
another 10 days.
Third extraction
1. Repeat steps of second extraction by adding again
4 L of gin.
2. Store finished product in a cool place protected
Application:
Dilute 1:100 to 2:100 in water and spray on
leaves and soil for crop production. Add to feeds or

121
drinking water. Use in bedding of poultry/livestock
production (See separate module on poultry and hog
production).
3. Lactic Acid Bacteria Benefits:

Serum (LABS) • Source of bacteria that break down organic
matter and increase microbiological activity in
the soil
• Acts as sanitizer of soil and beddings in poultry/
livestock production
• Helps keep digestive systems of animals free
of pathogens and promotes strong and healthy
digestion
Procedure:
First culture
1. Pour 3 L of rice washing water into a shallow
container (approximately 7 in high). Cover
loosely with cotton cloth or screen to avoid
contamination with insects or dirt.
2. Culture for 5–7 days, protected from direct
sunlight. Rice bran will float in the liquid, which
will develop a sour (but not foul) smell.
3. Remove bran and use the clear liquid only for the
second culture.
Second culture:
1. Mix 3 L of cultured rice washing liquid to 10 L of
fresh, raw or pasteurized milk. Let the mixture
pass through strainer to remove all milk fat
solids that might look similar to tofu.
2. Use a cotton cloth, fine mesh screen, or a
layer of rice bran to protect the mixture from
contamination such as dirt, flying or crawling
insects.
3. Allow mixture to ferment for 7–10 days.
4. Milk solids and fat will float on surface, leaving
yellow liquid (serum) or whey, which contains
lactic acid bacteria, at the bottom of container.
Remove solids and add to compost pile.
5. Add 1 kg brown sugar or muscovado and mix
well.

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6. For longer shelf life, sugar content can be
increased.
7. Keep lactic acid bacteria in cool place, protected
Application:
Dilute 1:100 in water. Apply as soil conditioner
or foliar spray to crops. It can be mixed with animal
feeds.
4. Natural Insect Attractant Benefits:

Natural insect attractants provide protection from
flying insects by attracting fruit flies and other flying
insects to keep them away from crops intended for
agricultural production. The insects will be trapped
but population will not be indiscriminately
exterminated following the principles of organic
pest and disease management and maintenance of
ecological balance.
Procedure:
1. Bring 1 gal of coconut or any other naturally
fermented vinegar to a boil, remove from heat, and
mix with 0.5 kg muscovado or molasses.
2. Set aside to cool, then add 300 mL FPJ.
3. Store in cool place, protected from direct sunlight.
Application:
Dilute 1:100 to 2:200. Fabricate traps using
empty plastic containers, making holes on sides
the size of a peso coin. Soak cotton with attractant
and place on cover of container, which becomes
the bottom since the container is attached upside
down on the tree.
This attractant can be used in the production of
ampalaya, cucumber, papaya, jackfruit, mango, and
other crops attacked by fruit flies.

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124
Module 3
Organic Crop Production
3.1 Concepts and requirements in organic crop
production 126
3.2 Organic seed production 139
3.3 Seedling production for vegetables 158
3.4 Organic tropical vegetable production 167
3.5 Organic production of semi-temperate
vegetables 177
3.6 Organic sugarcane production 189
3.7 Organic Arabica coffee production 208
3.8 Organic rice production 222
3.1 CONCEPTS AND REQUIREMENTS IN ORGANIC
CROP PRODUCTION
Nenita E. dela Cruz
Significance: Organic crop production is an ecological

production management system that promotes
and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles, and
soil biological activity. It is based on minimal use of
off-farm inputs and on management practices that
restore, maintain, and enhance ecological harmony
(Figs. 1–3).
For organic production to be successful, a
grower will have to follow the systems approach.
Careful attention is very important with regards to
the development and implementation of sound pest
management strategies since uncontrollable pest
problems are major factors causing crop losses.
There are times when non-chemical controls are just
unacceptable.
To understand organic crop production, a
potential or new producer must visit an existing
organic farming operation, attend organic growers’
meetings, and thoroughly research the topic before
planting the first seed. In addition, a new producer
must realize that there is a learning curve in which
3–5 years maybe needed to adequately develop an
understanding of the methods required to effectively
produce safe foods that will meet the market
quality demands.
The information presented in this module
is intended to provide guidelines for developing
Figs. 1–3. organic crop production strategies. However, it is
Organic crop production farms not all-inclusive and that there are other practices
and vegetables. available to organic producers, some of which may
be more effective than those mentioned in the
module.

126
Description: This module discusses the basic concepts and
requirements in starting organic crop production.
However, it is limited on the introductory topics on
crop, soil, and pest management. Details of the
topics on soil and pest management are discussed in
specific modules (refer to the modules on soil fertility
management and insect and disease management).
Objectives: After completing this module, the learners are

expected to:
• define the basic concepts in organic crop

production;
• determine the different requirements in
establishing an organic crop production farm;
and
• identify the keys to successful organic crop
production.
Learning Approach: Lecture-discussions, hands-on exercises, group

exercises, field visits.
Specific Strategies: • Interactive discussions

• Field immersion to observe the practices in
growing organic crops
Material Requirements: Existing organic farms

IEC materials
Computer, LCD projector
Estimated Time Frame: 1 ½ day (12 hours) including field immersion
Evaluation Plan: Pre and post test question and answer

127
Introduction While there have been varying notions of organic
farming over the years, the growth of the industry
and the introduction of standards and certification
have led to a clearer definition in recent years. That
definition describes organics as a viable agriculture,
based on sound farming practices that does not
include synthetic chemicals.
Certified organic agriculture can be further
characterized by a set of principles that include
biodiversity, integration, sustainability, natural
plant nutrition, natural pest management, and
integrity. These principles are expressed through the
implementation of both traditional and cutting-edge
farm practices.
As the organic industry continues to grow
and evolve, it faces many challenges, including
the consequences of its own success. Economic
opportunities invite new players into the marketplace
who may have little interest in sustainability or the
positive social benefits associated with organics.
Characteristics of Organic Organic crop production farming avoids the use

Farms of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. As such,
emphasis is placed on long-term planning based
on information regarding crop’s pest life cycles,
soil conditioning, extensive evaluation of ecological
relationships, field conditions, and options for
management of variables available in a given farm.
Three basic characteristics define organic farm.
• Soil conditioning is maintained through the

heavy use of compost and naturally occurring
plant and animal materials incorporated into
Fig. 4.
Crop diversification. the soil; green manure and cover crops; and
crop rotation. Crop diversification is very
important in this aspect (Fig. 4).

128
• Soil fertility is dependent upon the continuing
activity of microorganisms such as bacteria,
fungus, actinomycetes, and other beneficial
organisms such as earthworms to digest
organic matter and convert it to compounds
available to plants (Fig. 5).
• Pest control is advanced by “healthy” soil,

plant resistance, and use of pesticides (not
Fig. 5. chemical or synthetic) that pose little or no
Soil fertility is dependent upon the
continuing activity of
adverse effect on the soil, crop, environment
microorganisms. and human health. The use of plants with
insect repelling properties is recommended to
minimize insect infestation and the use of net
barrier to prevent insect attacks (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6.
Examples of insect-repelling
plants.
Requirements in Organic Documentation and Record Keeping

Crop Production
Producers must maintain an integrated record
keeping system including records of all production
practices, harvest dates, yields, product inventory,
and sales. Complete historical and annual records of
purchases, inventory, and usages of off-farm and on-
farm inputs including application dates, rates, types
of materials, and equipment used must be maintained
by the producer. Certified producers are reviewed
on an annual basis and subject to unannounced or
subsequent inspections. On-site inspections may
be conducted on each field immediately before or
during harvest.

129
Soil Management
Soil condition must be fostered by increasing

the soil organic matter content through crop
rotation, cover cropping, manuring and/or compost
application. Producers should utilize an integrated
soil management program consisting of both temporal
and spatial crop rotation with a full-season, multiple
crop production system that applies the extensive use
of legumes and green manure crops, cover cropping,
and mulching for improved soil condition and for
optimal annual and perennial weed management.
Weed Management
Use of any synthetic herbicides is prohibited.

Control of both annual and perennial weeds must be
through extensive preventive management including
crop rotation, cover cropping, and mulching. Cultural
practices such as mowing, grazing, and shallow
cultivation are allowed. However, weed management
dependent on extensive cultivation is discouraged.
Insect Pest Management
Insect management should be based on integrated

pest management principles (except for the use of
chemical pesticides) including cultural practices
such as planning production schedules, planting
resistant varieties, planting dates, crop selection,
rotation, trap cropping, and intercropping. Producers
may use other practices including pheromone traps,
sticky traps, vacuuming and water jets, or other
mechanical or physical controls. Also, extensive use of
beneficial organisms such as parasites, predators, and
pathogens is encouraged (Fig. 7). Crop management
Fig. 7. including intercropping or utilization of legume or
Insect pest management grass cover crops to develop natural insecticides is
practices. encouraged and beneficial insects may be released
by artificial application methods. Pheromones
used in traps or for mating disruption are also
allowed. Biological pesticides such as Bt (Bacillus
thuringiensis), viruses, and entomopathic fungi
are permitted. Minimal applications of permitted

130
or regulated materials such as insecticidal soaps,
natural vegetable oils, herbal preparations, and
diatomaceous earth are permitted pest controls.
Disease Management
Disease prevention is considered in planning

production schedules, choosing crops, locating and
sizing plantings, and deciding soil-management
practices. Management practices such as planting
resistant varieties, timing of planting to avoid cycles
of pest emergence, intercropping, crop rotations,
and avoidance of excessive fertilization are useful in
preventing diseases.
Operator Management
Producers or managers must have an extensive,

in-depth knowledge of organic standards and
certification procedures. An optimal producer plans
and implements extensive integrated organic
crop management systems and demonstrates
and implements extensive environmental and soil
conservation programs.
Farm Management Plan
• Soil improvement: increase organic matter

content through crop rotation, cover cropping,
applying manure, and composting.
• Water conservation: irrigation scheduling,
application rates and intervals; soil and crop
moisture utilization.
• Current crop production plan: crops and growing
season for each field.
• Weed control: prevention through crop rotation,
cover cropping, mulching and smother cropping.
• Insect control: IPM approach, using resistant
varieties, planting dates, crop selection and
rotation, trap cropping and intercropping.
• Disease control: use resistant varieties, time the
planting to avoid pest emergence, intercropping,
crop rotations, and proper fertilization.
• Harvest, handling, and storage of crops.

131
Key to Successful Organic Success in organic production is directly
Crop Production correlated to the producer’s ability to understand and
manipulate the inputs stated above in the organic
farm. Often, crop failure and financial loss result from
factors beyond the control of a producer such as
market fluctuations, unfavorable weather conditions,
pest infestations, and unfavorable government policies
such as allowing importation and subsidy crop.
Consequently, a grower should pay close attention to
the design and implementation of cultural practices
over which he has control such as: land, crop and
variety selection; soil and seed bed preparation; crop
establishment techniques; windbreak management;
pollination, irrigation, fertilization, harvesting, handling
and packaging of produce. A good understanding of
how these practices are interrelated and how they
affect production minimizes the risk associated with
organic production.
Success in organic crop production is also greatly
dependent on a well-prepared plan. Key factors that
should be considered when planning the farming
operation are: site selection, water supply and quality,
crop and variety selection, and market development.
Site Selection
Minimizing potential production problems is

essential to all farming operations. This is especially
true for organic producers. One of the most effective
means of reducing potential problems is through the
selection of appropriate field site. Three points should
be considered when selecting a field to produce
vegetables: accessibility, biophysical factors, and
socioeconomic factors.
• Accessibility
Select an area that is far from possible pollutant
source such as along the highways, near garbage
dumpsite, industrial establishment, and mine tailings.
It should be accessible to any kind of transportation
to facilitate mobility of the producer, transport of farm
inputs as well as farm produce.

132
• Biophysical Factors
Topography refers to the physical characteristics
of the overall field site and includes such conditions
as contour, soil depth, water and air drainage, and
the presence of rock outcrops and trees. These
characteristics can have a significant influence on
crop production and management. Poorly drained
fields or those with low areas can become
waterlogged during periods of excessive rain. Such
conditions can enhance the incidence of diseases,
reduce plant vigor and yield, and under excessive
conditions, cause plant death. Brush areas or
abandoned fields and pastures can harbor insects and
serve as host for plant diseases, some of which can
be vectored by insects. Rock outcrops and trees within
a field can impede farm implements and increase
difficulty of land preparation and crop establishment.
Sites with slopes of 18% (18" elevation change per
100') or more should be avoided to prevent excessive
erosion problems. In case this cannot be avoided,
stringent conservation measures should be employed.
An ideal topography for crop production is one that
is nearly flat to slightly sloping, well drained, and
free of trees, rocks, and low areas. Efficiency of crop
maintenance, irrigation, and harvest operations is
greatly enhanced in fields with this type of topography.
Soil type refers to the physical composition or

properties of the soil. Soils consist of decomposed
mineral matter (sand, silt, and clay) and decomposed
organic matter. Optimum crop production is achieved
on well-drained sandy loam soils. Heavy clay soil
types tend to have poor aeration and drainage and can
restrict root growth. Consequently, these soils should
be avoided in vegetable production but are ideal
for lowland rice production. Soil is the fundamental
resource base for all agricultural production systems.
Unfortunately, too often, too little time is spent in
selecting soil type and soil management practices. In
organic crop production, soil health is essential. Soil
quality influences its ability to provide an optimum
media for growth, sustain crop productivity, maintain
environmental quality, and provide for plant and
animal health. Therefore, soil quality and soil health is

133
viewed as the foundation to successful organic crop
production. Consequently, the primary management
goal of an organic producer should be the long-term
sustainability and improvement of soil quality or
health.
Socioeconomic Factors
• Farm resources
These refer to what the farmers have in the
farm in terms of organic inputs or farmer’s ability to
produce his own farm inputs. Success in organic
crop production greatly depends on the availability of
farm inputs.
• Labor availability
This is one of the major factors to be considered
in engaging in organic crop production systems.
Labor requirement is intensive at the start of
the conversion process, from conventional crop
production systems to organic crop production
Fig. 8. systems, particularly if the grower will have to
Labor availability is important produce his own farm inputs. Thus, growers should
in organic crop production.
ensure labor availability within the growing period
(Fig. 8).
• Distance to market
This factor should also be considered as one big
factor in the success of organic crop production. Be
sure that area of production is not so far from the
market so that produce shall reach the market fresh.
In case market is far from the production site, there
should be a farm to market road to avoid spoilage of
produce during travel time (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9.
Production area should be near the Water Supply and Quality
market so that produce will reach
the market fresh.
Water is the life-blood of crop production.
Vegetable crops generally require more total water and
more frequent irrigation than most other agronomic
crops (Fig. 10). Few crops can be grown successfully
under dry land conditions. Therefore, only fields that
have easy access to a source of abundant water
should be considered for organic vegetable production.

134
The water source should have the capability to provide
the volume required for the maximum needs of the
highest water-using crop to be planted. Water quality
is equally important as water volume in selecting
a water source. The water for vegetable irrigation
should contain less than 400 ppm soluble salts.
Therefore, avoid water sources containing high
levels of toxic elements such as sodium, boron or
aluminum. The absence of an adequate supply of
Fig. 10. high quality water cannot be offset with an ideal
Water supply must be ensured
during the entire growing season. field site having a desirable soil type. Knowledge
of crop tolerance to salinity is essential if marginal
quality water is to be used.
Crop and Variety Selection
An equally important factor as good soil health is

the crop and variety selection. All types of pest occur
abundantly in most areas. However, the greatest
limiting factor to successful crop production from
a pest standpoint is the high incidence of disease
outbreaks. With the reduced number of tools to
combat pests available in the organic production
Fig. 11. arsenal an even greater importance is placed on the
Organic producers may use disease-
resistant varieties.
use of resistant crops and varieties as the primary
means of pest control. Therefore, organic producers
who use varieties or grow species with resistance
to many diseases greatly increase their chances of
success (Fig. 11).
Market Development
The need to develop markets for the produce

should be established prior to planting the crop. This
is even more important for organically produced
crops due to their limited or niche market status. For
whatever reason one chooses to commercially produce
crops organically, profitability is the driving force
that keeps him in business. To achieve profitability, a
producer must have a well thought out production and
marketing plan based on sound scientific and business
principles. Most newly started organic crop operations
generally fail due to the lack of market development or
marketing skills.

135
Consequently, a potential grower cannot spend too
much time in developing a production and marketing
plan. Commercial organic crop production should
always be viewed as a business first and second as
a farming enterprise. Personal views or beliefs are
fine but establishing a business based on consumer
preferences and demands make for a more successful
undertaking.
In developing a sound marketing plan the
following questions should be answered:
• What crops should I grow?

• How much of these crops should I produce?
• To whom or where shall I sell the produce?
• How much real demand is there for the crops
I am considering?
• How much will it cost me to produce and
market these crops?
• What are the sizes of the market windows for
these crops?
• What are the risks associated with the
production of these crops?
In order to effectively answer these questions,

one must be willing to invest considerable time
conducting market research. It should be stressed
that in order to market the produce as organically
grown, a farming operation must be "Certified
Organic" by government-accredited certifiers.

136
SELF-TEST
Direction: Answer the following questions:
1. What is organic crop production?
2. How does it differ from conventional crop production?
3. What are the characteristics of an organic farm?
4. How is soil conditioning maintained in organic farming?
5. What are the basic requirements in organic crop production?
6. What are the keys to successful organic crop production?

137
References:
http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/
http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/foodsafety/commOrganicVegProd/managingpests.html
Kuepper, G.; Gegner, L. Organic crop production overview. In: Fundamentals of
Sustainable Agriculture, 2004. National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service.
http://attra.ncat.org/publication.html

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3.2 ORGANIC SEED PRODUCTION
Rodel G. Maghirang
Significance: The Philippine National Standards for Organic

Agriculture requires the use of organically produced
seeds for organic crop production. Seeds should be
organically grown so that there will be no residues
from chemicals commonly used in conventional
production systems. Generally, commercial seed
production, systemic pesticides are used to maximize
seed yields and because seeds will be the product
there is no concern for pesticide residue. However,
seeds so produced can still contaminate the
organic production system. Organic seeds are not
commercially available in the Philippines unlike in
countries with advance organic agriculture system.
Therefore, the use of non-treated seeds may be
allowed.
Varieties suitable or selected under organic
conditions are more resistant and tolerant to adverse
conditions. Shelf life of seeds of these varieties is also
longer than that of conventional varieties. As much
as possible organic grower should also produce his
own seeds to ensure that the variety/cultivar/strain is
well adapted in his area.
Description: This module explains aspects of organic vegetable

seed production systems based on organic standards,
research, and practical experiences.
Objectives: After completing this module, learners must be

able to:
1. describe the seed production systems for

different kinds of vegetables and
2. describe the seed processing and storage
methods for the different kinds of vegetables

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Learning Approaches: 1. Lecture/discussions
2. Hands on/practicum
3. Field trip
Specific Strategies: 1. Discussion on the types of vegetables, seed

production, and processing systems
2. Practicum on pollination, bagging, seed
processing/field visits
Materials and Equipment: 1. Audio visual facilities/handouts

2. Flower and seed samples
3. Seed processing and packaging materials
4. Seed boxes/trays and soil media
Evaluation Plan: Each participant will submit a seed production

plan that will be implemented in his institution or
farm. This will include crop/variety to be produced,
target production volume, area to be planted, seed
production system that will be done from planting to
seed storage.

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Importance of Organically Conventional seeds are generally produced with
Grown Seeds more pesticides than conventional fresh vegetables
to maximize seed yield and minimize seed-borne
diseases. It is generally accepted because the produce
will not be directly used for human consumption.
However, such practice contributes greatly to
environmental degradation. Moreover, the pesticide
residue in the seeds can still cause undue harm to soil
microorganisms and pests’ natural enemies.
As such, organic seeds are required in organic
vegetable production. Also, organic seeds are
generally open-pollinated varieties/cultivars with
better adaptation under organic conditions.
Organic Standards For organic production, two aspects will have

major importance: the health of organically produced
seed and the absence of genetically modified seeds.
Organic seeds, while produced with no chemical
pesticides, can harbor seed-borne diseases. This
is one gray area in organic standards for seeds.
Seed-borne disease can be prevented with proper
recognition of the problem and timely rouging.
Genetically modified seeds are also not allowed
in organic agriculture. The main reason is that it is
not produced by natural means of crop improvement.
Technically, there are many unknowns in the process
of gene transfer that are deemed to have side effects
on the plant itself, on the surrounding environment
and on the pests’ natural enemies. There are also
economic and social implications that run counter to
the principles of organic agriculture.
Vegetables that can Types of pollination behavior of crops: self

be Seed Produced pollinated, cross pollinated, often crossed.
Variety types: Land Races, Open-Pollinated
Varieties (OPV), Hybrids Vegetable Families:
1. Alliums: onion, chives

2. Cucurbits: ‘ampalaya,’ cucumber, ‘patola,’
squash
3. Crucifers: cabbage, cauliflower broccoli,
‘pechay.’ However, it would be difficult to
produce seeds of cabbage, cauliflower and
broccoli in the Philippines.

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4. Legumes: ’sitao,’ snap beans, garden pea,
bush sitao, winged bean
5. Solanaceous: eggplant, pepper, tomato
6. Others: ‘alugbati,’ ‘kangkong’
Keeping Seeds Pure While there are still no standards on the level
of seed purity required for organic seeds, it is just
practical to have seeds of varieties/cultivars that
conform to the characteristics of that particular
variety. Without proper selection or rouging, isolation
distance or bagging, the organic seeds would be a
physical and genetic mixture. Cultural management,
as well as harvesting and marketing of relatively
pure varieties would be easier than a heterogenous
one.
Strategies to keep seed pure:
• Isolation distance - 800–1000 m for cross

pollinated crops; 100–300 m for often-crossed
(eggplant, pepper); 5–10 m for self pollinated
• Bagging - for small amount of seeds, bag the
flowers of self-pollinated crops to prevent
outcrossing, or to control pollination as in
squash and ‘ampalaya.’ Aluminium foil,
glassine bag, and other materials can be
used to prevent the outcrossing
• Caging - isolate the whole plant with nylon
net cage or bag. Remove first fruits that are
open pollinated as well as flowers in bloom
when caging
• Isolation by time - planting at different times
to prevent possibility of outcrossing
Roguing of Seed Crop The existence of off-type plants in the seed

crop is a potential source of genetic contamination.
The removal of such plants is termed as roguing.
Off-types, diseased, and abnormal plants are also
removed. The number of roguing required for the seed
crop will vary with the kind of vegetables, purity of the
seeds sown, nature of the previous crop, etc.

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Rouging may be done in the following stages as
soon as the off-types are recognizable:
• Vegetative stage
• Flowering stage
• Maturity stage
In seed crops, off-type plants should be removed

at different times. Generally, cross-pollinated vegetable
crop for seed production should be thoroughly rogued
before flowering.
Organic Seed Treatments Some treatments for organic seed production are:
1. Compost and Vermicompost teas - applied as

soil drench to the seedbed to introduce beneficial
microorganism that will compete with and control
soil pathogens
2. Biodynamic treatments – used to enhance the

biological activity of the soil. The preparations
consist of mineral, plant, or animal manure
extracts usually fermented and applied in small
proportions to compost, manures, the soil, or
directly onto seedlings, after dilution and stirring
procedures called dynamizations.
3. Herbal treatments – Several herbs are used as

seed and seedbed treatments. Plants such as
lemon grass, oregano and garlic are used as seed
treatments against damping-off disease.
4. Hot-water bath – Hot water treatments control

many seed-borne diseases at temperatures hot
enough to kill organisms but not hot enough to kill
the seed. Water temperatures usually range from
40oC to 50oC for 10–25 minutes depending on
crop species. Seeds are dipped in cold water after
hot water treatment to stop the heating action.
5. Disinfectants – Chlorox may be used to control

seed-borne bacterial diseases in pepper, tomato,
and cucurbits. The commercial chlorox bleach

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can be used at 20% concentration. Seeds are
soaked in the solution for up to 40 minutes,
then rinsed with water, and air-dried.
6. Indigenous methods – soaking seeds in salt

water or seawater.
Grow-out Tests Testing for Seed Purity
Varieties grown for seed production should

periodically be tested for genetic purity by grow-out
tests to make sure that they are being maintained in
their true form.
Plants are grown following the commercial
method of organic production. The plants are observed
if they are true-to-type, from seedling stage until the
harvesting.
Storage of Seeds In storing seeds, the following requirements and

conditions should be observed:
• Moisture content (MC) of seeds should be

8–10%. Moisture meter is used to determine
moisture content of seeds. Most moisture
meters, however, have to be calibrated for the
specific crop where it will be used. A simple
method is by placing about ½ kg of dry seeds
in a clear plastic bag, sealing the bag, and then
exposing it in the sun for about 30 minutes. If
there is no condensation, then the seeds are dry
enough for storage. If otherwise, then the seeds
need further drying.
• Container - Store seeds in plastic bags, cans,
or bottles for as long as the seeds will not
reabsorb moisture.
• Humidity - Utmost humidity should be 65%,
which is difficult in hot, humid tropics. Use
moisture-proof container and dehumidifier.
• Temperature - The storage temperature should
be around 15°C or as low as possible.
• Light - Exposure to sunlight shortens storage
life of seeds. Store in dark-colored containers.
• Storage life - Properly stored seeds can last for
3–5 years.

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Effect of Temperature For every 5.6°C (10°F) decrease in temperature,
Humidity and Seed longevity doubles (Harrington 1972).This rule
Moisture on Seed applies to seeds stored between temperatures of
Longevity 0°C and 50°C (32°F and 122°F). This rule
assumes that the MC is constant.
Seed moisture has a greater effect than
temperature on seed longevity. The general
relationship is that for each percent increase in seed
moisture, longevity decreases by half (Harrington
1972). This rule applies to seed with MC of 15–
13%. Above 13% MC, the seed storage fungi and
increased heating due to respiration cause longevity to
decline at a faster rate. Once seed moisture reaches
18–20%, the increased respiration and the activity of
microorganisms cause rapid deterioration of the seed.
At 30% moisture content, most non-dormant seeds
germinate.
The sum of the storage temperature (in °F)
and the relative humidity (in percent) should not
exceed 100. Since seed moisture is the most important
concern, the rule stipulates that no more than half
the sum should be contributed by the temperature
(Harrington 1960).
The majority of crop seeds lose viability
quickly when the humidity approaches 80% at
temperatures of 25°C (77°F) to 30°C (86°F). But
when stored at a relative humidity of 50% or less,
and a temperature below 5°C (41°F), seeds will
remain viable for at least 10 years (Copeland 1976).
If seeds are taken from a cold or frozen storage
and transferred to room temperature, care must be
taken to prevent condensation on the seeds. If the
seeds are in a sealed container, allow them to reach
room temperature before opening the container.
How to Produce Organic Organic seeds are produced under organic

Seeds of Some Crops condition, which is without application of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides. The other materials as
well as operations are all compliant to the Philippine
National Standards (PNS) for Organic Agriculture.
Organic fertilizers and teas and other organic
nutrient preparations such as fermented plant juice,
fermented fruit juice, fish amino acid, and natural

145
calcium phosphate are generally used in nutrient
management (see module on nutrient management.)
Pest management is generally through the use
of resistant varieties, crop rotation, intercropping,
and planting of pest repellents, sacrificial plants,
and border plants such as marigold, cosmos,
lemon grass, basil, amaranth and wild sunflower.
Botanical pesticides and other organic pest control
measures are also used (see module on pest
management).
Proper isolation method is applied to maintain
varietal purity. This is isolation by space, time, or use
of physical barriers such as use of glassine bags
or aluminum foil. Roguing is done to remove off-
types and diseased plants. Controlled pollination is
done when appropriate. Fruits are harvested at full
maturity. Further fruit maturation and selection is
done before seed extraction and processing.
‘Ampalaya’ • Variety - Sta Rita, Makiling, native land races

• ‘Ampalaya’ is cross-pollinated, so an isolation
distance of at least 800 m should be established.
Barriers such as glassine bags can be used.
Isolation is also achieved when planting is not
done at the same time (isolation by time). This
means that flowering does not occur at the same
time.
Seed Production
1. Cultural management details are provided in

the crop management module. Ampalaya can
be grown with plastic mulch. It is also best to
use overhead trellis. Pruning is done selectively.
Remove only the unproductive vines.
2. Rogue out off-types as early as possible. Off-
types can be determined early, when the leaf and
ovary shapes are different from typical shapes/
characteristics of the variety.
3. Select superior plants as source of stock seeds for
the next cycle of seed production.
4. If the starting material is not yet pure, do early
selection and controlled pollination.

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5. To control pollination, wrap unopened petals of
male and female flowers from selected plants
a day before flower opens, using a 2 cm x 2 cm
piece of aluminum foil (Fig. 1). Glassine may
also be used (Fig. 2).
6. The following day, collect the male flowers and
rub the anther to the stigma of the female flower.
7. Put back the aluminum foil.
Fig. 1. 8. Tag the pollinated flower with a piece of string or
Aluminum foil on ampalaya flowers. plastic label.
9. Harvest pollinated fruits at full maturity.
Seed Processing
1. Store the fruits until fully yellow.

2. Scoop out the seeds and place in a plastic
container. Let stand overnight to allow
fermentation to remove the mucilage from the
seeds (Fig. 3).
Fig. 2. 3. Wash the seeds the following day. Air dry first,
Glassine bag on ampalaya flowers. then sun dry until 10% MC is achieved (Fig. 4).
4. To determine if the MC is acceptable, put about
½ kg seeds inside a plastic bag and place in the
sun. If condensation occurs after 30 minutes,
continue to sun dry the seeds.
5. Pack the dry seeds in moisture-proof containers.
Label with the name of the variety and date of
extraction. Then store in a cool, dry place.
6. Seed yield per hectare: 50–75 kg
7. Seed cost: P500–P750 /kg
Fig. 3.
Scooping out seeds.
Fig. 4.
Air drying of ampalaya seeds.

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Cucumber • Cucumber is also cross pollinated.
• Variety - Pilmaria, Batangas White, White LS
(Selection)
Seed Production
1. Cultural management details are provided in the

crop management module. Cucumber can be
grown with plastic mulch. It can be grown with or
without trellis. If trellised, A-frame trellis is best.
Prune unproductive vines and leaves below the
lowest fruits.
2. Rogue out off-types as early as possible.
Off-types can be determined early based on leaf
shape as well as ovary shape.
3. Select superior plants as source of stock seeds
Fig. 5. for the next cycle.
Aluminum foil on cucumber flowers. 4. Bag male and female flowers from the selected
plants a day before flower opening.
5. Use glassine bag or a piece of aluminium foil
(Fig. 5).
6. Selfing - Get the bagged male flowers from the
same plant that will be pollinated.
7. Sibbing - if there are no available male flowers
from the plant that will be pollinated, get them
from a similar plant.
8. Tag/label flower accordingly.
Fig. 6. 9. In the case of unpollinated fruits, harvest the first
Harvested cucumber in net bags. fruits as vegetable to prolong the life of the plant.
10. Harvest fruits when mature. Mature fruits are
usually off-white to yellowish. Some varieties are
brownish when mature (Fig. 6).
Seed Processing
1. Allow further fruit maturation after harvest.

2. Line up fruits vertically (Fig. 7).
3. When mature enough, cut fruits in half and
scoop out seeds.
Fig. 7. 4. Ferment for 10–12 hours. Do not add water during
Cucumber fruits for after-harvest
ripening.
fermentation.
5. Wash seeds and air dry.
6. Sun dry to around 10% MC.
7. Seed yield: 100–150 kg/ha
8. Seed cost: P300–P500 /kg

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Squash • Variety - Rizalina, Sorsogon (Selection)
• Squash is cross pollinated. It has large variation in
size, shape, color, and internal fruit characters.
Seed Production

crop management module. Squash can be grown
with plastic mulch. To encourage branching,
pinch shoot at the fifth node and allow 2–3 vines
to grow.
types can be determined early based on leaf
for the next cycle.
4. Select based on external and internal fruit traits.
Fig. 8. 5. If there are only few desirable plants, do controlled
Aluminum foil on squash flowers. pollination.
6. Bag both male and female flowers in the selected
plants before flower opening (Figs. 8 and 9).
7. Pollinate a female flower using male flower from
the same plant (selfing) or from selected plant
with very similar traits (sibbing).
8. Tag/label pollinated flower.
9. Harvest fruits when mature. Most squash fruits
turn yellowish to dull orange when mature.
Seed Processing
Fig. 9.
Glassine bag on squash flower.
1. After harvesting, allow further fruit maturation up
to 2 months.
2. Select fruits for stock seed extraction based on
external and internal fruit traits (Fig. 10).
3. Discard wide variants or mixtures.
4. Scoop out the seeds from the remaining and
selected fruits. (Fig. 11).
5. Place seeds in net bag and wash to remove the
slimy film (Fig. 12).
6. Air dry then sun dry to around 12% MC.
8. Seed cost: P300–P500/kg
Fig. 10.
Fruit selection based
on flesh quality.

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Fig. 11. Fig. 12.
Scooping out seeds. Washing seeds.
Legumes • Generally self pollinated: pole ‘sitao’, cowpea, bush

sitao, snap beans, ‘sitsaro,’ mungbean
• Some have high degree of out crossing: lima bean
(‘patani’), winged bean, and pigeon pea.
Pole Sitao
Seed Production
• Pole sitao is highly self pollinated but some

varieties can have significant outcrossing.
• Variety - CSL 19, Sandigan
• Best to seed produce during the dry season.

crop management module. Pole ‘sitao’ can be
grown with plastic mulch. A-frame trellis is best.
Prune unproductive vines and leaves below the
lowest fruits.
2. Rogue out off-types as early as possible. Off-types
can be determined early based on leaf shape as
well as pod color.
3. Select also superior plants as source of stock
seeds for the next cycle.
4. If the lot is relatively uniform, just rogue out the
off-types.
5. Select the best plants based on vigor, resistance,
yield, and pod characters.

150
6. For best seed quality, harvest only the pods
around the middle portion. Harvest lowest pods
as fresh vegetable.
7. Harvest pods for seed production before fully dry.
Seed Processing
1. Dry the harvested pods in the sun.

2. When fully dry, extract seeds manually or by
Fig. 13. beating pods inside a sack or net bag.
Extracting pole sitao seeds
and winnowing.
3. Winnow or use air blower to remove debris.
Remove also damaged seeds manually or with an
appropriate machine (Fig. 13).
4. Sun dry to 10% MC.
5. Treat seeds with dry wood ash (Fig. 14) or
botanicals to prevent weevil infestation.
Seed Yields (kg/ha):

1. Pole sitao - 500–1000
2. Cowpea - 1000–1500
3. Snap beans - 1000–2000
Fig. 14.
4. Mungbean - 600–1000
Pole sitao seeds treated
with wood ash.
Eggplant Seed Production
• Variety - Mistisa, Mara, Arayat, Concepcion,

Señorita
• Eggplant has a high outcrossing rate of around
30%.
• Isolation distance for seed production (100–
300 m) is needed.
1. Cultural management details are provided in

the crop management module. Eggplant can be
grown with plastic mulch. It is best to provide
individual stakes for eggplants for seed production
to prevent lodging.
2. Plant ‘okra’ around the area as trap plant for
leafhoppers.
3. Prune unproductive branches and leaves below
the lowest fruits. Allow three main branches.

151
types can be determined early based on leaf
for the next cycle.
6. Rogue off-types if the lot is relatively pure or
just select the best plants as sources of stock
seeds.
7. Harvest first fruits as vegetable to prolong the
life of the plants.
8. When the fruits are turning yellow, harvest for
seeds.
Seed Processing
1. Allow further maturation for 2–4 weeks after

harvesting.
2. Beat the fruits and roll them with hands or
under the feet to facilitate seed extraction.
3. Extract seeds in water. Retain only the non-
floaters and discard the floaters.
4. Place seeds in cheesecloth and run in tumble
drier or spinner.
5. Sun dry for 3–4 days (5–6 hours/day). Turn seeds
several times.
6. Store in cheesecloth and place inside a cool,
dehumidified room.
7. Label and store seeds properly.
Pepper Seed Production
• Start from OPV, hybrids, or even selected fruits

from the market.
• Variety - Sinagtala, Inokra, Matikas
1. There is wide variation in fruit size, shape, and

pungency.
2. Maintain an isolation distance of 200–400 m.
crop management module. Pepper can be grown
with plastic mulch. It is best grown with individual
stakes to prevent lodging.

152
types can be determined early based on growth
habit and fruit shape, color, and size.
for the next cycle.
8. Several diseases can be transmitted through
pepper seeds. The most important are bacterial
spot (caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis
[previously X. campestris] pv. vesicatoria) and
Fig. 15. diseases caused by tobamoviruses such as
Caging selected pepper plants.
pepper mild mottle virus, tobacco mosaic virus
(TMV), and tomato mosaic virus.
9. Cage selected plants with a net bag (Fig. 15).
Remove fruits and open flowers before caging.
10. Harvest fully ripe fruits from the selected plants.
Seed Processing
1. Allow further maturation for 2–4 weeks after

harvesting.
2. Cut the fruits and scrape out the seeds (Fig. 16).
3. Use rubber gloves or protect fingers to avoid skin
irritation.
4. Air dry the seeds. Do not dry in the sun. Use
partial shade.
Fig. 16.
Seed extraction in pepper.
Tomato Seed Production
• Variety - Start with OPV, hybrids or selected fruits

from the market.
• There is low outcrossing (2–5 %).
• Maintain isolation distance of 25–50 m.
• Fruits can be assumed to be self pollinated.
1. Even fruits sold in the market can be used.

crop management module. Tomato can be grown
with plastic mulch. It is best grown with trellis to
minimize fruit rotting. Prune unproductive vines
and leaves below the first fruit trusses.

153
types can be determined early based on growth
habit and fruit shape, color, and size.
for the next cycle.
5. Select best plants based on these characteristics:
• flowers early
• has resistance to bacterial wilt, tomato yellow
leaf curl virus, and late blight diseases
• fruits should be: firm, red, thick flesh, juicy,
round/pear/squash, with long shelf life
• has high yield
• heat tolerant
• has long harvest period
6. Harvest fully ripe fruits.
Seed Processing
1. After harvesting, allow fruits to ripen for

several days.
2. Seed extraction may be done either manually
or mechanically. To extract manually, it is best
to place the fruits in nylon bags (Fig. 17).
3. Crush the fruits by trampling .
4. Put the bags of crushed fruits into big plastic
containers and ferment to separate the gel
mass embedding the seeds. To hasten the
Fig. 17. fermentation process, put weights over the bags
Tomato fruits for seed extraction.
or keep the fruits submerged in the liquid fruit
mass. The time of fermentation depends upon
the ambient room temperature. If temperature is
above 25ºC, 1 day of fermentation may be
sufficient (Figs. 18 and 19).
5. Put the seeds in an open plastic container.
Then, fill up the container with water and stir
the seeds to allow the pieces of flesh and skin
sticking on the seeds to float.
6. Incline the container and gently remove the
floating refuse, making sure that the seeds
Fig. 18. remain at the bottom.
Tomato seeds for fermentation.
7. Wash the seeds several times, adding fresh
water to the container every time until all the
flesh and gel are completely removed, leaving
clean seeds at the bottom.

154
8. Place the washed seeds in fine-mesh bags.
Excess water can be removed by hanging the
mesh bag with seeds in the shade for a day.
Or spin them in a washing machine. Use the
spin-cycle of a clothes washing machine. Do not
wash the seeds, only spin dry them.
9. After the excess water is removed, uniformly
spread the partially dried seeds on a flat plastic
container or aluminium pan. Loosen any clumps
Fig. 19. of seeds. Enclose this container with the seeds
Fermented tomato seeds. into a net nylon bag.

155
Evaluation:
Submit a seed production plan that will be implemented in your institution or farm.
This will include crop/variety to be produced, target production volume, area to be
planted, seed production system that will be done from planting to seed storage.

156
References:
Adam, K.L. Seed production and variety development for organic systems. National Center
for Appropriate Technology, 2005.
Cormack, J. Seed processing and storage, 2004.
Chen, N.C. Eggplant seed production. AVRDC Training Guide, 4p.
Fernandez, P.G. Organic seed: Implications for sustainable agriculture. In: Local Seed
Systems for Genetic Conservation and Sustainable Agriculture Sourcebook. Fernandez,
P.G.; Aquino, A.L.; de Guzman, L.E. P.; Mercado, M. F. O. (eds.). College, Laguna: UPLB,
2002.
Kaufman, E.R. Organic seed treatment notes.
The International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) and Organic Seed Production. 4p.
http://journeytoforever.org/seeds.html
Shinohara, S. Vegetable seed production technology of Japan, elucidated with respective
variety development histories, particulars. Vol. II. Tokyo, Japan: Shinohara’s Authorized
Agricultural Consulting Engineer Office, 1989.

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3.3 Seedling Production for Vegetables
Jacqueline Haessig Alleje and Lourdes G. de Villa
Significance: An important aspect in crop production is the

production of healthy seedlings or planting material
to ensure healthy growth and resistance against
pests and diseases. There is relatively little
information about efficient seed production to
guarantee a continuous supply. An analysis of
production cost is also lacking, despite the fact
that seeds and seedlings are important cost factors
and components in production planning. For some
organic farms, the continuity of supply is the most
crucial factor to determine the economic viability
of the farm. This is mostly the case for intensive
high value crops for the fresh market, where small-
and medium- scale farms are part of a value chain
that supplies fresh markets, supermarkets and
institutional buyers.
Seed quality will determine the outcome of the
seedling production as much as the soil medium,
the treatment of the seedlings, and the environment.
Farmers will have to strictly record their activities
in seedling production to establish their seedling
production protocol.
Organic standards usually require the use of
organic seeds. However, conventionally produced,
untreated seeds can be used if organic seeds are not
available. In the Philippines, the Philippine National
Standards and the OCCP Standards, have clear
exceptions on the rule for mandatory organic seed
use.
Description: This module discusses the materials and

procedures in growing high-value vegetable
seedlings. The production protocol described below
is a product of the organic vegetable production
employed by Rizal Dairy Farms in 1994, and further
developed by Organic Farming, Inc., an organic
model farm in Barangay Tinurik, Tanauan City and

158
other farms, where Organic Farming Inc. serves as
technology provider and consultant.
Objectives: At the end of this module, learners are expected

to:
1. enumerate the materials used for seedling

production;
2. formulate mixes of medium for the seedling
trays; and
3. follow the procedure in seedling production
for selected vegetables.
Learning Approaches: Lecture/discussion; farm visit; and on-farm practice
Specific Strategies: Through lectures, participants will be oriented on

the basics of seedling production. They will visit an
organic farm nursery and will be asked to sow seeds
in seedling trays with different planting media. While
doing this field exercise, discussions between the
participants and the facilitators will be encouraged.
Estimated Duration: Half day to whole day including field exercise
Evaluation Plan: Participants’ understanding of the procedure and

application of the required skills will be tested by
engaging them in a field exercise. This is to check
if the procedure for seedling production has been
followed properly and if they have introduced some
innovations in the procedure.
A self-test can be administered individually for
review purposes only.

159
Introduction Some crops are directly sown in plots or field,
while others are seeded in seedling trays or any
appropriate containers to be grown in specifically
prepared medium for the germination and initial
growth before transplanting into plots or field (Fig. 1).
In seedling production, it is advisable to establish
a plant nursery area. Examples of vegetables
germinated in seedling trays or containers are bell
pepper, broccoli, cauliflower, cucumber, eggplant,
lettuce and other salad vegetables such as arugula
(roquet), pakchoi, pechay, and tomato.
Fig. 1.
Seedling production in seedling trays.
General Considerations Seedling Trays
This production protocol suggests the use of

seedling trays that are available from agri-suppliers,
mostly imported. This may seem an unsustainable
practice since the trays are made from plastic and
recycled containers can be used instead.
Advantages
The holes are standard in size and can be chosen
appropriately according to seedlings produced.
They allow an equal (standardized) environment for
each seed to grow with regards to water absorption,
nutrient absorption, and root formation, which will
eventually result in healthy seedlings of equal size.
Disadvantages
Seedling trays are petroleum-based plastic
products, which are potential polluters if not properly
disposed of. They also pose additional costs to the
producer. These added costs, however, would be
recovered by the quality of the seedlings and the
efficiency of the process.
Alternatives
Farmers may choose to produce the seedlings in
any suitable recycled containers such as electric fan,
baskets, plastic containers perforated at bottom, and
basket made from chicken wire.

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Medium
In Batangas, coco coir dust and rice hull are

easily available. These media allow good root
formation. The fibers are mixed with compost to
assure sufficient supply of nutrients for healthy
seedlings production. However, farmers may want
to try other easily available materials.
Sterilization of medium
Rather than using the technique of sterilization,
which is labor intensive and sometimes disruptive
in the production cycle, the potting medium can be
treated with IMO to avoid growth of pathogens.
Source of nitrogen
Seaweed-based foliar can be a good source
of nitrogen, but other sources of foliar sprays that
provide nitrogen may be used.
How to Produce Healthy Materials Used for Seedling Production

Seedlings with Minimum
Mortality Rate • Seedling trays:
- For green leafy vegetables such as lettuce,
pakchoi, and arugula: seedling tray with
60 holes will be used for seed sowing; tray
with 104 holes will be used for pricking
- For solanaceous such as tomato and
eggplant: tray with 60 or 104 holes
• Recycled containers such as: styrofoam and other
perforated containers
• Seedling medium (coco coir dust, carbonized rice
hull, compost, and soil)
• Knapsack or hand sprayer
Care of Materials Used for Seedling Production
Proper care and maintenance should be applied

to all equipment to ensure that they will last and to
avoid wastage.
After transplanting, remove the medium left on
trays. Wash trays with water and keep in dry place
protected from direct sunlight for future use.

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Knapsack sprayer should be regularly cleaned
with water and soap to avoid clogging.
Preparation of the Medium for Seedling Trays
There are different medium compositions or

mixtures (Fig. 2). The following are examples:
Mixture 1: 60% coco coir dust, 20% carbonized rice

Fig. 2. hull and 20% compost
Medium preparation for seedling Mixture 2: 50% coco coir dust, 10% soil, 20%
production.
carbonized rice hull, and 20% compost
Procedure Lettuce, Arugula, and Pakchoi
1. In a 60-hole tray filled with the medium

described above or any other medium chosen,
place about 30 seeds per hole.
2. Water, then using popsicle sticks as labels, put
the variety and date of seed sowing.
Record this information in the farm
production forms or ledger as well.
3. Water everyday.
4. Prepare the same planting medium and fill the
104-hole seedling tray. When the first two leaves
appear in plants in the 60-hole trays, prick the
seedlings and put one seedling per hole in the
104-hole tray.
5. To improve growth and health of seedlings,
spray them once a week with a seaweed-based
foliar fertilizer or with fermented plant juice (FPJ)
until ready for transplanting.
6. The size of the seedling will determine the time
of transplanting to plots. Since the growth of
the seedlings is not uniform during the different
seasons, their days in the seedling trays
differ from season to season, and sometimes
according to the preference of the farmers.

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Bell Pepper, Broccoli, Cabbage, Cauliflower,
Cucumber, Eggplant, and Tomato
For these vegetables, the same medium

combination can be used in seedlings trays with
104 holes. Place one seed per hole. No pricking is
done. Observe the same care of the seedlings as
for green leafy vegetables. Seedlings are
transplanted 21 days after sowing. The 21 days
are indicative and have to be adjusted according to
the preference of producers, and will depend on
seasonal and weather conditions.
Note: If a 20% seedling mortality is projected,

it may be advisable to seed out 20% more of the
required quantity. This will make up for seeds, which
will not germinate, or seedlings, which will not
survive. This is important when specific production
targets have to be met.
Estimated number of days after sowing until

ready for transplanting
No. of Days
Before Planting
Crop Transplanting Distance
Lettuce 21 30 cm x 30 cm
Pakchoi 21 30 cm x 30 cm
Arugula 21 30 cm x 30 cm
Cabbage 21 50–60 cm x 50–60 cm
Cauliflower 21 50–60 cm x 50–60 cm
Cucumber 21–24 80 cm–1 m x 80 cm–1 m
Eggplant 21 80 cm x 80 cm
Tomato 21 60–80 cm x 60–80 cm
Establishing a Nursery Area Plant nurseries, provide intensive care and

protection to seedlings in order to reach maximum
germination and to avoid or lessen the mortality of
seedlings.
Construction Materials for Nurseries
Plant nurseries can be established with simple

materials such as bamboo poles, wooden posts,

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or more sturdy material such as steel posts. The
roofing should ideally be made of UV plastic to control
rainwater and excessive sunlight. Sometimes a
shading curtain can be mounted to avoid excessive
sunlight in the hot season, but this is mostly required
for ornamental more than for vegetable crops.
Floor of Nursery
The nursery floor may be covered with gravel,

sawdust, stepping stones or any other suitable
material to avoid mud build up.
Cleanliness
Nurseries should be kept clean. Flowers and

shrubs may be planted to maintain a healthy
biodiversity, but the plants must not shade of the
sides of the nursery.
Design of Nursery
The nursery design may vary. Farmers may use

the tunnel type or the ’kubo’ type. Some farmers
use a corner in their existing protective production
structures such as greenhouses, planting tunnels.
The size and design will depend on the production
volume and initial available capital. If the net of
the nursery area is not a fine-mesh net, or cannot
be completely sealed off, it is advisable to mount
additional nets around the seedling tables for
additional protection. This provides additional
protection against lepidopterous insects such as
the diamondback moth in crucifers.
Production Cost
Seedling production is an important cost factor

in the crop production cycle as seeds are usually
expensive if bought outside , and/or labor intensive if
produced at the farm. The maintenance of a nursery,
the materials, water, and labor are cost factors in
seedling production that need to be recorded and
evaluated for production cost analysis.

164
Transplanting While the seedlings grow in the nursery area,
the plots are being prepared for transplanting. There
are different practices, ways, and means to prepare
plots. Some favor double digging methods, others
simply add organic fertilizer/compost just before
planting or a few days before planting. Some methods
suggest indigenous microorganism (IMO) application,
5–7 days before planting to create a positive
environment with high microbial activity.
Transplanting seedlings should be done in the
afternoon to avoid heat stress. Water immediately
after transplanting. It is recommended to use
organic material as mulch such as coco fiber, rice
straw, and grass cuttings. If rice hull will be used,
it should be sprayed with FPJ and allowed to rest
for 7 days before applying it to the plots. Spread/
spray the rice hull before transplanting the seedlings
or gather mulching material around the seedlings
after transplanting. Method of application will
depend on crops and materials used.
Benefits of Mulching Mulching gives the following benefits:
• Improves soil moisture retention, which lowers

the water requirement, especially during summer
months where water is a limiting factor in some
areas.
• Protects the soil against direct exposure
from sunlight, which in turn protects the soil
microorganism for improved multiplication and
activity that is crucial for the plants’ nutrient
uptake.
• Prevents and slows down growth of weeds.
• Keeps leafy vegetables clean, which will later
require less washing after harvest.
• Adds organic matter to the soil through slow
disintegration of the mulching material. This
improves soil structure for enhanced balance of
water, air, and nutrients, which are essential for
good crop growth.

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SELF-TEST
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using seedling trays?
2. What are possible planting media that can be used in seedling trays?
3. What are some possible combinations in planting media?
4. What can be applied to improve growth of seedlings of lettuce, arugula and pakchoi?
5. What is a plant nursery? What materials can be used in its construction?
6. How is the vegetable plot prepared before transplanting the seedlings?
7. What are the practices applied in transplanting seedlings?
8. What are some mulching materials?
9. What are the benefits of mulching?
Field Exercise:
Visit an organic farm nursery. Sow seeds in seedling trays with different planting media.
Follow the procedure learned for seedling production.
Discussion Questions during the Field Exercise:
1. Did you follow the procedure for seedling production?
2. What innovations did you introduce in the procedure?
3. Why did you modify the procedure?

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3.4. Organic Tropical Vegetable Production
Nenita E. Dela Cruz
Significance: Tropical vegetable production technologies

followed by most growers are generally chemical-
based. As such, the possibility of pesticide residue
accumulation in the products is very high, posing
big threat to human health. This is evident by the
occurrence of dreaded human diseases caused by
eating vegetables that are bombarded with pesticides
and other chemical-based agricultural inputs.
Although consumers are aware of this fact, they
have limited choice when buying vegetables because
of limited if not absence of produce that are grown
pesticide-free or grown organically in the market.
Description: This module explains the basic concepts,

requirements, and economics of organic vegetable
production and the procedure in establishing an
organic tropical vegetable production farm.
Objectives: After completing this module, learners are

expected to:
1. discuss the basic concepts and requirements

in organic tropical vegetable production; and
2. enumerate the procedure in growing organic
tropical vegetables.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, hands-on exercises, group

exercises, field visits.
Specific Strategies: 1. Interactive discussions

2. Participants will be grouped according to crops
they want to grow
3. Actual exercises in growing organic tropical
vegetables in the field.
4. Group presentation on the results of their
production to be followed by an open discussion.

167
Material Requirements: Seeds and or seedlings, organic fertilizer, bio-
based pesticides, herbs and insect repellants
(plant based), small farm implements or gardening
materials, record books.
Estimated Time Frame: 2–3 days
Evaluation Plan: Pre- and post-test question and answer

168
What is organic vegetable farming?
Organic vegetable farming is a production

system that relies on biological processes and
natural materials to manage soil fertility and pest
populations and to promote healthy crop growth
(Fig. 1). Practitioners generally recognize it as a
method of production that uses practices or
substances, which are biologically enhancing to
the soil, plant life, animal and human consumers,
and growers. The principles include: replenishing
and maintaining long-term soil fertility by providing
optimal conditions for biological activity; producing
viable quantities of high quality, nutritious food and
feed; reducing or removing the use of fossil fuels
in agriculture and pollution that may result from
farming; and encouraging "closed cycle" farming
systems that use local resources and recycled
nutrients.
In organic vegetable production, management
strategies are selected to restore, maintain,
and enhance ecological harmony among the
components of the farming system. A common
misconception is that organic farming merely
involves the substitution of organic for mineral
fertilizers and biological and cultural pest
Fig. 1. controls for synthetic pesticides. However, the
Organic vegetable farming. misapplication of organic materials or pest control
strategies will effectively disrupt the function of
ecological and biological cycles and may lead to
detrimental outcomes (Lampkin 1990). To help
producers manage these natural cycles in a
proactive manner, an organic system plan or farm
plan must be prepared. The plan includes soil,
cropping pattern, and pest management strategies
unique to their operation. (see Farm Planning and
Record Keeping Module)

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Guides in Growing Organic Seedling Production
Tropical Vegetables
Organic tropical vegetable production system
has received attention and changes because of the
necessity to improve yield and vegetable quality.
One of the most important changes is seedling
production. In conventional vegetable production,
all seedlings used for transplanting are produced
in a seedbed right there in the field. But in organic
tropical vegetable production, seedlings are
specially grown using seedling trays. The method
provides uniform growth and ensures that the
harvest is more concentrated. Moreover, the seed
cost is very important in the decision to transplant.
Since seeds are very expensive, this method reduces
seed waste. As a producer says: “A good seedling is
50% of the production.”
Seedlings are usually grown in seedling trays
that range in size from 60 to 104, referring to the
number of holes or plants per tray. The larger the
number of cells per tray, the smaller each individual
cell is and the less time a seedling can grow in
that cell. The size of the tray to be used will
depend on what type of vegetable is to be grown
and the size the plants have to reach before they
need to be transplanted. Some vegetables grown
in trays need to be transplanted to larger cell packs
if the plants get too large for the smaller cell size,
which means additional labor cost.
Growth Media, Seed Sowing, and Care of Seedlings
Prepare seedling growth media by mixing fine

sand, organic fertilizer, and coconut coir dust at a ratio
of 1:1:1 by volume (Fig. 2). Other combinations that
Fig. 2. can be used are: 1) garden soil, organic fertilizer, and
Seedling growth media: 1 part sand,
1 part organic fertilizer, and
carbonized rice hull (2:1:1) and 2) ordinary farm soil
1 part coco coir dust. and organic fertilizer (1:2).
Put enough of the growth media in each hole
of the seedling tray and moisten with water. Sow
one to three seeds per hole. Seven days after seed
emergence, prick extra seedlings leaving only one
seedling per hole to ensure uniform seedling growth.

170
Maintain seedling growth by regularly watering
them every afternoon using sprinkler (Fig. 3).
Seedlings are ready for transplanting 10–15 days
after emergence.
Land Preparation
Before final land preparation, plant the surrounding

Fig. 3. area with plants to serve as insect repellant and
Water the seedlings. minimize insect occurrence and/or serve as sources
of biopesticides. This will ensure that insect repelling
plants are already at the peak of vegetation when
vegetable crops are at vegetative stage. Examples of
insect repelling plants are marigold, oregano, basil,
chichirica, zinnia, lantana, and other culinary herb
plants (Fig. 4).
Prepare plots (can be permanent or temporary
plots) with width of 1 m for leafy vegetables (‘pechay’
Fig. 4.
and lettuce) and 2.5 m for tomato and eggplant. The
Insect repelling plants, i.e., chichirica, plot length will depend on the preference of grower.
zinnia, and oregano. Till the land either by using hand hoe or small farm
implement until a good tilth is attained (Fig. 5).
Transplanting
Transplant one seedling per hill at proper plant

distance depending on the crop. Planting distance for
‘pechay,’ mustard, and lettuce is 20 cm between hills
and 25 cm between rows. For tomato and eggplant,
distance between hills is 60 cm; distance between
Fig. 5. rows is 100 cm. For other lowland vegetables,
Land preparation. planting distance is the same as in conventional
vegetable production (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6.
Transplanting seedlings.

171
Fertilizer Management
• Organic Solid Fertilizer as Base Fertilizer
- For leafy vegetables such as pechay, mustard,

upland ‘kangkong’ and lettuce, apply 200 g
compost/m2 (2 t/ha).
- If direct seeded, apply the fertilizer within the

row before seed sowing (Fig. 7).
- For transplanted seedlings, apply the organic

Fig. 7. compost in each hole at planting.
Applying fertilizer within the row
before seed sowing. - For pole sitao, apply 300 g/m2 (3 t/ha).
Apply the fertilizer in each hole at seed
sowing (Fig. 8).
- For fruit vegetables such as tomato, eggplant,

ampalaya, okra, squash, patola, apply
500 g/m2 (5 t/ha). Apply the fertilizer in each
hole at transplanting or seed sowing.
• Fermented plant juice (FPJ) and/or fish amino

acid (FAA) as supplement to organic solid
Fig. 8. compost (Fig. 9).
Applying fertilizer in each hole at
seed sowing.
FPJ extract is used to supplement nutrients in
solid organic fertilizer. It is necessary because of the
following reasons:
- Generally, solid organic fertilizers have

comparatively low nutrient content, so larger
volume is needed to provide enough nutrients
for crop growth.
- The nutrient release rate is too slow to meet
crop requirements in a short time; hence,
some nutrient deficiency may occur.
- Sufficient quantity of major plant nutrients
Fig. 9. may not exist in organic fertilizer to sustain
FPJ. maximum crop growth.
- The nutrient composition of compost is highly
variable; the cost is higher compared to
chemical fertilizers.

172
How to Use FPJ/Fermented Fruit Juice (FFJ)
1. Prepare 2% FPJ/FFJ solution by diluting

320 mL of the solution (approximately
10 cover full of knapsack sprayer) to water
in 16-L capacity knapsack sprayer.
2. Spray the solution directly to the plants early
in the morning or late in the afternoon and/or
directly to the soil by drenching.
Fig. 10. 3. Apply once a week or every 2 weeks starting
Spraying FPJ directly to the plants. at 2 weeks after transplanting or seedling
emergence up to fruiting stage.
Insect Pest Control
With biopesticidal plant as insect repellant, insect

infestation becomes very minimal. In case there is
high incidence of insect attack, plant juice from neem
tree leaves, jatropha, and other pesticidal plants are
extracted through fermentation and sprayed to the
plants at the rate of 5 cover full of knapsack sprayer
plant juice extract per 16-L water in knapsack sprayer.
Spray early in the morning or late in the afternoon.
Fig. 11. The use of physical barrier (tunnel type with nylon
Use of nylon net for insect pest
control. net) is recommended to prevent or minimize insect
occurrence (Fig. 11). Please see pest management
strategies in Module 3. For preparation of the plant
juice extracts, please refer to organic fertilizer
production module.
Trellising
Put trellis in each plant of fruit vegetables such as

tomato, eggplant, bitter gourd, cucumber, and the
Fig. 12. like, to avoid lodging and increase fruiting. Buho
Trellising and mulching. bamboo can be used as trellis (Fig. 12).

173
Weeding
Mulch the plots with black polyethylene

to minimize weed occurrence. This is optional
depending on weed occurrence and availability
of resources in the farm. Rice straw can be an
alternative to plastic mulch.
Control weeds by manual weeding or use of
small farm implement. To avoid spread of weed
seeds, do the weeding when the weeds are at
early vegetative stage. Do not let the weeds reach
its fruiting stage before uprooting to minimize
weed occurrence.
Fig. 13. Irrigation

Irrigation by furrow method.
Irrigate the area either by using a dripper system
whenever it is economical or by hand watering.
When shallow tube well is used as irrigation source,
irrigate by furrow method (Fig. 13).
Harvesting
Harvest the plants manually or by handpicking.

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SELF-TEST
Reviewing what you learned:
Direction: Check the box that corresponds to your answer.
1. Check the principles in organic vegetable farming.

o Replenishing and maintaining long-term fertility by providing optimal conditions
biological activity
o Producing viable quantities of high quality, nutritious foods and feed
o Reducing the use of fossil fuels in agriculture and pollution that may result from
farming
o Encouraging close cycle farming systems that use local resources and recycled
nutrients
2. Seedling in organic fertilizer production can be propagated using seedling tray. The
medium to be used is very important in attaining uniform growth. Check the materials
that can be used as growth medium:
o Fine sand o Organic fertilizer
o Ordinary soil o Coir dust
o Garden soil o Carbonized rice hull
3. The seedling growth medium is prepared by mixing the materials at a ratio of:
o 1:1:1 by volume or 2:1:1 by volume
o 1:1:1 by volume or 2:1:1 by weight
o 1:1:1 by weight or 2:1:1 by weight
o 1:1:1 by weight or 2:1:1 by volume
4. In successful organic vegetable production, pest control is very crucial. However,

chemical spraying is prohibited, thus insect attack can be minimized if not prevented
by planting the periphery with:

o Biopesticides
o Insect repelling plants
o Alternative host of the insects
o All of the above
5. Answer the following questions.

a. What is organic vegetable farming?
b. Why do you need to combine the application of solid organic fertilizer and foliar
organic fertilizer?
c. What is the purpose of trellising fruit vegetables like tomato, ‘ampalaya’, and others?

175
References:
ATTRA. Fundamentals of sustainable agriculture series. (National Sustainable Agriculture

Information Service), 1997–1999. http://www.attra.org/fundamental.html.
Dela Cruz, N.E.; Patricio, M.G.; Aganon, C.P.; Romero, S.; Lindain, S.A.; Galindez, J.L.
Production of organic fertilizer from solid waste and its utilization in intensive organic-
based vegetable production for sustaining soil health and productivity. Taiwan, ROC:
Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, 2006. - (Extension Bulletin EB 587.)
Gaskell, Mark. Soil fertility management for organic crops. University of California Division of
Agriculture and Natural Resources, publication 7249, 2000.

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3.5 Organic Production of Semi-temperate
Vegetables
Silvestre L. Kudan
Significance: The cool climate of the Cordillera, particularly

Benguet and Mountain Provinces, favors the
production of high quality vegetables such as
cabbage, potato, carrot, Chinese cabbage, ‘chayote,’
radish, lettuce, and others. However, the continuous
use of synthetic fertilizers, fresh chicken dung,
and pesticides for more than half a century created
problems in the soil, environment, human health,
and the profitability of vegetable production. The only
remedy to reverse these threats is to adopt organic
farming practices for long-term benefits.
Description: This module provides the steps in producing

semi-temperate vegetables following organic farming
practices, from seed production/selection, land
preparation up to marketing.
Objectives: After completing this module, learners should be

able to:
1. enumerate the cultural practices of growing

semi-temperate vegetables;
2. produce healthy vegetable seedlings as
planting materials;
3. produce leguminous seeds free of weevil
infestation during storage; and
4. produce vegetables following the organic
farming practices.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, demonstration/field practicum

177
Specific Strategies: 1. Discussion on the production of semi-temperate
vegetables.
2. Participants will be provided with plots to
perform all the cultural practices of growing
vegetables.
3. Visit organic farms in the locality.
Materials and Equipment Digging tools, watering cans, compost fertilizers, liquid
Requirement: biofertilizers, seedling trays, vegetable seeds, and
knapsack sprayer.
Evaluation Plan: Question and answer self-test, observing the

participants in the field.

178
Introduction Vegetable farming in the cool uplands in the
Cordillera, particularly in Benguet and Mountain
Province has been traditionally done following
mainly indigenous practices. Such practices are
usually consistent with organic farming principles. But
with the introduction of agrochemicals in the market,
farmers have shifted to chemical-based-farming
such that in the 1980s, about P185 million worth of
agriculture chemicals were used yearly in Benguet
alone. This situation resulted in severe degradation of
the soil and the environment.
In spite of the efforts of the Benguet State
University (BSU) to inform farmers about the
advantages and benefits of organic farming, farmers
still ask which chemicals to spray vegetables to
control the pests and diseases of vegetable crops.
Hence, there is an urgent need to go into
organic farming. BSU has started to advocate
organic farming and in 2005 declared itself as a
pro-organic university. Presently, many farmers are
starting to engage in organic production of semi-
temperate vegetables.
Production Practices Seed Production/Selection
The seeds of temperate vegetables such as

cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, Chinese cabbage,
carrot, and others, which require vernalization,
are difficult to produce in the Philippines. Thus,
farmers are entirely dependent on imported seeds.
However, seeds of leguminous crops such as snap
beans, garden pea, and lima beans are easy to
produce (Figs. 1 and 2). The pods for seed extraction
can be harvested from the base, middle, or top
portion of the vine (Kudan 1995).
Fig. 1. To avoid weevil infestation, a major problem
Snap bean about to be harvested in bean seeds during storage, harvest the pods
for seeds.
when they start to dry up. More weevils attack when
bean pods are left or allowed to dry in the plant
for 1–2 weeks (Tomas 1999).
‘Pechay’ seeds attain physiological maturity
38 days after silique set with maximum seed dry
weight. Siliques are yellowing and starting to

179
shrivel with the seeds that are already black. At
this period, germination rate is highest. The highest
percentage of normal seedlings is also attained.
In the Cordillera, planting crops for seed
production must be done towards the end of
October and early November. This will not only
produce higher yield, but there will also be enough
sun drying period in March. Dry seeds (7%
moisture content) are kept in airtight containers
such as jars, plastic, and tin cans and then stored
in a dry and cool room.
Due to the difficulty in producing seeds of
temperate vegetables under local conditions,
organically produced seeds may be obtained from
other accredited sources.
Land Preparation
• Clean the area intended for planting vegetable

seeds.
• Remove the weeds then prepare plots (1 m wide
and a length preferred by the grower). In La
Trinidad, Benguet, 1 m x 10 m plant beds are
usually prepared.
• Level the plots, then apply 2–4 kg compost
from animal manure and plant debris as
fertilizer base-dress. Mix the organic fertilizer
Fig. 2.
with the soil. Plots rich in organic matter do
Digging plots and mixing compost.
not require cultivation any more (Fig. 2).
Seedling Production and Transplanting
Vegetables that are directly planted in the

garden such as carrot, radish, sugar beet, snap
bean, garden pea, cucumber, and others need not
be established in nurseries (Fig. 3).
• Sow leafy vegetables such as the Brassicas,

lettuce, celery, and pepper in seedling trays.
This practice is more convenient compared
with growing the seedlings in seed boxes and
Fig. 3. seedbeds.
Seedling production in seedling
beds.

180
• To ensure healthy and vigorous seedlings,
sterilize the soil media on galvanized iron.
Then cool the media and place in the holes
(cells) of seedling trays. The soil media is a
mixture of one part compost, one part garden
soil, and one part rice hull.
• Transplant seedlings when they are 3–4 weeks
old. The seedlings are set on the plot with the
following spacing:
- Cabbage: 30 cm x 30 cm (double rows per

plot)
- Chinese cabbage: 30 cm x 30 cm (double
rows per plot)
- Broccoli: 35 cm x 35 cm (double rows per
plot)
- Cauliflower: 30 cm x 30 cm (double rows per
plot)
- Iceberg lettuce: 30 cm x 30 cm (double rows
per plot)
- Romaine lettuce: 15 cm x 15 cm (triple rows
per plot)
- Celery: 15 cm x 15 cm (triple rows per plot)
- Pepper: 40 cm x 40 cm (double rows per plot)
Direct Planting of Vegetables
For vegetables such as snap bean, peas, carrots,

radish, cucumber, and sugar beet, seeds are directly
planted in the plot with the following spacing:
• Snap beans and peas: 20 cm x 20 cm;

two seeds are planted per hill at a depth of
2.5 cm; double rows per plot.
• Cucumber: 30 cm x 30 cm; two seeds per
hill at a depth of 2.5 cm; double rows per plot.
• Sugar beet: 20 cm x 20 cm; one seed per hill
at a depth of 2.5 cm; triple rows per plot.
• Radish: 25 cm x 25 cm; double rows; two
seeds per hill at the depth of 1.5 cm.
• Carrot: 10 cm x 10 cm; 7 rows of plants;
2–3 seeds per hill at a depth of 1.5 cm.
• Spinach: 11 cm x 11 cm; 6 rows of plants;
one seed per hill at a depth of 2.5 cm.

181
Snap bean is a short-day plant so planting
should be from September to April for better yield.
On the other hand, spinach, carrot, radish, and
sugar beet are classified as long-day plants, which
elongate and flower when planted in May.
Irrigation
After planting the seeds or transplanting the

seedlings, water the plots (64 L in four watering
Fig. 4. cans) every 3 days or twice a week (Fig. 4). Fruit
Bucket overhead irrigation vegetables such as pepper, cucumber, snap beans,
in cabbage. and garden pea require adequate water supply during
flower initiation to fruit development. Seasons and soil
types affect the interval of irrigation. Less irrigation
is required during rainy season. When the soil is
sandy, more frequent irrigation is needed than in
loam soil. Use clean water in watering the plants.
Thinning the Plants
Uproot or remove other plants and leave only

one plant per hill in the production of carrot,
radish, and sugar beet. This thinning is done
2–3 weeks after seedling emergence, when the
weak and abnormal seedlings can be distinguished.
Fertilizer Application
Beans and peas, being leguminous crops,

consume the least nutrient. But the basal application
of fertilizer (compost) during land preparation is not
enough. The indigenous practice of cutting fresh
sunflower leaves from the surrounding of the garden
and placing them in between rows of plants to
decompose for 2 weeks can be done. Place animal
manure and sunflower leaves in sacks then place the
sacks in a drum filled with water. After 2–3 weeks,
the water extract called compost tea is used to
irrigate the plants. The availability of organic
liquid biofertilizers can make fertilizer application
easier.

182
There are procedures in making FPJ, FFJ, and FAA that
farmers can follow.
Hilling-up
Hilling-up is the practice of raising the soil

from the canal in between plots using grub
hoe. Hilling-up may not be done in plots of leafy
vegetables such as spinach and lettuce, which can
be harvested in a short time.
However, practice hilling-up in carrot, radish,
sugar beet, and other vegetables to cover the roots
with soil to prevent discoloration due to sunlight
exposure. Hilling-up is an effective weed control and a
way of fixing the plot to minimize water run-off during
overhead watering (using a bucket) and to anchor
the plants. Hilling-up is done 1 month after seedling
emergence in carrot. For the other vegetables, hilling-
up is done 2–3 weeks after planting the seedlings.
Trellising
Immediately after hilling-up, provide trellis to

the snap bean, garden pea, cucumber, and other twining
or trailing crops. Put sticks interwoven diagonally
(fence type) at the middle of each plot (Fig. 5).
In garden pea, bind the vines with plastic twine
Fig. 5.
Fence-type trellising.
when they are about 20 cm high to train them
to follow the trellis. The vine may be tied four to
six times along the trellis, depending on the crop’s
height. Allowing the vines to creep or bend from
the trellis will reduce yield.
Crop Protection
Crop protection is a serious concern for

vegetable growers who are hesitant to follow
organic farming practices. Sucking insects such
as aphids, white fly, thrips and leaf miner may
seriously affect growth and yield. Fusarium wilt,
bacterial wilt, and mildews are major diseases
during dry season. In Brassicas, diamond-back moth
and club root are the major problems.

183
Many options are available to minimize the
pests. The practice of crop rotation can prevent
the build up of diseases in the garden. Club root
disease in Brassicas in the Cordilleras is widespread
because of the practice of growing cabbage,
Chinese cabbage, and radish every planting season
coupled with the continuous application of synthetic
fertilizers. This practice has made the soil acidic,
which is favorable to disease growth.
Biological control is very effective in insect
control. The use of Diadegma against the diamond-
back moth of cabbage is a good alternative to
insecticides. There are predators of the leaf miner
and spider mites, but they cannot multiply to effectively
control the pests (Fig. 6). The pests outnumber
these beneficial insects when farmers continuously
apply insecticides. The use of yellow sticky trap is
Fig. 6. a very cheap method in controlling leaf miner. This
Frogs and ladybug predators. was used in early 2000 in Benguet when farmers
almost gave up planting potato due to the pest
infestation.
Prepare a yellow sticky trap by putting a
yellow plastic plate inside a transparent plastic
bag (Fig. 7). Brush a sticky substance (as grease)
on the transparent plastic bag and hang above the
plants. Replace the plastic bag when covered by
adult leaf miners stuck to the sticky substance.
Field sanitation is also an effective disease
control. Remove any infected plant or plant parts,
burn or bury them well. Removing the diseased
plants and disposing them in the field is not good
Fig. 7. because the pathogen may live in the soil from
Adult insects stuck on a trap 2 to 12 years.
using sticky substance.
(Integrate in the crop protection strategies the

spiritual aspect because Amos 4:9 says, “Many
times I struck your gardens and vineyards, I
struck them with blight and mildew. Locusts
devoured your fig and olive trees, yet you have
not returned to me,” declares the Lord).

184
Harvesting (Fig. 8)
Vegetables differ in their maturity periods. The

premium quality is attained when the vegetable is
harvested at the right stage of maturity. Harvest
the head-forming vegetables such as cabbage and
Chinese cabbage when their heads become firm.
Cut the heads with a sharp knife. Harvest carrots
3.5–4 months from planting. Harvest snap bean
and garden pea pods when green mature
(16–17 days from pod set), then 3–4 days
Fig. 8.
Harvesting. thereafter. Harvest Romaine, pak choi, and Chinese
spinach 35- 40 days from planting. Harvest bell
peppers when they become firm and blue green.
Postharvest Handling
The quality of the vegetables at harvest can

only be maintained by proper postharvest handling.
• Washing – is done in carrots, radish, and

sugar beet to remove the dirt and expose the
attractive skin of the produce.
• Trimming – is done in leafy vegetables to

remove the parts that are diseased and in
carrots and radish to remove the leaves
(Fig. 8).
• Packaging – The cleaned vegetables are

Fig. 9. packed in plastic crates that can protect the
Plastic crates for packing produce from damage during transport to
vegetables.
market (Fig. 9).
Marketing
Marketing of organically produced vegetables

in the Cordillera is handled by cooperatives. One
of these cooperatives is the La Trinidad Organic
Practitioners Multipurpose Cooperative (LaTOP-MPC)
that has a stall at the La Trinidad public market,
5 km from La Trinidad, Benguet. The cooperative
only sells the vegetables produced by its members.

185
At the marketing center of BSU, an organic corner
is provided for selling organically produced
vegetables of BSU employees and non-BSU
employees (Fig. 10). It is expected that as more people
will join the group of organic vegetable producers, the
market will also find its place in different population
centers.
Fig. 10.
BSU organic market.

186
SELF-TEST
Direction: Answer the following:
1. What are some tips in the production of organic vegetable seeds in CAR?
a.
b.
c.
2. In general, how is production area prepared?
3. What is the recommended soil media for seedling production?
4. What is the recommended plot size for the following crops?

a. cabbage
b. broccoli
c. Iceberg lettuce
5. What are some vegetables that can be directly planted?
6. In general, what is the irrigation rate and frequency for organic vegetables?
7. What are the practices followed in applying fertilizers to organic vegetables?
8. What are some of the important pests in organic vegetable farms?
Insect Pests
a.
b.
c.
Diseases
a.
b.
c.
9. What are some practices that can control insect pests and diseases of organic
vegetable crops?
10. What are some postharvest handling practices needed to maintain the quality of
organic vegetables?

187
References:
Colbong, Y.G. The effect of planting distance on the growth and yield of radish.
Unpublished BS Thesis. La Trinidad, Benguet: MSAC, 1985. 46p.
Kudan, S.L. Performance of snap bean as influenced by seeds from different plant
portions and pod maturity stages. Unpublished MS Thesis. La Trinidad, Benguet:
Benguet State University, 1989. 139p.
__________. Snap bean and garden pea production. La Trinidad, Benguet:
Benguet State University, 1999. 8p.
__________. Lettuce production. La Trinidad, Benguet: Benguet State University, 1999.
8p.
__________. Pepper production. La Trinidad, Benguet: Benguet State University, 2000.
5p.
__________. Celery production. La Trinidad, Benguet: Benguet State University, 2000. 7p.
__________. Chinese cabbage production. La Trinidad, Benguet: Benguet State
University, 2000. 7p.
__________. Carrot production technoguide. Benguet State University, La Trinidad,
Benguet, 2005. 15p.
Malinias, R.L. Sequence of seed development and effect of water stress on garden pea
seed production. Unpublished BS Thesis. La Trinidad, Benguet: Benguet State
Tomas, L.S. Effect of pod ripening duration on weevil infestation of stored seed of bush
bean cv. green crop. Unpublished BS Thesis. La Trinidad, Benguet: Benguet State

188
3.6 Organic Sugarcane Production
Analyn G. Escanes and Julie Ann M. Gepielago
Significance: Sugarcane is a major source of sugar for most

countries. The demand for organic sugar has
necessitated the production of organic sugarcane for
processing. It is an approach that ensures safe and
healthy food for both consumers and producers.
Description: This module explains the cultural management

practices required for organic sugarcane production
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, learners are expected

to:
1. understand the relevance of sugarcane growth

stages in making cultural management decisions;
2. enumerate important factors in selecting varieties
for organic sugarcane production;
3. know the right type and amount of organic
fertilizer needed by sugarcane crop;
4. give examples of diversification strategies for
organic sugarcane production; and
5. identify at least three important considerations
in performing each of the major cultural
management practices involved in sugarcane
production (from variety selection up to harvest
and postharvest operation).
Learning Approaches: Lecture - discussion, farm visits
Specific Strategies: • Lecture/discussions

• Farmer’s Field Schools
• Field trip
• Lectures and discussion will be held mostly on-
site (field planted with sugarcane)
• Field trip to organic sugarcane production area
to show concrete strategies employed by other
farmers

189
Materials and Equipment: Field planted with sugarcane
refractometer
Estimated Time Frame: One day
Evaluation Plan: Self-test at the end of this module

190
Introduction Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) is a
perennial crop described as a giant tropical grass
with high self-tolerance. It is best suited in regions
with pronounced wet and dry seasons due to its
requirement for high moisture for growth and other
specific climatic requirement for ripening.
Sugarcane is a major source of sugar for many
countries. Important producing countries of organic
sugarcane are currently Brazil, Paraguay, Philippines,
USA, Mauritius, and the Dominican Republic.
Sugarcane Plant Sugarcane undergoes the following stages of

growth:
• Bud Germination - usually takes place 1–

1½ months after planting. At this stage, it
needs warm temperature, sufficient moisture,
and long days for proper development
• Tillering - takes place within 2–4 months. This
stage is critical in determining the sucrose
content of the plant at harvest time
• Stalk elongation - takes place within
5–8 months after planting and greatly affects
tonnage
• Ripening of stalks - occurs at 9–12 months
wherein sugar is accumulated and growth is
limited
The climatic requirements in the 1st and 3rd

stages ensure high tonnage while the last stage
ensures increase in sugar content.
Variety and Planting Material Variety Selection
Recommended varieties for organic sugarcane

production are those adapted to the prevalent
climatic conditions on site. It is important to know
their characteristics and appropriateness to the
site. Planting materials must come from organic
fields. In the absence of “organic” planting materials,
conventional planting materials may be used but
these must not be chemically treated or genetically
manipulated.

191
In selecting the variety, consider the following:
• Sucrose content – average- to high-sucrose

canes should be planted during dry months
and should be harvested in not less than
12 months
• Tonnage – High tonnage of average- to high-
sucrose canes should be planted during dry
months and should be harvested not exceeding
12 months
• Degree of flowering – flowering canes with
high sucrose content should be planted during
early milling season (September–December)
and should be harvested not less than
12 months
• Growth habit – fast growing, good germinator,
and drought-tolerant canes should be planted
during dry months (Mar-May) and should be
harvested 10–12 months after planting
Planting Materials
Planting materials are usually taken from cane

plants in nurseries (cutback from 5- to 6-month old
cane plants) or in the field during harvesting (top
points or young tops from 9- to 11-month old/mature
canes). The quality of seed pieces influences the
germination and development of the sugarcane plant.
Careful selection and consideration must be taken.
The seed pieces must have the following
characteristics:
• With at least three viable buds, with firm

tissue and well developed internode cutbacks
• Avoid setts with dark buds since these are
old setts
• Should not contain growing point or ‘ubod’
• Should not be more than 4 days old after
cutting
• Taken from pest- or disease-free stalks/ fields;
• Has no mechanical damage, i.e., cracks, splits

192
Land Preparation Practices
Sugarcane is a deep-rooted crop, with roots

extending up to 1 m deep. It is important to have
adequate land preparation for maximum productivity.
Proper land preparation provides favorable soil
condition for maximum and rapid germination of
sugarcane seed pieces or cuttings. It improves
aeration of the soils and water holding capacity and
minimizes weed population (Table 1).
Table 1. Land preparation practices according to soil type.
Activity Sandy Soils Clayey Soils
Plowing 1 pass of disc plow 2 passes of disc plow

with 8–12-inch with 8–12 inch-
depth depth
Harrowing 2 passes 2 passes
Furrowing Furrower with Furrower with
8–12-inch depth 8–12 inch-depth
Planting
Treatment of Planting Materials
Generally, treatment of cane points or seed pieces

prior to planting is not done. However, to ensure
high germination rate and to control occurrence
of diseases in the planting materials, consider the
following preparations prior to planting:
• If there is disease in the area, practice heat

treatment. Use hot water or hot steam air
to control viral disease such as sugarcane
mosaic as well as bacterial diseases. Treat
seed pieces in hot water at 50°–51°C for
2 hours.
• If moisture in the soil is not enough, soak
seed pieces in water to hasten germination.
Soak cane points in running water to absorb
moisture for about 12–48 hours before
planting in the field.

193
Planting
Plant 3–4 seeds per meter in furrows that are

1 meter apart (Fig. 1). A planting depth of 25–
27 cm is reported to give higher germination and
sugar yields. Generally, cane points are planted in a
slanting orientation. But it was reported that
horizontal planting allows for uniform germination,
shooting and maturation as well as development
Fig. 1. of stronger sett and shoot roots and delay floating
Planting of cane points stubbles.
in 1-meter furrows
Nutrient Management Maintaining Soil Fertility
Replenishing the supply of essential nutrients in the

soil is very important given that the soil is degraded
and continuously being depleted of nutrients. Hence,
the crop must be adequately provided with nutrients
especially in newly established organic plantations
(Table 2). Planting of legumes, trashes mulching,
and application of organic fertilizers are among the
measures to help maintain soil fertility and eventually
meet the nutrient requirements for sugarcane growth
and development.
Nutrient needs of the crop are determined by
analysis of the available nutrients in the soil. When
calculating for the amount of organic fertilizers
to apply, consider that large amounts of harvest
residues remain in the fields and legumes are already
integrated in the cultivation system.
Apply organic fertilizer during land preparation or
after planting. Table 3 shows the different sources of
materials for organic fertilizer.
As a rule though, organic fertilizer applied must
not exceed 20% of the requirement or 180 kg N
per ha/year and 60 kg P2O5 per ha/year. Animal
manure must not come from large-scale/ intensive/
conventional livestock farms.
Apply lime in soils where soil pH is relatively low
to neutralize soil acidity and allow optimum soil
microbial activity. Spread the lime and incorporate it
in the field before plowing or in furrows after planting
or stubble shaving.

194
Table 2. Importance of nutrient elements and their effects on plant if
deficient.
Nutrient Effect of
Element Importance Deficiency
Nitrogen Essential for vegetative Shortens maturity

growth Low tonnage
Responsible for high cane Good juice quality
tonnage
Phosphorus Induces normal root growth Narrower and shorter
and development leaves
Stimulates initial tillering Poor stooling and rooting
and development of Shortening of internodes
primary shoots
Potassium
Improves sugar content Retardation of growth
Increases resistance Die back of leaves
to pest and diseases Development of slender
stalks
Table 3. Nutrient contents of organic materials.

Organic Material N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%)
Plant Residues
Rice straw 1.00 0.60 3.00
Rice hull ash 0.27 0.93 1.93
Ipil-ipil leaves 3.57 0.22 2.02
Cane trash 0.75 1.00 1.40
Azolla 3.11 2.24 1.05

Sugar Mill By-Products
Bagasse 0.56 0.39 0.23
Mudpress 0.90 1.61 0.64
Molasses 0.94 0.09 2.42
Mill ash 0.02 4.52 8.00
Manures
Guano 8.50 5.00 1.50
Carabao manure 1.34 1.54 1.59
Goat manure 1.35 0.96
Chicken manure 2.80 2.35 1.50
Cattle manure 1.97 1.50 2.00
Pig manure 1.00 0.50 0.50
Earthworm castings 0.87 1.29 0.38
Source: SRA, 2005.

195
Weed Management Weed Management
and Cultivation
Cultivate to loosen the soil, facilitate drainage,
cover the soil applied with fertilizer, and control the
growth and establishment of weeds.
In organic sugarcane cultivation, the following
methods help control weeds:
• Competitiveness of the sugarcane variety. It is

high tillering and fast growing.
• Cover cropping or trash mulching
• Intercropping
• Mechanical or hand weeding
• Maintenance of complete crop stand
The period in which sugarcane is very sensitive

to weed competition is the first 3–4 months from
planting. This is the period where the root system and
leaf canopy are developing. At this time, minimize
the presence of weeds to promote absorption of
nutrients and water and emergence and formation of
tillers. Once the root system is well developed and
the canopy closes in between rows, sugarcane can
compete aggressively with the most noxious weeds.
Cultivation Practices
The most common cultivation practices used are

ridge busting and alternate off-barring and hilling up.
• Ridge busting - 3–4 weeks after planting

• Off barring - 6–7 weeks after planting
• Hilling up - 3–4 months after planting
Irrigation and Drainage Irrigation
Sugarcane is made up of 80% water, which is

essential to its growth. Common sources of irrigation
water are rivers, reservoirs, and springs. These
water sources are very critical to organic sugarcane
production because most of them are contaminated
by chemical inputs from adjacent conventionally
farmed fields. Do not use contaminated irrigation
water in fields for organic production.

196
Drainage
Also, consider the drainage systems in the

farm, since the Philippines has high rainfall intensity
during certain months of the year. Removal of
excess water is as important as acquiring irrigation
water. The occasional and seasonal heavy
rains cause saturation and bring water table to
undesirable levels, erosion on bare and newly
planted fields, and even flooding. Situations like
these can be avoided through proper drainage
systems that can handle the most critical volume
of excess water. Common drainage systems are
composed of ditches strategically located and
constructed in the fields. Size and shape of drainage
systems depend on the topography, catchment
areas, rainfall intensity, and time required to remove
run-off.
Pest and Disease Pests

Management
Diseases, insect pests, mites, nematodes, and
rats are major constraints in sugarcane production.
Their outbreak is often the principal factor that
inflicts sizable damage, which alters the production
level. Under unfavorable conditions, sugarcane
becomes infected/infested/damaged by these pests
for the following reasons:
• Unsuitable farm site

• Degenerated soil
• Not appropriate planting method
• Poor variety selected
The following is a list of the most important

pests and diseases on sugarcane.
Stem borer
• Tetramoera schistacaena or gray borer
• Sesamia inferens or pink borer
• Chilotra infuscatellus or striped borer

197
Nature of Damage
• Attacks young canes, 1–4 months after planting.
• Bores into and feeds upon the growing point.
• Affected tiller does not develop into stalks that
can be milled.
• Causes 1.92 t/ha reduction in yield at 25%
infestation.
Control/Preventive Measures
• Apply five strips of Trichogramma per hectare.
Interval between the first four applications should
be 3 days. The last four applications should be
done weekly. The initial release of Trichogramma
is done at 1 ½ months after planting.
• Remove alternate hosts such as weeds and wild
canes (Saccharum spontaneum L.).
Army Worm
• Cirphis loreyi Dup
• Pale yellow or grayish pink larvae with two dark
broad lines running the length of the body.
Nature of Damage
• Defoliation of the canes with bare midribs
remaining.
• Severe infestation occurs at the onset of rainy
season.
• Causes 14% reduction in yield.
• Keep cane fields free from weeds all the time.
• Cultivate the affected fields by plowing to expose
the pupae to predators and parasites.
• Conserve beneficial predators or parasitoids of the
pest such as Telenomus sp.
White Grub
• Causal organism: Leucopholis irrorata Chevr.
• Commonly found in sandy, soft loam, volcanic ash
soils, and acidic soils.
Nature of Damage
• Young grubs feed on organic matter and root
system of the sugarcane.

198
• Collect beetles from host trees.
• Neutralize soil acidity by applying lime.
• Cultivate the sugarcane field thoroughly and
frequently.
• Do not ratoon infested fields. Plow fields
2–3 times to expose the grubs to predators.
Rodents
Nature of Damage
• Chews on portions of the internodes.
• Affected stalks decrease in weight due to
gnawed-out parts and gradual desiccation.
• Sanitize the fields by weeding or stubble cleaning.
• Dig and excavate burrows.
• Use varieties less preferred by rodents.
• Cultivate properly to minimize lodging.
Diseases
Smut (Causal organism: Ustilago scitaminae Syd.)
Symptoms and Nature of Damage

• Shoots develop thin, grass-like appearance.
• Growing point produces a long whip-like structure
containing black powdery mass of spores.
• Infected stools are stunted with slender and
wide-spaced stalks, many tillers, small and
narrow leaves, and grassy roots. Infected stools
eventually do not reach maturity.
• Remove and burn diseased stools.
• Select healthy planting materials and resistant
varieties.
• Avoid ratooning.

199
Downy Mildew
Causal organisms: Peronosclerospora sacchari (or

splitting type)
Peronosclerospora philippinensis (or non-splitting
type)

Splitting type
• Well-defined continuous chlorotic strips on the
leaf blade.
• Leaf shredding and abnormal elongation of
mildewed stalks (“jump up” stalks).
• Stunting.
Non-splitting type
• Whitish discoloration at the base of young
leaves.
• Mosaic type discoloration all over the leaf
blade of older leaves; no leaf shredding.
• Thin but not stunted stalks.
• 28% reduction in yield per hectare.
Control/ Preventive Measures

• Rogue diseased stools.
varieties.
• Avoid ratooning.
Leaf Scorch (Causal organism: Stagonospora

sacchari Lo and Ling)

• Small, red or reddish brown lesions or spots
on leaves that gradually elongate and become
spindle shape with a definite yellow halo.
• Spots coalesce extending along the vascular
bundles, become spindle-like, reddish-brown to
straw-colored, dark-red streaks.
• 26–33% reduction in yield per hectare.

200
Control/ Preventive Measures
• Burn the trashes in the field after harvest.
• Use resistant varieties.
Yellow Spot (Causal organism: Mycovellosiela kopkei

Kruger)

• Yellow spotting on the surface of the young
leaves.
• As the leaves mature, the spots increase in area
forming reddish patches, which at times cover the
entire leaf.
• Plants are generally rusty-yellow.
• In some instances, infected leaves dry
prematurely.
Control/ Preventive Measure

varieties.
Harvesting Harvesting Practices
Harvesting is one of the critical operations

in sugarcane farming. Improper and untimely
harvesting practices result in loss of tonnage and
sucrose content. There will be losses in capital
investment, time, and cost of land preparation,
planting, fertilization, irrigation, cultivation, and pest
control. Delay in harvesting also delays planting of
the succeeding crop.
To obtain the highest possible yield from
sugarcane, harvest the crop at maturity, when
tonnage and sucrose content are at the maximum.
On the 9th month after planting, conduct a pre-
milling test (PMT) to determine if the crop is ready
for harvesting. When the sucrose content reaches
18°Bx, the canes can already be harvested.
In manual harvesting, use cane knives or
machete. Cut canes close to the ground to maximize
tonnage and sucrose yield as well as to facilitate
stubble shaving in the succeeding ratoon. Remove
the top portion of the cane before piling and loading in

201
cane cars or trucks. Improper harvesting may result in
losses of 6.4–17.5 t/ha.
Place harvested canes and pile in the interrows in
the field. This would serve as mulch and eventually
as source of organic matter. Transport harvested
canes immediately to the mill after cutting to minimize
losses in tonnage and sucrose content. Burning of
fields is strictly prohibited.
Harvesting Index
Maturity of canes can be determined by the

following indices:
Factors Maturity Index
Chronological age 10–12 months

Morphological Uniform yellowing of leaves;
changes cane stalks turn yellow and
the internode at the terminal
portion shorten
Physiological Uniform and high Brix reading
changes of juice collected at the top,
middle and basal portion of
the cane stalk
Ratooning Ratooning is the growing of canes from stubbles of

previously harvested sugarcane plants (Fig. 2). It is a
cost reduction measure since there is no need to
prepare land, buy seed pieces, and plant. Ratooning
allows faster re-growth and shorter growing time
since the roots are already established. In the
Philippines, ratooning is practiced only up to the
2nd and 3rd ratoon because of generally lower yield
compared with the planted crop.
Steps in Ratooning
Fig. 2. • After harvest, pile trashes in the interrows or

Ratoon crop with trash mulch. along alternate interrows to allow cultivation and
permit early stubble shaving.

202
• Cut the exposed aboveground portion of the
stool or stubble. ‘Shave’ or remove them to
encourage tillers coming from the underground
buds. This is a critical ratoon establishing
operation, which should be done immediately
after trash farming.
• Replant missing hills when stool germination
is low. When missing hills are 10% or more,
replant to ensure good stand and so as not to
adversely affect yield. Do this after stubble
shaving and soon after the ratoon crop starts
to grow.
• After stubble shaving and off-barring, fertilize
the crop.
• Hill-up when the furrow slice is thrown at the
base of the plant, as soon as the leaf canopy
starts to close in. All other operations and
cultural management are consistent with the
planted crop
• Harvest a month or so ahead of the planted
crop because the ratoon crop ripens faster.
Diversification Strategies Diversified Sugarcane Production
Sugarcane is usually a monoculture crop that

is cultivated in a continuous area. However, it is
important to establish ecologically diversified areas
during the transformation of the farm into an organic
sugarcane production farm (Fig. 3). It is also difficult to
do crop rotation in sugarcane fields so measures
must be taken to replace crop rotation.
Strategies
• Less productive fields and corners that

are difficult to cultivate should be used for
improving the agroecosystem and planted
with connecting diverse hedges. These may
be planted with forest trees, fruit trees, and
Fig. 3. hedges that can be sources of income for the
Two-month old sugarcane farmers or community.
with peanut intercrop. • Green manuring or sowing of leguminous
plants after harvest can be done to improve

203
soil fertility. These may be incorporated in the
soil after 3 months during land preparation for
new sugarcane crop.
• Intercropping with legumes in between gaps
increases yield per unit area aside from
improving nitrogen content of the soil.
Example:
Mungbean - 2 seeds/10 cm or approximately
13 kg seeds/ha
Peanut - 2 seeds/ 20 cm or 50 kg seeds/ha
• Planting different vegetables and domesticating
livestock and other animals in designated areas
around the sugarcane field also increase the
productivity and diversity of the whole farm.

204
SELF-TEST
1. What is the importance of proper varietal selection?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
2. Enumerate characteristics of a good planting material/seed piece.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
3. List some strategies for nutrient management.

a.
b.
c.
4. What are the factors affecting cultivation and weed management?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
5. What must be considered in planning irrigation for sugarcane fields?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
6. Identify major pests and diseases of sugarcane and their corresponding preventive and
control measures
a.
b.
c.

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d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
7. What are the maturity indices that would determine readiness of sugarcane for harvest?
a.
b.
c.
8. What are the recommended practices in harvesting sugarcane?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
____________
9. How can diversity be achieved in sugarcane plantations?

_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
10. What are the factors that could affect production yield of sugarcane? Explain.
_________________________________________________________________
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________________________

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References:
A handbook on organic sugarcane growing. Bacolod City, Negros Occidental,

Philippines: Alter Trade Foundation, Inc., 2005.
Organic farming in the tropics and sub-tropics, Exemplary Description of 20 Crops:
Sugarcane. Naturland E.V. 1st edition. Grafelfing, Germany: kleinhaderner Weg 1, 2000.
Sugar Regulatory Administration. SRA-OPSI sugarcane farm management manual.
La Carlota City, Negros Occidental, Philippines: Sugar Regulatory Administration-
La Granja Agricultural Research and Extension Center (SRA-LGAREC), 2005.
Scheewe, W. Nurturing the soil, feeding the people: An introduction to sustainable
agriculture. Revised, updated and expanded edition, 2000.
Zamora, O.B.; Munsayac, Y.R.; Landicho, M. JDR; Resuello, RDC. Principles and practices of
sustainable agriculture. College, Laguna: CBCP-NASA and UPLB College of Agriculture.
141p.

207
3.7 Organic Arabica Coffee Production
Valentino L. Macanes
Significance: Arabica (Coffea arabica L.) is the most flavorful

and aromatic among all the commercial coffee
grown worldwide. It is highly sought after by coffee
processors and coffee shops. Production of this
coffee variety could be integrated with the
agroforestry farming system, making it
environmentally sound and sustainable especially
for watershed protection and management. The
Benguet State University (BSU) in La Trinidad,
Benguet follows this system of organic Arabica
coffee production. Arabica coffee trees are planted
under the Benguet pine (Pinus kesiya Royle ex
Gordon), Alnus (Alnus nepalense or Alnus japonica),
and other forest trees. An international certifying
body has granted BSU’s Arabica production and
processing systems as organic.
Studies done by BSU in the use of this organic
production technology revealed lesser total farm
expenses of 52.71% per hectare, with higher return
on investment (ROI) of 25.29% over the chemical-
based Arabica coffee farming. Moreover, organic
Arabica coffee products are sold at premium price.
Like other people, coffee consumers are also
health conscious and prefer food that is safe to eat.
Hence, demand for organically produced coffee is
expected to increase.

in organic Arabica coffee production and postharvest
processing technologies.
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, learners must be

able to:
1. follow the basic procedures in organic

Arabica coffee production and postharvest
processing;

208
2. demonstrate the various techniques in
organic Arabica coffee production and post
harvest processing; and
3. discuss the economics, marketing, and
ecological aspects of the technology.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, hands- on exercises, on-

farm visits
Specific Strategies: 1. Discussion on the basic technologies in seed

selection and processing, nursery establishment
and management, postharvest processing,
packaging, and marketing of organically produced
Arabica coffee
2. Hands-on practice, from seed selection to
commercial green bean production
3. Actual farm visits
Materials and Equipment: Pruning saw, pruning shear, bolo, shovel, hoes,
black plastic pots (3” x 8”), watering cans, spading
fork, trowels, tape measure, any available organic
fertilizers, organically produced Arabica coffee seeds,
clean jute sacks.
Estimated Time Frame: 2 days

209
Introduction “Coffee is the source of happiness and wit,”
according to King Louis XIV who recognized its
value after experiencing the coffee’s excellent taste
and distinctive aroma. A sip of coffee has shaped
many nations’ history, when it became a very
important crop economically.
Arabica coffee was first discovered in the
southwestern highlands of Ethiopia as a very
common component of forests. It was also found at
an altitude of 1,500 m in the upland forest of North
Kenya (Clifford and William 1985). In the Philippines,
this coffee variety is mostly cultivated in the
Cordillera Administrative Region because of the
highly favorable climate. It is also grown in other
limited areas of the country.
The coffee industry in the country began in
1740, during the Spanish regime. Presently, coffee
ranks as one of the top ten high value crops in the
country for both the local and foreign markets (DA
Coffee Brochure undated).
Seed Selection/ Seed Selection

Seed Preparation
1. Choose seeds from organically grown trees that
are 5–8 years old.
2. Seeds should be free from pests and diseases,
prolific, high yielding, and drought-resistant.
3. Gather berries from middle branches with short
internodes.
4. Select large, fully ripe, and uniformly sized berries.
Do not use over-ripe and dry berries.
Seed Preparation
1. Place harvested berries in a bucket of water and

stir to remove floaters. Those that sink are good
planting materials.
2. Remove pulp by hand, or by using either a
pulping machine or an improvised wooden pulper.
Avoid breaking the shell or the seed itself.
3. After depulping, soak the parchment coffee
(depulped coffee) in clean water for 12–24 hours
to ferment and to remove mucilage (slippery
substance) that inhibits germination.

210
4. Wash parchment coffee and remove deformed,
broken, small, pea beans, and floaters.
5. Sow coffee seeds directly or air dry seeds that
are not immediately sown in an open shed for
approximately 10 days. Coffee Arabica seeds
can be stored at room temperature for 2 months.
However, the germination percentage will be
lower.
Nursery Establishment Site Selection

and Management
Consider the following in choosing the site for
nursery establishment:
1. Good drainage
2. Exposed to sunlight 8–10 hours a day
3. Soil pH range of 5.3–6.2
4. Free from soil-borne pests and diseases
5. Near water supply
6. Accessible
7. Relatively fertile and preferably has sandy
loam or silt loam soil. If not, soil media
consisting of 1/3 loam, 1/3 sand and 1/3
compost can be prepared.
Nursery Preparation and Sowing
1. Clean seedbed area.

2. Dig and pulverize the soil. An ideal seedbed is
1-m wide, any suitable length (10 m long) and
30 cm deep.
3. Apply 10 kg of organic fertilizer per 1 m x 10 m
size seedbed.
4. Make furrows 2.5 cm apart and 2.5 cm deep.
5. Sow seeds with the flat surface downward at
2.5 cm x 2.5 cm distance. Cover seeds with
just enough pulverized soil.
6. Use sprinkler with low velocity in watering
the seedbed to avoid removing soil cover of
seeds.
7. Mulch to keep soil moist, prevent weed growth,
prevent rain from exposing seeds, and ensure
early germination.

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Care and Management of Germinated Seeds
Under favorable conditions (21°C–27°C

temperature and 75–85% relative humidity), seeds
will germinate 1 month after sowing. However, if
the weather is cold, germination will take about
3 months.
1. Remove mulch to harden seedlings.

2. Construct partial shading 1 m above seedlings.
3. Apply biopesticides if necessary. Do
mechanical control if pests are in the early
infection/infestation stages.
Pricking
This practice starts when “horseman” or cotyledon

leaves appear.
1. Before pricking, water the seedbed to loosen

the soil.
2. Take care when pulling or balling the seedlings
to minimize root damage.
3. Discard seedlings that are deformed, with
broken stems, and other abnormalities.
Potting
1. Use appropriate plastic pot size (3” x 3” x 10”).

2. Fill plastic bags with well-sieved sandy loam
soil mixed with organic fertilizer at 10 kg /m3.
3. Ball seedlings from germination bed.
4. Dip the root systems of the seedlings into a
mud solution before potting.
5. Use a dibble to punch the potted soil. The depth
of the hole should be more than enough to
accommodate seedling up to the root collar.
6. Plant seedlings into the pot. See to it that the
roots are all pointed downwards.
7. Lightly press the soil around the base of potted
seedlings to harden and to avoid air spaces.
8. Place the potted seedlings under partial shade.

212
Care of Seedlings
1. Water the seedlings as often as necessary.

Use sprinkler.
2. Construct partial shade over the potted
seedlings or place potted seedlings under shade
trees
3. Apply biopesticides as the need arises.
Field Planting and Farm Site Selection

Maintenance
Consider the following criteria in choosing a
site:
1. Should have an elevation of 1,000–1,500 m

above sea level with temperature range of
17°C–26°C.
2. Soil pH range of 5.3–6.2.
3. Should have existing trees for partial
shading. If none, trees, particularly nitrogen-
fixing trees should be planted a year
ahead before planting the Arabica coffee
seedlings.
Fig. 1. Field Clearing and Layout (Fig. 1)

Field clearing of slope areas
for planting Arabica coffee. 1. Follow the usual procedure of clearing the land
but do not burn plant debris.
2. For sloping areas, layout the contour and
planting distance using A-frame. Spot terracing
is recommended to minimize labor cost.
Planting Distance
• 3 m x 3 m or 4 m x 4 m
Preparing Holes for Planting (Fig. 2)
1. Size of holes for planting: 50 cm x 50 cm x

50 cm
Fig. 2.
Hole preparation for planting 2. When digging the holes, separate topsoil from
Arabica coffee along the contours sub-soil because during planting, the topsoil
of slope areas.

213
will be used to fill the hole while the sub-soil will
be used to cover the seedling roots.
3. Before planting, put 2–5 kg organic fertilizer per
hole as basal fertilizer.
Weeding
1. Remove weeds to ensure plant survival.

Weeding eliminates plant nutrient competition
and alternate host of pests and diseases.
2. Practice ring weeding on newly planted coffee
to minimize cost of labor.
Fig. 3.
Three-year old Arabica coffee farm.
3. Use uprooted weeds as mulch to coffee plants.
Fertilization
Apply fertilizer using the following rates:
• Non-bearing trees (1–2 years old): 5 kg

organic fertilizer per tree as sidedressing
during the rainy season
• Bearing trees (3 years old and above):
10 kg of organic fertilizer per tree as
sidedressing during the rainy season (Fig. 3)
Common Pests and Diseases Application of Biopesticides

of Arabica Coffee and their
Management • Apply biopesticides if necessary.
Insect Pests and Damage
• Coffee stem borer - attacks bearing and non-

bearing trees
• Coffee berry borer - infests the coffee berries
(immature, mature, ripe, unripe)
• Mealy bug and scale insect - sucks juice of plant
shoots
• Coffee bean weevil - storage pests; attacks
stored green coffee beans

214
Management:
1. Weeding, fertilization, and pruning
2. Application of biopesticides at correct dosages
Diseases and Damage
• Coffee rust: infects leaves, twigs, and stem

• Die-back:
- Physiological causes - overbearing,
N-deficiency, hardpan of soil, etc.
- Pathological causes - microorganisms
• Thread blight: infects branches, twigs
Management:
1. Use resistant varieties such as Red Bourbon,
Granica, San Ramon, Caturra Yellow, Improved
San Ramon and Mondo Nuvo
2. Apply proper cultural management
3. Apply biopesticides except those from tobacco
plants
Storage Insect Pests and Disease
• bean weevils and

• molds
Management:
1. Proper aeration and use of pallets
Harvesting Maturity and ripening of Arabica coffee berries in

the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) is
7 months after flowering in May and June. Thus,
harvesting starts in November until March.
• Harvesting is generally done by handpicking

only the ripe berries (priming). Do not
include the stalks (peduncles), which lowers
coffee bean quality. Avoid over-ripening of
berries to prevent double fermentation.

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Postharvest Processing Immediately process harvested Arabica coffee
berries to avoid fermentation and rotting of coffee
pulp, which destroys bean quality and cup taste.
Strictly follow the wet method in postharvest
processing of Arabica coffee.
Wet Method
• Strictly done in Arabica coffee (Fig. 4).
Procedure:
1. Depulping - remove ripe coffee pulp.
2. Fermentation - soak depulped coffee in pails of
clean water to remove mucilage, which affects
bean quality. Do this for 12–24 hours.
3. Washing - wash fermented, depulped coffee.
Remove floaters.
4. Drying of parchment coffee (depulped coffee) -
sun dry or use mechanical drier until 11–12% MC
is attained.
Fig. 4.
The wet method of postharvest 5. Dehulling - remove coffee hull and silver skin to
processing of Arabica coffee. get green coffee beans.
6. Sorting of coffee green beans - remove broken
beans, discolored bean, triangular bean, and
other foreign objects. Coffee in the CAR is usually
marketed as green beans.
7. Roasting
8. Blending
9. Brewing - coffee shops
Arabica coffee could be packed and marketed

after roasting or blending.
Arabica coffee should be stored after drying as
parchment coffee to maintain quality and prevent
infestation of storage pests.

216
Rejuvenation Rejuvenation is the regeneration of the old coffee
trees to bring back productivity. It is done for
Arabica coffee trees that are more than 10 years
old. Studies have revealed that this technology could
bring back berry yield to 100% and reduce labor cost
by 50%. Rejuvenation is done during the rainy season
(Fig. 5).
Methods/Techniques:
• Complete Dehorning - cutting of the old coffee

tree wherein only the stump is left 1 ft (30 cm)
Fig. 5.
Coffee rejuvenation during a training above the ground for sprouts to regenerate.
on Arabica coffee production • Dehorning - cutting of the old coffee tree
in Benguet. wherein portions of branches together with the
main trunk are left for sprouts to emerge.
• Bending - The whole main branch (trunk) is
bent closely parallel to the ground. The trunks
and branches are held in place with metal
wires. Sprouts will emerge from the bent trunk
or branches.
• Topping or Capping - The shoot is cut back
when the coffee tree reaches 1 m. Thus, the
main trunk develops strong and longer branches
with more laterals. This is also done on newly
planted coffee trees.
Reminders in Rejuvenating Coffee
• Rejuvenation is practiced during the wet

season in rainfed areas.
• Tools used should be very sharp to allow for
clean cut without warping/cracking the wood.
• Three to five evenly distanced vertical sprouts are
maintained to develop and bear berries.
Marketing Arabica coffee products are marketed in the form of

coffee green beans. Thus, they should be immediately
sold to avoid quality deterioration, which affects the
cup taste. Arabica coffee green beans command
higher market price compared with Robusta,
Excelsa, and Liberica (Fig. 6).
In Cordillera Autonomous Region, coffee growers
usually sell their coffee green beans to middlemen

217
who have contacts with coffee processors in
Metro Manila. However, the growers are presently
forming associations or cooperatives to directly
sell their coffee products to local or multinational
coffee processors at higher prices (Fig. 7).
Table 1 shows that total expenses and net returns
for a 1-ha Arabica coffee plantation, net returns for
the first two years are just the same or break-even.
However, after 10 years, net returns as high as
P133,450.00 can be achieved.
Fig. 6.
Organically produced roasted
Arabica coffee. Table 1. Estimated costs and returns of 1-ha Arabica coffee
plantation in CAR.
Year Total Expenses (P) Net Return (P)

Neighbors
1 62,113.00 (62,113.00)
Growers Local Baguio City
2 10,525.00 (10,525.00)
Traders Traders 3 33,576.00 15,924.00
4 22,475.00 96,325.00
Local Consumers, Manila,
Nestle, etc.
5 27,080.00 121,420.00
6 27,080.00 121,420.00
Fig. 7. 7 27,080.00 121,420.00
Marketing flow of coffee 8 34,880.00 133,450.00
produced in CAR. 9 34,850.00 133,450.00
10 34,850.00 133,450.00
Assumptions:
• Average selling price of green coffee beans is
P190/kg.
• Price of organic Arabica coffee green beans increases
by 5% per year.
• Arabica coffee trees (1,000) are planted per hectare
using the Agroforestry Farming System.
• After 10 years, the Arabica coffee trees should
be rejuvenated.

218
SELF-TEST
1. What type of coffee is the most flavorful and aromatic? ________________________
2. What is the importance of proper seed selection and preparation for Arabica coffee?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
3. What is the importance of correct nursery establishment and management?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
4. What are the factors to consider in site selection and field layout?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
5. Give some pest- and disease-resistant varieties of Arabica coffee.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

219
6. What is priming method of harvesting Arabica coffee?
_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________
7. Explain the wet method of postharvest processing in Arabica coffee.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

220
References:
Clifford, M.N.; Willson, K.C. Coffee: Botany, biochemistry, and production of beans and
beverage. Croom He’m Ltd., Provident House, Burnell Row, Beckenham, Kent BR 3 1AT.
pp.19–20.
PCARR. Philippines recommends for coffee. Los Baños, Laguna: PCARR, 1976. pp. 3–48.
Department of Agriculture. Coffee brochure. Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City: DA-
Information Division, n.d. 18p.
Philippine Daily Inquirer, November 21, 2005. p. A12.
Readers’ Digest, March 2000. Readers’ Digest Asia Pte. Ltd. pp.14–16.

221
3.8 Organic Rice Production
Ross O. Quin and Clarita P. Aganon
Significance: The development of high-yielding rice seeds,

synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, and other so-called
modern technologies had revolutionized agricultural
production system in the country. While the modern
technologies improved rice yield and farm income,
the long-term effect, particularly of using inorganic
pesticides and fertilizers, became detrimental to
human health and environment. A better alternative
is by engaging in organic rice production that is
sustainable and environment-friendly. In terms
of quality and nutrients, rice grown organically is
comparable with that of rice grown conventionally.
Description: This lesson explains the important steps in the

production of organic rice and the conversion time
necessary to go into organic production. It serves as
a guide and knowledge-enhancer for growers who
would like to go into organic rice production and for
those who are already into organic rice production.
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, learners should be

able to:
1. understand and apply the required practices

for organic rice production;
2. follow the steps in producing organic inputs
from the farm;
3. acquire the skills and knowledge in the
application of the organic inputs; and
4. learn the pest and disease management in
rice production.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, group exercises, hands-on
Specific Strategies: 1. Field visit to organic rice farms

2. Lecture-Demonstration

222
Materials and Equipment: Organic inputs and materials
Estimated Time and Frame: Two days
Evaluation Plan: Self-test at the end of the module

223
A. Conversion to Organic Rice Production
Introduction The basic practices that are allowed or not

allowed in farms converting to organic rice
production are based on the standards of the
International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements (IFOAM), local farmers’ practices, and
the Philippine National Standards for Organic
Agriculture.
The change from conventional to organic
farming system must be immediate. The farm,
inclusive of all crops, trees, and animals, converts
into the organic system. The length of conversion
depends on the history of the farm in relation to
the situation of the natural environment and the
usage and duration that the farm is under the
conventional agricultural system. In most cases, the
conversion period ranges from 2 to 3 years before
organic certification is provided.
If the farm is a new land or is not yet
developed as conventional farming system, or
fallow land for 10 years or more, no conversion
period is required if the farm shows no signs of
soil erosion.
The conversion period can also be made on a
staggered system, starting from a learning farm,
then expanding it until the whole farm is converted.
Fig. 1.
The ultimate goal of the organic farmer is to
Organic farm in Nueva Ecija.
change the farming system towards the organic
agriculture system, not just part of the farm but the
whole farm (Fig. 1).
Seed Selection If possible, seeds must come from organically

grown rice and produced from the farmer’s own
organic farm. The selected seeds must be produced
in an organic farming system. This organic farm must
be planted with more than one kind of seed line. No
genetically modified rice seeds are allowed in the
organic farm.
Fertilization The objective of the fertilization program is

to bring back life to the soil such as those of the

224
multiple beneficial organisms and microorganisms.
To enhance the life and nutrient of the soil, organic
materials such as animal (goat, cow, carabao)
manure, nutrient rich leaves and plants, rice straw,
farm-based organic fertilizers, and microorganisms
will be incorporated in the soil. Processed pig
and chicken manure are allowed in the organic
standards. However, these inputs are not allowed
in the standards followed by Full of Grace, an
organization producing organic rice.
Not all organic materials in the environment
can be integrated in the organic farms. Organic
materials that have traces of chemicals such as
pig and chicken manure, trimmings of vegetables
coming from the market, or other materials
possibly contaminated with heavy metals and
pollutants are not allowed. Human waste is
not allowed. Organic materials such as animal
wastes, plants, blood, meat, hair, animal bones that
are not yet composted are not acceptable. These
materials will have to undergo decomposition
process. Natural minerals and guano are allowed
in limited portions only. However, liquid, chemical
foliar fertilizer is not allowed as well as organic
fertilizer using synthetic nitrogen to enhance the
decomposition process.
The use of composted materials and/or
bioorganic fertilizers coming from outside the
farm can be permitted if the organic farmers do
not have enough organic materials from within
the farm. The organic fertilizers should be made
from the natural process of decomposition. Natural
microorganisms and vermin can be used to
enhance the quality of the organic fertilizers.
Botanical fertilizer in liquid form can be applied if
it is produced using local materials and
microorganisms.
If necessary, natural materials such as lime,
rock phosphate, and other materials are used.

225
Pest, Disease, and Weed The use of any synthetic or chemical poisons
Control such as herbicides, fungicides, insecticides,
molluscides, nematicides, and other pesticides are
strictly prohibited. All equipment and tools that
have been used in conventional farming and with
traces of synthetic materials should be cleaned
properly before using in an organic farm.
Only biological, botanical or microbial-based
products and materials should be used for the
control and management of insect pests, diseases,
and weeds. The proper selection of seeds, nutrient
management, life in the soil, crop rotation, and green
manuring help reduce pests, disease and weeds.
Other mineral materials such as diatomaceous earth
can also be used, if necessary.
Keeping the organic soil fertile, integrating
multiple crops and trees, and use of disease-
tolerant rice seeds greatly help in pest and disease
management (Fig. 2).
All appropriate ways and system to prevent
Fig. 2. and avoid contamination of chemical inputs and
Pest and disease-free organic
rice plants.
synthetic materials, externally and internally, from
neighboring farms brought by drift from water, wind,
and irrigation canal are installed.
Harvesting Equipment such as thresher and drier should be

properly cleaned and washed. If possible, organic
produce should be kept in a separate storage. In
harvesting, threshing, and bagging, organic seeds
should be separated from conventional rice harvest.
Fumigation using chemical materials is not allowed.
B. Practical Guide to Organic Rice Production
Size of Farms The whole farm can be converted to an organic

system depending on the capacity of the producer.
However, to reduce the risk in conversion, small
farms just starting to convert to organic production
may start with half of farm. This is recommended
for a producer just learning the organic rice farming
system. The other half will serve as control or for

226
point of comparison. In the next cropping, having
gained experience and confidence, the farmer may
convert the whole farm to organic (Fig. 3).
Usually, after many years of conventional
farming, the life in the soil has been substantially
reduced. Organic farming is creating a suitable
environment for life in the soil and for the soil to
produce food. Conventional farming creates an
imbalance for this life to exist. The applied organic
Fig. 3. materials are intended to feed the life that is in
A farmer may convert the whole the soil. Usually it takes at least 3 years for the soil
farm into organic farm.
to recover its full fertility, when it is protected and
given enough organic materials. During conversion,
reduced yield is expected in the first and probably,
second operation or cropping.
Kind of Seeds Diversity is required in an organic farm. The

producer plants three or more rice lines or varieties
in an organic rice farm. Seeds can be sourced
from the farm, other organic producers, or from
institution such as the Philippine Rice Research
Institute, MASIPAG, or farmer’s collection of
traditional seeds or improved traditional lines. To
minimize incidence of seeds with diseases or eggs
of pests, soak seeds in mixture of 1 part indigenous
microorganisms (IMO) and 200 parts of water for
24 hours during seeds preparation. The soaking
of the rice seeds in IMO mixture will also help in
the germination of healthy seeds.
Fertilization The application of organic fertilizer in rice fields

is done in several ways:
1. After harvest, spread the rice straws in the

field for at least a month before the next land
preparation (Fig. 4). Spray straws with IMO
and maintain moisture needed in their
natural decomposition. During land prepara-
tion, plow the decomposing rice straws into
the soil as part of the organic materials.
2. If it is not practical to spread straws in
Fig. 4.
Rice straws on field being readied the field, gather the rice straws in one
for use as organic material for corner, and if available, mix with animal
compost. manure, carbonized rice hull, eggshell,

227
leguminous or nitrogen-rich plants, and
IMO. Maintain the proper moisture and
allow straws to decompose for at least a month
before spreading them in the field before
the last harrowing.
3. Apply 15–24 bags (50 kg/bag) of bio-organic
fertilizer or organic compost before the last
harrowing. More organic fertilizer can be
applied depending on the base materials
used in the organic fertilizers. If it is ruminant
manure (cow, carabao, goat), apply up to
85 bags/ha.
4. Use botanical extracts and other fermented
plant extracts to enhance fertility. Such
extracts includes natural nitrogen, FPJ rich
in iron and manganese, and pure seaweeds
extracts. Apply weekly or every 10 days.
5. Natural minerals such as rock phosphate,
lime, etc., can be used to balance soil fertility.
Control of Insect Pests, Rice crops are sturdy and can withstand the
Diseases and Weeds attack of pests and diseases when enough organic
materials are in the soil. Compost tea, green botanical
tea, and other fermented plant juice can be applied
to minimize pest infestation (Fig. 5). Compost tea,
green botanical plant tea, and other fermented
plant juice act like ”pro-biotics.” They prevent
disease-causing organisms from finding space or
infection sites and food. These tea and extracts
are effective in increasing bacterial biomass in the
plants and soil and also in controlling the population
of golden snails. Rice husks spread in the field
will minimize the movement of golden snails, thus
depriving them of food.
Proper land preparation and water management
will greatly minimize weeds in organic rice
Fig. 5. production. Humus developed on top of the soil
Farmers prepare natural farm inputs from organic fertilization will also suppress weed
to minimize pest infestation. growth.

228
Irrigation Management In organic production, living systems in the soil
need to be protected from too much water. Organic
rice fields that are not flooded for a long time,
give higher yield. Flood the field only when
controlling the growth of weeds and during booting
stage. Allow the field to break into small cracks
before irrigating the field. This will allow aeration
to take place, which will provide air to the living
systems in the soil.
Harvesting Harvest first from the plants in the buffer zone,

then the organic rice (Fig. 6). The buffer zone is an
area or field that separates the organic rice from those
conventionally grown. Separate the harvests from
the buffer zone and the organic rice crops. The
rice crops from the buffer zone are not organic.
The thresher must be properly cleaned and
washed to avoid contamination and mixture with
non-organic rice. Unused sacks or sacks not
contaminated with feeds and synthetic fertilizer
can be used in bagging the produce. The storage or
Fig. 6. post harvest facilities to be used are only those
Organic rice ready for harvest. allowed for organic production.
It is expected that farmer’s know how and
practice will be followed if no details are provided
in the system. All practices and system must be in
accordance with the Philippine National Standard
for Organic Agriculture.

229
SELF-TEST
This test shall be instituted before and after going through the module.
Direction: Write the answers in the space provided.
1. What are the differences between conventional and organic rice production?
Conventional Organic
2. How can soil be improved for organic production?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_____________________
3. How do you manage pest, weeds, and diseases in organic rice production?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________
4. What is the standard for the separation of organic and non-organic harvest when it
comes to storage?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_____________________________

230
References:
Full of Grace Organic Agriculture Producers’ Internal Quality Control System (IQCS) Manual.
Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, n.d. - (In-house Publication).
Organic Certification Center of the Philippines and Department of Agriculture-Bureau of
Agriculture and Fisheries Product Standards (OCCP and DA-BAFPS). Philippine national
standards on organic agriculture. Makati City: DTI-BPS. PNS/BAFPS 07: 2003.

231
232
Module 4
Pest and Disease Management
4.1 Pest management strategies in organic vegetable
production 234
4.2 Pest management in organic coffee production 244
4.3 Insect pest management in organic sugarcane
production 256
4.4 Disease management in organic vegetable
production 270
4.1 Pest Management Strategies
In Organic Vegetable Production
Pio A. Javier
Significance: One of the major problems in vegetable

production is the vulnerability in all growth stages
of the crop to a wide array of highly destructive
insect pests. Inability to manage these insects
may result in tremendous yield reduction and low
quality of harvest. Since many of the vegetables
are early maturing, damage is generally irreversible
and control may no longer be profitable. Moreover,
damage can be inflicted in a very short time and
control might be too late if not properly monitored.
If timely monitoring is done, the next pressing
problem is to decide what management strategies
to implement. Knowing that the available control
method against insect pests of vegetables is
the application of synthetic insecticides (since
they are always available and easy to apply),
vegetable growers should have an understanding
of other possible management strategies that could
be employed to effectively regulate pest populations.
The most popular strategy in controlling
pests, which is being aggressively extended by
the government through the farmer field schools
(FFS), is the implementation of the integrated pest
management (IPM). IPM is a system that utilizes
all possible and suitable techniques and methods
in a compatible manner and maintains pest
population below damaging levels. It is also the
intelligent manipulation of pest populations using
a combination of techniques (cultural practices,
legal control, physical, and other techniques)
in consideration of natural regulatory factors to
reduce economic damage and avoid unwanted
effects. IPM employs pest monitoring and rely as
much as possible on non-pesticide control methods.
In IPM, pesticide can be used as the last resort
especially at high pest population density. However, in

234
organic agriculture, the use of synthetic insecticides is
not allowed and the last resort should be the use of
botanical plants.
Description: This module explains the basic concepts and

principles in managing insect pests in organic
vegetable production.

able to:
1. understand the different non-pesticide

management strategies that could be
employed to regulate insect pest population in
organically grown vegetable crops; and
2. integrate all possible control methods (except
the use of insecticides) to lower insect pest
populations below damaging levels.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, hands-on exercises
Specific Strategies: • Powerpoint presentation on the appearance and

identification of beneficial arthropods associated
with common insect pests of important vegetables
• Hands-on exercises on the rearing of beneficial
arthropods and preparation of microbial organisms
against insect pests
Materials and Equipment: Rearing trays, live specimen of earwigs and

Trichogramma, first instar cutworm larvae, LCD, hand
lens/dissecting microscope
Estimated Time Frame: One day (8 hours)

235
Introduction In organic agriculture, crops are produced,
harvested, distributed, stored, and packaged
without any application of synthetic pesticides
and growth regulators. To the maximum extent,
feasible organic farming system relies upon crop
rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes,
green manure, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical
cultivation, mineral-bearing rocks, and aspects
of biological control to maintain soil productivity,
supply plant nutrients, and control insects, weeds
and other pests (USDA 1980).
Therefore, control of pests in vegetable production
by employing IPM could not be classified as organic
management, since the use of synthetic pesticides
is strictly prohibited in organic agriculture.
Pest Management The following are the non-pesticide methods

of managing pest population in organically grown
vegetable crops:
Cultural Control
This is any farm operation that makes the

environment unfavorable for the development
and multiplication of insect pests but favors crop
production. Cultural control by itself seldom gives
satisfactory pest population reduction but when
integrated with other control tactics, it provides
adequate defense against most insect pests.
a. Synchronized planting
Insect control can be achieved by
manipulating the time of planting. In this
method, the most susceptible stage of the plant
should not coincide with pest population peak.
b. Sanitation
The primary objective of sanitation is the
removal of all breeding sites and food sources
such as volunteer or alternate host plants
between croppings and cutting of plants close
to the ground and feeding them to animals or
burying them in the soil. Indian mustard, Rorripa
indica, and Cleome rutidosperma serve as

236
alternate hosts of the flea beetle, diamond-back
moth (DBM), cabbage moth, leaf miner, cutworm,
and aphids. Removal of these weed species
will regulate pest population. Removal and
consequent destruction of infested fruits
(e.g., fruits infested with eggplant borer and
‘ampalaya’ infested with fruit flies) by burning
or burying them in the soil will prevent adult
insect development, thus reducing the potential
population for the following cropping.
c. Intercropping/multiple cropping
Intercropping of corn with mungbean can
reduce corn borer population. The nectar from
mungbean flowers provides food and refuge
for a great variety of natural enemies and other
beneficial insects, which will parasitize/prey on
pest population.
d. Crop rotation
Rotating tomato with other crops that are
non-hosts of tomato insect pests (examples:
ampalaya, squash, crucifers, etc.) helps break
their life cycles.
e. Selective weeding
Weed species such as spiny amaranth
(Amaranthus spinosus) serves as refuge of flower
bug, Orius tantillus Motschulsky, which is a very
efficient predator of thrips and eggs and small
larvae of lepidopterous insect pests. Amaranthus
can be planted/maintained at the borders in
order to have a continuous source of predators.
f. Mulching
The use of plastic or organic mulch in some
vegetables not only helps in conserving soil
moisture and in reducing weed population but
also help reduce population of thrips and other
insect pests. Lower leafhopper (Amrasca sp.)
population was observed in eggplants mulched
with rice straw. Mulching of rice straw and
subsequent releases of earwigs in bush ‘sitao’
significantly reduce population of pod borer

237
(Maruca testulalis Meyen) and black bean
aphids (Aphis cracivora Koch).
Biological Control
Living organisms are used to suppress pest

population. Successes have been achieved with
the use of biological control agents against major
insect pests throughout the world. Biological
control practice should remain at the forefront of
the emerging technology for IPM because it is
compatible with other control methods, safe, and
economical.
Parasitoid
• Feeds internally (endoparasitoid) or externally
(ectoparasitoid) on other insect’s body
• Usually smaller than the host
• Requires single host to complete its life cycle
• Always kills the host
• Attacks the eggs or larvae
Examples:
• Trichogramma parasitoids for eggs of
lepidopterous insect pests
• Diadegma semiclausum against 2nd instar
larvae of DBM
• Cotesia plutellae against 2nd instar larvae of
DBM.
• Trathala flavoorbitalis against eggplant borer
Predator
• Usually larger than its prey
• Requires several preys to complete their life
cycle
Examples:
• Earwigs - Euborellia annulata, Euborellia
philippinensis, Proreus simulans, Nala lividipes,
Labiduria riparia, and Chelisoches morio feed
on eggs, young larvae and pupae of
lepidoptera, coleoptera, diptera and other
soft-bodied insects.

238
• Flower bug, Orius tantillus - This predator
feeds on eggs and early instar larvae of
lepidoptera and thrips.
• Coccinellid beetles, Micraspis discolor and
Cheilomenes sexmaculatus feed on eggs
and small larvae of lepidoptera.
• Lacewing - Chrysopa carnea feeds on egg
and larvae of pests.
Microorganisms
• Fungus
Beauveria is effective against adults and
nymphs of leafhoppers and whiteflies. However,
there is a need to determine which isolates are
effective against vegetable insect pests.
• Bacteria
Bacillus thuringiensis is generally effective
against larvae of lepidopterous insects such as
the diamond-back moth, tomato fruit worm, and
common cutworm.
• Virus
The nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) is
effective against the common cutworm while
the Helicoverpa nuclear polyhedrosis virus (HNPV)
is effective against the tomato fruit worm.
Mechanical Control
• Yellow trap
Aphids and leaf miner are attracted to yellow
color. During the peak of leaf miner infestation
in 1990s, yellow traps were used to control this
invasive insect pest.
• Light trap
The semi-UV light can attract the adults of a
wide range of insect pests. If adults are trapped
immediately after emergence, then they will not
be able to lay eggs on crops. Consequently, their
potential damage is reduced.

239
• Trap crop
Trap cropping relies on the fact that some
pests often show preference for certain crops.
Trap crop may be planted around the main
crop or one row of trap crop may be planted for
every few rows of the main crop. It is assumed
that the trap crop is more preferred by the
pest than the main crop. It is important that
the trap crop is planted ahead of the main
crop, where release of beneficial arthropods or
spraying of botanical insecticides may be
directed. Examples of these traps crops are
‘kadyos’ that attracts tomato fruit worm and
Indian mustard, Brassica juncea L. that attracts
the diamondback moth and other insect pests in
the field.
• Planting of herbs/repellent
Insects generally use their sense of smell
to locate their hosts. However, in the presence
of herbs/repellant, insects are unable to locate
their host plants or they are disoriented, resulting
in lower pest population.
• Bagging of fruits
This is done to prevent the fruit flies from
laying eggs onto the fruits of ampalaya and
other cucurbits. Bagging of fruits with plastic
bags or newspaper should be done before
the fruit fly starts egg laying. If plastic bags are
used, the bottom part should be open or should
have perforations to prevent rotting of fruits.
Other Potential Control Tactics
• Botanical insecticides
Plants could be endless sources of
ecologically sound and safer compounds that
can act against pests but spare predators,
parasites and other non-target organisms
including man (Morallo-Rejesus et al. 1993).
More than 2,000 plant species have been
reported or claimed to possess insecticidal
activity (Grainge and Ahmed 1988). In the

240
Philippines, about 100 plants have been reported
in 1985 to possess insecticidal properties.
However, these claims were not properly
substantiated by proper entomological assay.
Table 1. Contact toxicity of plant extract1 applied at 200 mg/mL

against DBM larvae2.
% Mortality
Common Name Scientific Name Parts Used (48 hrs)
a. 'Luyang dilaw' Curcuma longa L. rhizomes 93

b. 'Tubli' Derris elliptica Rosch. roots 100
c. 'Makabuhai' Tinospora rumphii vines 100
d. 'Lagundi' Vitex negundo L. leaves 63
e. 'Kakawate' Gliricidia sepium Jacq. leaves 88
1
Plant materials are homogenized in appropriate volume of water to make
the desired concentration (wt/vol) and then filtered. The filtrate serves as
the stock solution, which is used to prepare concentrations of 10, 50, 100,
and 200 mg/mL.
2
1- to 2-day-old 3rd instar larvae are exposed to sprayed leaf square.
• Use of sex pheromone

Female insect secretes sex pheromones
to attract males. Trapping of males could be
an important tool in monitoring as well as in
reducing insect pest population. If pheromone
traps can attract males, fertilization will be
greatly reduced and consequently crop damage
will be lower.
• There are other control methods that are

discussed in other modules such as the use
of Oriental Herbal Nutrient (OHN) and natural
attractants for flying insects (coconut vinegar
and crude sugar).

241
Self-TEST
1. Can we consider vegetables grown under IPM as organically grown? Why?
2. Sanitation is one of the cheapest and simplest methods of controlling insect pests.
Give at least two examples by which sanitation can be implemented.
3. Give three examples each of parasites and predators and their target insect pests.
4. The application of botanical plants should be the last option in controlling pests in
organic crop production. Have you experienced or do you know farmers who are using
botanicals against insect pests? How do you/they use them?

242
References:
Javier, P. A.; Morallo-Rejesus, B. Conservation methods for the natural enemies of

Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis Guenee. Annual Report submitted to
Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Agricultural Research, September 2000–
August 2001. pp. 72–85. - (Available at the Department of Entomology Library).
Morallo-Rejesus, B.; Punzalan, E.G. Development of biological control based IPM for
Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis Guenee, Annual Report submitted to Department
of Agriculture-Bureau of Agricultural Research, September 2000–August 2001. pp. 1–42.
- (Available at the Department of Entomology Library).
Navasero, M.M.; Morallo-Rejesus, B. Mass colonization and evaluation of anthocorid
bug, Orius tantillus against ACB. Annual Report submitted to Department of
Agriculture-Bureau of Agricultural Research, September 2000–August 2001, pp. 1–42.
(Available at the Department of Entomology Library).
Navasero, M.V.; Navasero, M.M. Pangkomunidad na pag-aalaga ng mamumulpol,
pagpaparami, pagiimbak at paggamit ng bayrus-NPV. Los Baños, College, Laguna:
University of the Philippines, n.d. 16p.
Solsoloy, A.D.; Calamaan, F.; Paraoan, L.; Damo, M.; Cacayorin, N. Efficiency of high
frequency resonant pest-killing lamp in controlling bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera
Hubner. Batac, Ilocos Norte: Cotton Research Center, 2005. 14p.

243
4.2 Pest Management in Organic Coffee
Production
Pio A. Javier and Marilyn G. Patricio
Significance: Coffee production has been a lucrative industry

and one of the major sources of income of growers in
Mindanao, Batangas, Cavite, and Benguet. However,
for a long time, production had significantly declined
because of very low and unstable prices in the
market. This led farmers to abandon coffee farms and
shift to other crops, neglecting the management and
sustenance of existing coffee plantations.
The damage caused by insect pests and diseases
is one of the major constraints to coffee production.
Farmers must be able to identify or recognize
these pests and diseases to attain better coffee
yields. The coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei
Ferrari and the bean weevil, Araecerus fasciculatus
DeGeer are the most destructive insect pests of
coffee in many parts of the world. On the other hand,
the two most serious coffee diseases are the
coffee leaf rust (CLR) and coffee berry disease (CBD).
Description: This module provides description of insect

pests and diseases attacking/infesting coffee and their
damage, and information on non-pesticide methods
to manage and control these pests and diseases.

expected to:
1. identify the common insect pests and

diseases attacking coffee;
2. describe the characteristic damage caused
by insects and the symptoms caused by
disease-causing organisms; and
3. name the different non-pesticide management
options against these pests and diseases.

244
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, hands-on exercises.
Specific Strategies: 1. Powerpoint presentation on the appearance and

distinct characteristics of the different coffee
pests and diseases and their damage/symptoms
2. Discussions on life cycle of insect pests and
development of disease causing organisms
3. Discussions and demonstrations on the different
non-chemical methods of controlling pests.
4. Exhibits of insect pest specimen; plant parts
with disease symptoms and damages; culture of
causal organisms of the diseases.
5. Visit coffee farm where pests can be found,
identified, and observed. This can also be an
opportunity to demonstrate the application of
some control methods such as release of
parasitoids, etc.
6. Trial preparation of biopesticides such as pepper
solution/spray, etc.
Materials and Equipment: LCD for powerpoint presentation; hand lens/dissecting

microscope, and actual specimens

245
Introduction Global coffee supply abruptly declined because
of calamities in Mexico and other Central American
countries, the biggest world coffee producers.
Naturally, the demand increased and prices became
competitively high. With the bright prospects
for coffee production, rehabilitating our coffee
plantations is urgently needed. Planting of varieties
suited for the agroecological zone and market
preference must be expanded. It is also timely that
the production of organic coffee should be started
since the potential export market is big.
In the production of organic coffee, it is
important to control the insect pests and diseases to
maximize coffee bean yields. The damage and
losses caused by insect pests and diseases are
major constraints in organic coffee production. The
coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari
and the bean weevil, Araecerus fasciculatus DeGeer
are the most destructive insect pests of coffee while
the two most serious coffee diseases are the coffee
leaf rust (CLR) and coffee berry disease (CBD).
Insect Pests of Coffee Coffee Berry Borer, Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari
The coffee berry borer (CBB) is the most

destructive pest of coffee in many parts of
the world (Fig. 1). The insect feeds exclusively on
immature and mature berries and does not damage
the vegetative parts. Adult female feeds by boring
into the bean and at the same time breeds. The
resulting larvae continue to destroy berries.
Although beans may appear quite undamaged
from the outside, the berries might be less valuable.
Damage
When the female feeds on young berries that
are too immature to sustain insect colonization,
damaged berries may either fall or a secondary
fungal infection sets in that cause them to rot. The
greatest damage done by CBB is on the endosperm
of mature beans, which might be extensively
damaged or completely destroyed (Fig. 2). In poorly

246
managed situations, CBB-infested berries ranged
from 5% to 96%.
Life History/Recognition
• Newly emerged adult CBB is soft and pale
brown, which gradually changes to black after
5 days. Adult is subcylindrical with gently
rounded prothorax and more sharply rounded at
the posterior extremities of the wing. The body,
legs, wing, and antennae are sparsely covered
with fine, brown, and short hairs. The short,
elbowed, and segmented antennae and the
legs are pale brown. Adult male emerges from
the pupa earlier than the female. The male
resembles the female except in size and
the absence of wings. Female CBB is about
0.25 mm long while the male is about 2/3 of
that size. Female lays about 30–70 eggs.
Female’s life span is 156 days (average) while
the male’s is 103 days.
• Egg is bean shaped, about 0.6 mm long,
translucent, and whitish. It hatches in 3–9 days.
• The larva (grub) is legless and whitish with
Fig. 1. brownish head; lasts for 10–26 days, often with
Coffee berry borer. 2 days pre-pupal stage, then transforms into a
pupa.
• The pupa is creamy white and later turns pale
brown; naked or pupates without any cocoon
formation in the holes made by the larva. Pupal
stage lasts for 4–9 days.
Management Strategies
Cultural Control
• Plant resistant variety. Berries with thick pulp
and lacking a protruding disk (calyx ridge) are
less susceptible to CBB. However, this condition
is not consistent, and there is no sustained
Fig. 2. attempt to exploit this factor.
Coffee berries damaged by
coffee berry borer. • Plant varieties that flower uniformly so that
almost all berries are harvested within a short
time.

247
• Remove alternate hosts such as Leucaena
leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, Phaseolus lunatus,
and Disocorea luzonensis.
• Practice “rampasen” or the removal or
destruction of breeding medium over a period
long enough to break the life cycle of the pest.
It involves the collection of all fallen berries,
the picking of fruits that are left during
harvesting, and the continuous removal of young
berries where adult female CBB might stay
or breed. Practice of this method in Java
significantly reduced infested red berries
40–90% to between 0.50–3%.
• Properly prune dense trees for more efficient
and complete harvesting of all berries (normally
difficult to do in tall and heavily shaded trees),
thus reducing CBB infestation.
• Properly dry harvested berries. Drying of coffee
beans or processed beans down to moisture
content of 12.5–13.5% prevents breeding of
CBB.
• Practice sanitation. Storage facilities and
factories should be cleared of rubbish in which
CBB could either breed or shelter. Avoid using
sacks that have been infested with the insect
or immerse sacks in hot water to kill the CBB.
Immersion of mature infested berries in boiling
water for about 2 minutes will kill the pest.
Biological Control
Three wasps of African origin have been
identified as natural enemies of CBB, namely:
Prorops nasuta Waterst, Cephalonomia stephanoderis
Betrem, and Heterospilus coffeicola Schmied.
• Prorops nasuta is a dark brown bethylid

wasp that acts both as a parasite and
predator. The adult feeds on the eggs and
young larvae of CBB, while the ectoparasitic
larva subsists on full-grown CBB larva
and pupa. The efficiency of P. nasuta is
improved by repeated release of this parasite
between coffee production seasons to boost

248
its number and by complementing it with
implementation of cultural practices.
• Cephalonomia stephanoderis is a small,
black bethylid wasp native to Ivory Coast
and Togo in East Africa. It is the most
important parasite of CBB in Ivory Coast,
where it was reported to parasitize 50% of
the broods of the borer in black berries. The
adult females also live in berries and prefer
to feed on CBB eggs and young larvae,
although they also feed on pre-pupae and
on the haemolymph of adult beetles. The
larvae are ecotoparasites of the last
stage larvae of CBB. C. stephanoderis was
introduced in 1988 in Colombia, Ecuador,
El Salvador, and Mexico and in 1993 in
New Caledonia as part of integrated pest
management program.
• Heterospilus coffeicola is a small braconid
wasp about 2.5 mm long. The adult has a
free-living habit, flying from one berry to
another to lay its eggs. Only one egg is laid
on each berry and on CBB larva. The larva of
the parasite lives for 18 to 20 days and can
consume 10–15 eggs and larvae per day. It
pupates inside the berry in a white silken
cocoon. It was observed to complement
with P. nasuta in limiting CBB population in
some regions in Cameroon, but the larva of
this parasite was observed feeding on the
larva of other parasites and on P. nasuta, thus
limiting its efficiency.
Entomopathogenic Microorganisms
• Beauveria bassiana is a parasitic fungus that
was observed to attack CBB in Brazil, Jamaica,
Cameroon, Congo, Ivory Coast, Java, and New
Caledonia. This pathogen, which is cosmopolitan
in distribution, is favored by moist, warm
conditions while heavy rains are thought to
enhance its rate of infection. In Colombia,
preparations of selected strains of B. bassiana
in oil have produced 20–95% adult mortality.

249
• Metarhizium anisopliae caused 20–90% adult
CBB mortality in the laboratory.
• Heterorhabditis sp., a nematode, was shown to
cause high mortality in both CBB larvae and
adult under laboratory conditions and that
infective juveniles were produced from adults and
larger larvae. Application of nematodes could
replace the collection of fallen berries infested
with CBB. Dispersal of infected adult CBB
could also spread the nematodes into the pest
population.
Coffee Bean Weevil , Araecerus fasciculatus DeGeer
The coffee bean weevil (CBW) is a cosmopolitan

insect but most abundant in the tropics both in
the field and storage. It is a major pest of stored
coffee, cacao, and cassava. It also attacks
nutmeg, ginger, corn, peanut, sorghum, yam
tubers, dried fruits, and occasionally corn. Adult
prefers food with relatively high moisture content.
Damage
• An initial 20% infestation of newly harvested
berries could increase to 100% after 6 weeks of
storage.
• Larvae and adults directly feed on the tissues of
the beans.
• Infestation of beans may start in the field and
adult continues to breed after the berries are
harvested and stored.
Life History/Identification
• Weevils are about 3–5 mm long, brown or
gray-brown; prothorax and elytra are both with
mottled light and brown pubescence. The three
terminal segments of antennae are longer than
the other segments forming a loose club. At 27°C
and 80% RH, life cycle is completed in 90 days in
coffee and peanut, 96 days in cacao, 64 days in
cassava tubers, and 50 days in corn. The female
lays 67–173 eggs and life cycle is completed in
46–66 days. Longevity is more than 17 weeks but
is severely reduced at low relative humidity.

250
• Female lays an average of 67–163 eggs, which
hatch in 5–8 days.
• The larva is an internal feeder.
• The pupal stage is spent inside the infested grain
in 6–7 days at 27°C and 50–100% RH.
Management Strategies:
a. Properly dry berries
b. Practice sanitation
Green Scale, Coccus viridis Green
Damage
• Insect sucks sap of coffee. Infested leaves
(mostly young shoots) fall prematurely and result
in serious defoliation or death of young plants or
twigs.
• The insect produces honeydew on which sooty
molds develop.
• The insect is a problem only during dry season.
Life History/Description
• Adult is oval in shape, about 2 mm long, foliage
green in color with a V-shaped, black line on its
back. Ants feed on their honey dew.
Management Strategies
• Oftentimes, it is held in check by entomogenous
fungi and by a small parasitic wasp, Coccophagus
tibialis.
Coffee Leaf Rust (CLR)
Symptoms
• First symptoms consist of chlorotic leaf spots
that become yellow-orange, powdery, more or
less round, and pustular on the lower surfaces of
coffee leaves (Fig. 3). They enlarge slowly from
1–3 mm to 20 mm or more and may coalesce.
Affected leaves become dark, necrotic, and fall
Fig. 3.
prematurely. There is dieback of young branches
Coffee leaf rust.
and shoots. Growth and vigor of infected plants
are seriously reduced.

251
Causal Organism
• CLR is caused by Hemileia vastatrix Berk. and Br.
The uredospores are the only known infectious
spore form.
Management Practices
• As much as possible, plant coffee trees at
5,700 ft above sea level. H. vastatrix needs high
temperatures and high humidity for optimum
development.
• Practice plant spacing. Before rust was
discovered in coffee plantations in Brazil, tree
spacing was quite close. The reduction in the
amount of sunlight reaching the plants creates a
favorable environment for rust development.
• Prune trees immediately after the first harvest
for aeration and sunlight penetration.
• Plant newly found or developed resistant variety.
Coffee Berry Disease (CBD) (Anthracnose,

Brown Blight)
Symptoms
• CBD infects all stages of the crop from the
flower, including the unopened inflorescence, to
the ripe berry. But it causes the greatest damage
on green berries.
• Green berries are susceptible to CBD. Infection first
appears as a small, dark brown spot that enlarges
and becomes slightly sunken (Fig. 4). The entire
berry later becomes affected as the pulp turns
brown and becomes hard and brittle. The bean
first begins to show signs of deterioration at
the infected part. But, by the time the pulp is
infected, beans have become black, shriveled,
and without commercial value. Berries desiccate
and later fall from diseased stalks, but the twig
Fig. 4. surrounding the leaves remains healthy.
Coffee berry disease.
Causal Organism
• The disease is caused by Colletotrichum
coffeanum Noack, which is the conidial stage
of Glomerella cingulata (Stomen.) Spauld. and
Schrenk. The virulent strain is morphologically

252
distinguishable in a young culture as having
green to dark green mycelium after 2–3 days,
whereas the saprophyte had white mycelium. Old
cultures revert to the white form.
Management Practices
• Plant newly found or developed resistant variety.
• Apply the required fertilizer type and rate.
• Prune trees immediately after the first harvest
for aeration and sunlight penetration.
• Avoid excessive shade.

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SELF-TEST
1. Give the importance of recognizing/identifying the major insect pests and diseases of
coffee.
2. CBB is considered as the most destructive insect pest of coffee. Explain how this
insect pest inflicts damage on coffee.
3. Rampasen is an effective method of controlling CBB. Discuss the strategies involved

in rampasen and why it is compatible with organic agriculture practice.
4. The coffee rust is the most important disease of coffee. Describe the damage caused
by the disease.
5. What are the control/management measures against coffee rust?

254
References:
Firman, I.D.; Waller, J.M. Coffee berry disease and other Colletotrichum diseases of
coffee. Phytopathol Paper No. 20, Commonwealth Mycol. Inst. Kew, 1977. 53p.
Griffiths, J.; Gibbs, N.; Waller, J.M. Rainfall and cropping patterns in relation to coffee berry
disease. Ann. Appl. Biol. 67: 75–91, 1971.
Hocking, D.; Johans, J.C.; Vermculen, H. Ascospore production, discharge and infections by
Glomerella cingulata causing coffee berry disease (Colletotrichum Coffeanum) in Kenya.
Kenya Coffee, 55: 825–831,1967.
Javier, P. A. Coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari. College, Laguna: National
Crop Protection Center, College of Agriculture, UPLB, 2001. 4p. - (Pest Notes, Leaflet
No. 14).
Masaba, D. M.; Waller, J.M. Coffee berry disease: The current status. In: Bailey, J.A.;
Jeger, M.J. (eds.), Colletetrichum: biology, pathology and control, U.K: CAB International,
1992. pp. 237–249.
Morallo-Rejesus, B.; Baldos, E.P. The biology of coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei
(Ferr.) (Coleoptera: Scolitidae). Philipp. Entomol. 4: 303–316, 1980.
Morallo-Rejesus, B.; Flores, C.G. Coffee berry borer attacks coffee plantations in Laguna
and Batangas. Agric. at Los Baños, n.d. pp. 12–13.
Nutman, F.J.; Robertein, F.M. Studies on the biology of Hemileia vastatrix Berk. and Br.
Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 46: 27–48, 1963.
Rayner, R.W. Rust disease of coffee. I. Nature of the disease. World Crops. 12: 187–190.
1960.
Ruales, C. CENICAFE promotes the integrated management of coffee berry borer in
Colombia. Coffee and Cocoa News 1(2): 5–9. 1996.
Schieber, E. Comparative observations of coffee rust in Brazil and Kenya, Africa. Plant Dis.
Reptr. 55: 209–212. 1971.
Waller, J. M. Coffee rust-epidemiology and control. Crop Prot. 1: 385–404, 1982.
Waterhouse, D.F.; Norris, K.R. Biological control: Pacific prospects-supplement I. ACIAR
Monograph No. 12, vii + 125p.
Wellman, F. L. The rust, Hemileia vastatrix now firmly established on coffee in Brazil.
Plant Dis. Reptr. 54: 539–541, 1970.

255
4.3 Insect Pest Management In Organic
Sugarcane Production
Pio A. Javier
Significance: The white grubs and sugarcane borers (SCB)

are the two most destructive insect pests of
sugarcane in the Philippines. The white grub is
considered a menace because of its voracious root
feeding habit. In severe infestation, not only the
roots but also the base of nodes of cane plants are
eaten, causing the plants to be severely stunted,
to lose anchor and die prematurely. On the
other hand, at least two species of SCB
attack sugarcane: the gray borer and the striped
stem borer. Young cane plants that are 1.5–4 months
of age are highly susceptible to borer infestation.
Infestation may range from 50% to 73% and
tillering is greatly reduced under heavy infestation
especially during dry season.
The SCBs and the white grubs are difficult
to control with the use of synthetic insecticides.
Moreover, control of insect pests using insecticides
is becoming more expensive, has so many
unwanted side effects, and is not allowed in organic
sugarcane production.
Description: This module provides information on the

identification of insect pests attacking sugarcane,
their damage, and the non-pesticide methods of
managing their population.

expected to:
• identify the common insect pests attacking

sugarcane;
• describe the characteristic damage caused
by insects; and

256
• enumerate the different non-pesticide
management options against insect pests of
sugarcane.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, hands-on exercises
Specific Strategies: 1. Powerpoint presentation on the appearance and

identification of the different insect pests of
sugarcane and their characteristic damage
2. Discussions on the different non-chemical
methods of controlling pests
Materials and Equipment: LCD for power point presentation

Hand lens/dissecting microscope

257
White Grub (June or Toy Several species of beetles are associated
Beetle), Leucopholis with sugarcane, but the most common and most
irrota Chevrolat destructive is the Leucopholis irrorata. These beetles
are called ’salagubang’ or ’labug-labug’ (Visayan)
while the grubs are called ‘ulalo’ or ‘uok’ in Tagalog,
‘tatadin’ (Pampango) or ‘bucan’ and ‘bunlod’ in
Visayan. The grubs, the immature stage of several
species of beetles, live almost entirely in the soil.
Detection of impending grub infestation is quite
difficult due to its subterranean habit. Damage
to sugarcane is enormous as the grub enters the
final growth stage. The full-grown grub reaches its
biggest size and is equipped with well-developed,
powerful mandibles capable of chewing tough and
mature roots. Crop damage is inconspicuous during
the early stage of infestation but when the visible
signs show up, actions for remedial measures to
counter the damage often become too late and/
or impractical. After living for almost 300 days
underground, the grubs emerge as adult beetles
immediately after the first heavy rain in May or June.
The beetles are virtually harmless to sugarcane
Fig. 1. because their food preference shifts to leaves of
Sugarcane roots heavily damaged by
white grub (Quimio et al. 2001). trees. However, the beetles lay eggs that become
the succeeding batch grubs that will infest the
existing cane plants in the field.
White grub is considered a menace because of
its voracious root feeding habit. In severe infestation,
not only the roots but also the base of cane plants
are eaten, so that the plants become severely stunted,
lose anchor and die prematurely (Fig. 1). Cane yield
of 6-month old crop can be reduced by 60% (roughly
30 t cane/ha).
Previous accounts of severe grub infestation:
• Negros Island - Merrill and Banks (1910) reported

serious WG infestation while Saplala (1957)
reported severe damage in seven mill districts:
- Victorias - 85 ha infested; 1,700 piculs sugar

loss
- Hawaiian-Philippines - 350 ha infested;
7,609 piculs sugar loss

258
- Talisay-Silay - 200 ha infested; 4,304 piculs
sugar loss
- Bacolod-Murcia - 250 ha infested;
5,010 piculs sugar loss
- Ma-ao - 300 ha infested; 5,926 piculs
sugar loss
- La Carlota - 500 ha infested; 11,650 piculs
sugar loss
- Binalbagan-Isabela - 600 ha infested;
13,320 piculs sugar loss.
• Batangas – about 71.9 ha were affected (1939)
in Balayan, Calaca, Nasugbu, Lian, and Tuy.
• Uichanco (1929) reported infestation along
riverside in Cabuyao, Laguna and Maraoy, Lipa
City.
Fig. 2. • In 1992, “Operation Salagubang” yielded about
Adults of white grubs. 2.5 million beetles at the Don Pedro mill district.
• Severe infestation noted in Tuy, Batangas with
about 30 ha infested in 1999.
Life Cycle/Description
Adult is glossy and blackish gray with reddish tinge

(Fig. 2). It is more active at night, feeds on leaves,
and flies to search for mates and then lay their eggs.
Life cycle is about a year. Beetles begin to emerge
in April and May except in Negros, with two broods:
November to December and April to June.
The opaque-white eggs are laid singly at night
in the soil but close together; eggs hatch in about
6–9 days.
Newly emerged larvae are white while the
fully grown ones are fleshy, wrinkled, and normally
curved. Larvae molt three times within 252–336
days (average of 289.5 days). Fully grown larva
burrows 15–120 cm deep into the soil, then forms
an earthen cell that encloses the pupa. It takes about
65–75 days for pupa to transform into an adult.

259
Once the population of white grubs become
established in the area, the pest will be quite
difficult to manage. Current developments in IPM
suggest the integration of control approaches that
are economical and practical to achieve. Community-
wide campaign on beetle collection for about
3 weeks starting from the onset of beetle
emergence significantly reduces the number of
adults that will lay eggs for the next season.
Collection and subsequent destruction of white
grubs during tillage operations will help reduce
white grub infestation. In addition, thorough
cultivation of cane field exposes white grubs to
general predators like birds, earwigs and fire ants
and also inflicts physical damage on the grub.
Cultivation
• Collect and destroy WG during tillage operation

to help reduce population.
• Plow soil deeply to expose grubs to predators
(birds, earwigs, and fire ants) and also to inflict
physical damage to grubs. Grubs are very
sensitive that mere physical abrasions and
exposure to sun could kill them.
Weeding and Sanitation
• Grubs also feed on grasses and plants with

fibrous roots. Therefore, regular removal of
alternate hosts will help reduce their population.
Irrigation
• If irrigation facilities are available, flooding the

field will help reduce grub population. About
20–30% grub mortality is achieved when areas
are flooded after an extended rainfall.
Beetle Trapping
• Set light traps (white light > 150 watts) along

the corners of sugarcane fields and/or close to

260
trees such as mango, ‘sineguelas,’ or tamarind.
Then beneath the light trap, place a wide basin
half-full of water with a pinch of detergent.
The use of semi-UV light trap from China was
found more efficient in trapping the beetles
(personal communication, Solsoloy). Light traps
also capture beneficial insects, therefore, they
should be used in areas where natural enemy
population is low.
• Use attractant-baited traps
Types of Attractants
• Bark-based attractant
Since the beetles are normally active at
dusk, then they can be collected easily by lures
or baits made of fermented barks of local tree
species such as ’aratiles’ (Muntingoa calabura), or
’anabu’ (Melochia umbellate). Farmers in northern
Philippines particularly in Cagayan province,
traditionally use the trap called ’kedeng’ or
‘imod’ to attract newly emerged beetles mainly to
cook them.
• Chili-based attractant
Bamboo leaves laced with macerated red,
hot chilies are used as attractant bait for beetle
collection. Red hot peppers are macerated in
mortar and pestle and the paste is spread on
bamboo leaves tied together to form a bundle.
Bundled bamboo leaves are raised on 2-m poles
and placed near a cane field to attract emerging
beetles.
Collection of Beetles
• Beetle collection from trees (mating sites) can

also be done but should be properly timed
during the early weeks of beetle emergence such
that the females have not mated and laid their
eggs. Beetles are inactive during the day and
even the slightest shaking could easily dislodge
them. To facilitate beetle collection, large nets/

261
sacks are placed under host trees before shaking
the branches.
• Ants, earwigs, and predatory beetles prey upon
grubs.
• Ten species of parasitic wasps are reported to
attack the grubs.
• Vertebrates such as bats and birds (owl) feed on
grubs.
Biological Control Conservation of Existing Parasites and Predators
• The use of resistant variety and augmentation

and conservation of natural enemies such as
scoliid wasps, earwigs, and predatory beetles are
compatible with cultural farm management and
other control tactics.
Use of Pathogenic Fungi
• Metarrhizium anisopliae - Isolated from June

beetle (L. irorata), M. anisopliae caused 73%
grub mortality in the laboratory.
• Beauveria bassiana
Sugarcane Borers The sugarcane borers (SCBs) are also highly

destructive insect pests of sugarcane in the
Philippines. The two most dominant species of
stem borers attacking sugarcane are the gray borer
(Tetramoera schistaceana Snellen) and the striped
stem borer (Chilo infuscatellus Snellen).
Damage
Young canes that are 1.5- to 4-month old may

be attacked, causing “dead heart” damage (Fig. 3).
When primary tillers are attacked, there is uneven
growth and delayed cane maturity. Immature canes
have lower sucrose content and consequently lower
sugar yield. Larva bores in the buds or “eyes” of old
canes causing destruction of the surrounding tissues
Fig. 3.
and reduction of cane quality due to onset of fungal
Damage caused by sugarcane infection. Larva also attacks the cane internodes
borers (Javier and Gonzales 2000). that are ready for harvest. Cendaña (1962) and Reyes
(1962) observed about 52% tiller damage.

262
Life Cycle and Description
Gray borer
• Adults are about 12 mm long with grayish
brown wings and head. Female is larger and
has lighter coloration than the male.
• The eggs are scale-like, opaque, cream-colored
and measure about 0.13 cm in diameter. They
are laid singly or in batches of up to 13 on the
under surface of the leaf or on leaf sheaths. Egg
hatches within 4– 6 days.
• Larva is grayish with unproportionately big,
black head. Body length of fully grown larva is
about 20 mm. Larval period ranges from 17 to
22 days (Fig 4a).
• The pupa is about 10.40 mm long and 2.5 mm
wide. Pupal stage is spent on the lower surface
of the stalk. The pupa is initially cream-colored,
turning dark reddish brown later.
Striped stem borer

• Adult forewings are yellowish-brown to dark
brown with wingspan of 20–26 mm long.
Figs. 4a and b. • Eggs are laid in mass without scale covering; turn
Larvae of black prior to hatching; and hatch in 4–6 days.
sugarcane borers • Larva is pinkish with dark-orange head. It
(Javier and Gonzales attacks plant immediately after germination
2000). (Fig 4b).
• The reddish pupa remains on the lower portion of
the stalk and lasts for 7–11 days.
Management Strategies The use of Trichogramma chilonis Ishii, a

parasitoid against sugarcane borers, has already
gained tremendous acceptance by sugarcane
planters since it achieves about 60–80% SCB
egg parasitization. The supply of good quality
Trichogramma is the major bottleneck in the area-
wide utilization of this effective parasitoid. The
Philippine Sugar Research Institute (PHILSURIN)
initiated the construction of seven Trichogramma-
rearing laboratories in the Visayas and Mindanao.
Therefore, Trichogramma strips are being mass
produced by PHILSURIN and are given free to
sugarcane growers of the Mill District Development

263
Council (MDDC). Consequently, releases of
Trichogramma could be synchronized with the
abundance of SCBs. Presently, the field releases of
T. chilonis are the most practical and cheapest
method of controlling SCBs.
How does Trichogramma control

sugarcane borers?
Figure 5 shows how Trichogramma parasitizes

the eggs of its host. Parasitization starts with the
adult female Trichogramma depositing its egg
on the egg of the host insect (A). The egg of
Trichogramma hatches in about 23 hours into a
small first instar larva (B). The small larva feeds on
the contents of the host egg in about 3 hours, and
then grows into the second instar larva (C). After
19.6 hours, the Trichogramma larva grows into
the third instar larva. In about 24 hours, the third
instar larva almost totally consumes the host egg
(D) and develops into a pupa (E). After 99 hours,
the pupa finally emerges as an adult (F), which will
later look for eggs of sugarcane borers so that
the female can deposit her eggs. Generally,
Trichogramma prefers to lay eggs on freshly laid
host eggs or day-old eggs.
The population/infestation of SCBs in the
field can be established through visual counts of
eggs/egg masses, larval and adult counts, and
incidence of dead heart. The egg, which is still non-
destructive, is the best stage to simulate the potential
damage of SCB to the cane plant. Likewise, when
Fig. 5. planning for Trichogramma field release, and when
Development of Trichogramma evaluating the effectiveness of Trichogramma, it is
on host egg.
necessary to monitor borer egg population.
Steps in monitoring eggs or egg masses

of sugarcane borers
1. Define the sample area by dividing a hectare of

sugarcane field into ten sampling rows (furrows).
Exclude plants from the outer 10 m periphery in
sampling rows.

264
2. Randomly sample ten hills (one plant per hill) per
row for the presence of sugarcane borer egg or
egg masses starting at 1 month after planting.
The distance between hills should be about
10–15 steps. Sample a total of 100 plants in a
hectare of sugarcane field.
3. If there are less than 10 eggs or 1 egg mass
per 100 sample plants, continue monitoring at
weekly interval until 3 months after planting.
Release Trichogramma when there are ten eggs
of gray borer or one egg mass of striped stem
borer per 100 sample plants. The density of egg
masses per 100 plants can be converted to
density per hectare depending on the total
number of hills planted per hectare.
Field Releases of T. chilonis

against Sugarcane Borers
T. chilonis is released in the field when cane

plants are about 1–3 months old. Releases are
carried out eight times at the rate of 64–80 cards per
hectare (96,000–120,000 parasitoids). Trichogramma
parasitoids are released twice a week during the first
four releases and at weekly interval during the last four
releases (Table 1). They are released either as pupae
(6-day old Tricho cards) or as adults. Adults emerge
from the cards at about 7–8 days after parasitization.
It is easier and more convenient to release pupae but
they are more prone to ant predation.
Table 1. Number and timing of field releases of
Trichogramma against sugarcane borers.
Sequence of Time of Release/Days No. of Tricho Cards

Release After Planting (DAP) Needed/ha per release
First 30 8–10
Second 34 8–10
Third 37 8–10
Fourth 41 8–10
Fifth 48 8–10
Sixth 55 8–10
Seventh 62 8–10
Eight 69 8–10
T O T A L 64–80
(96,000–120,000 parasitoids)

265
Steps in the Field Releases of T. chilonis
1. From one corner of a hectare of sugarcane field,

walk 30 paces (20 m) along the periphery. Make
another 35 paces (25 m) going inside the field
along the furrow. This is the first release point.
From inside the field along the furrow, count
another 35 paces for the second release point
and another 35 paces for the third release points,
then to the last three release points as indicated
in Figure 8. There are about nine release points
per hectare.
2. The Tricho cards (6 day-old) are clipped/stapled
under the leaf surface with the parasitized
portion of the card placed face down. When
Trichogramma are to be released as adults, it is
advisable to transfer the Tricho cards in clear
and clean bottles to observe adult emergence.
Open the cover of the bottle and allow the
adults to fly out of the bottle while walking
x 8th
30 m
x 3rd
x 4th x 9th
25 m 25 m 25 m
x 2nd x 5th x 8th
25 m
25 m 25 m
x 1st x 6th x 7th

30 m
25 m
20 m 20 m
Fig. 8.
Guide in determining Trichogramma release
points in the field.

266
along the furrow as indicated in Step number 1.
Release T. chilonis early in the morning or late in
the afternoon.
Presently, Trichogramma cards are available in

rearing laboratories of the PHILSURIN and given free
to MDDC growers.
Other Predators
In addition to Trichogramma, two species of

earwig predators were abundantly monitored in
sugarcane fields: Proreus simulans and Euborellia
annulata (Fig. 6). Although P. simulans is the more
dominant species in the field, E. annulata has already
been extensively studied and the mass rearing
technique is already developed. Earwigs are known as
predators and voracious feeders of eggs, small
larvae, and pupae of borers. Therefore, the earwigs
could be integrated with the release of Trichogramma
to achieve efficient control of sugarcane borers.
Fig. 6.
Species of earwig predators:
P. simulans (above) and
E. annulata (below).

267
SELF-TEST
Direction: Encircle the letter of the correct answer(s).
1. What are the two most destructive insect pests of sugarcane.

a. White grub
b. Sugarcane aphids
c. Sugarcane aphids
d. Sugarcane mealybug
2. What do you call the damage caused by sugarcane borers? (Please check)
a. Whitehead
b. Deadheart
c. Wilting
4. What is the stage of sugarcane borer being attacked by Trichogramma.

a. Egg
b. Larva
c. Pupa
d. Adult
4. How does Trichogramma control sugarcane borers?

a. By laying its eggs on small larvae of the pest and consuming the body contents
b. By laying its eggs on the eggs of the pest
c. By feeding on the adults of the pest

268
References:
Alba, M.C. Biology of Trichogramma spp. and their effectiveness as biological control for
the sugarcane stem borer, Tetramoera schistaceana Sn. Unpublished M.S. Thesis. College,
Laguna, Philippines: University of the Philippines Los Banos, 1978. 54p.
Braza, R.D. Laboratory evaluation of Metarrhizium anisopliae (Metsch.) Sorokin against
Leucopholis irrorata Chev. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Philipp. Ent. 8(1): 671–675, 1990.
Javier, P. A.; Gonzales, P.G. Monitoring of sugarcane borers. In: Sugarcane Pest Monitoring, a
Field Guide by E. A. Benigno, NCPC-PHILSURIN Publication, 1999. 33p.
Javier, P.A.; Gonzales, P.G. Integrated management of sugarcane borers. Terminal Report
NCPC-PHILSURIN Project, 2000. 16p. - (Available at the NCPC Library)
Javier, P. A.; Gonzales, P.G. Management of sugarcane borers using Trichogramma chilonis.
PHILSURIN Leaflet No. 6. 10p.
Lopez, A.W.; Pegenia, M.R. The white grub infestation in the Don Pedro mill district. Proc.
Philippine Sugar Technologists. 12:72–77, 1964.
Merrill, E.D.;Banks, C.S. Handbook on the sugar industry in the Philippines. Manila: Bureau of
Printing, 1910. 139p.
Otanes, F.Q. The most important pest of sugarcane and suggestions for their control. Sugar
News 26(9):453–457,1950.
Quimio, G.M.; Ceballo, F.A. Monitoring protocol for beetles and white grubs in sugarcane.
In: Sugarcane Pest Monitoring, a Field Guide by E. A. Benigno, NCPC-PHILSURIN
Publication, 1999. 33p.
Quimio, G.M.; Santiago, D.R.; Ceballo, F.A.; Benigno, E.A.; Bato, S.M. Monitoring and
management of white grubs in sugarcane. Makati City, Philippines: PHILSURIN, 2001.
39p.
Santiago, D.R. Fungal bio-pesticides for management of white grubs in sugarcane. Progress
Report (1999). PHILSURIN Project 3b, 1999. 12p.
Saplala, V.L. White grubs of sugarcane and recommendations for its control. Proc. 7th
Annual Convention. Phil. Sugar Tech. (1957):134–138,1957.
Uichanco, L.B. A report on an entomological survey of Negros sugarcane fields. Sugar
News 11:243–254, n.d.
Uichanco, L.B. Notes on the life history and habits of the white grub of sugarcane,
Leucopholis irrorata Chevr. Sugar News. 12:592–594,1931.

269
4.4 Disease Management in Organic Vegetable
Production
Marilyn G. Patricio
Significance: Disease management is one of the critical

activities in crop production systems. The crop
needs to be protected against diseases from the
time it is planted until the harvest reaches
the consumers. For an effective plant disease
management, it is important to recognize the
disease problems, understand the nature and
behavior of the pathogen, and the factors affecting
its development and spread in host plants. It
involves the use of one or several tactics/practices
to reduce initial population of pathogens and slow
down the rate of disease infection. In organic
agriculture, diversity of tactics is the foundation
of disease management. The approach is more of
preventing rather than controlling the disease.

of plant disease management, diagnosis and
identification of common diseases, and management
strategies for specific disease.
Objectives: After completing the module, learners are

expected to:
1. state the basic concepts of plant diseases and

their causal factors;
2. follow the techniques in diagnosing plant
diseases;
3. recognize/identify diseases of vegetables;
and,
4. enhance their knowledge in preventing
disease problems and control strategies for
specific vegetable disease.

270
Learning Process: Lecture-discussions, group exercises, and field visits
Specific Strategies: 1. Discussion on plant diseases and principles of

disease management
2. Discussion on the different factors causing
the diseases and how these influence disease
development and severity
3. Recognition/identification of common diseases
of vegetables and their management and control
4. Field visit and hands-on exercises in the
identification of common plant diseases and
preparation of organic control products
Materials and Equipment Plastic bags, infected plant samples, magnifying

Requirements: lens, botanical plants, biological control agents
(BCAs), record book, and pen
Expected Time Frame: 8 hours including field visits and demonstration
Evaluation Plan: Pre- and post-test, question and answer

Trainees will be given the diseased plants for
identification. They will be asked to formulate
integrated disease management (IDM) for vegetable
crops

271
Introduction Dealing with plant diseases can be one of the
most challenging aspects of organic pest control.
Diseases can cause serious losses by reducing yield
and quality of plant products. Disease management in
organic production should be designed according to
organic principles so as to minimize the occurrence of
disease problems. It should keep the infection below
economically damaging level by using a range of
preventive techniques without excessive intervention.
The curative measures are possibly used only as final
resort when facing increasing disease intensity. Their
application will eliminate the diseases but will also
face risk of resurgence. The competitors of the plant
pathogens are also lost from production system.
The holistic approach of organic crop production
aims towards producing well-nourished crop plants
within biologically diverse environment. A healthy
soil with good structure, high biological activity, and
containing nutrients, will promote vigorous plants that
are, in turn resistant to pests and diseases. A diverse
production system favors the crops over diseases
by reducing the area of monoculture or suitable
habitat of crop pathogens, increasing the presence
of competitors of the pathogens, and decreasing the
chance of transfer of pathogens to susceptible crops.
This module discusses the concepts of plant
disease and the principles and techniques of disease
management. Detailed information about these
and the common diseases likely to be encountered
in organic vegetable crops production and their
prevention and control practices are mentioned.
What is plant disease? Scientists who study plant diseases do not

agree on a single definition of disease. In this
module, a plant disease can be defined as any
abnormal change in the plant toward reduced vigor,
growth, color of foliage, fruit development and
yield, and poor quality produce. As a result, the plant
usually produces evidences of infected condition
in the form of symptoms such as wilting, yellowing,
stunting, spotting, and death. Plant diseases are
divided into two broad categories: infectious and
non-infectious diseases. Infectious diseases are

272
those that can be transmitted from one plant to
another. Non-infectious diseases, which are called
plant disorders, cannot be transmitted.
Causes of Plant Diseases Plant diseases are caused by living (biotic)

agents called pathogens, fungi, bacteria, viruses, and
nematodes. This group causes most of the common
and serious plant diseases. The diseases caused
by these organisms are recognized by symptoms
and signs and can be managed by reducing and
destroying the pathogen population.
Plant diseases are also caused by non-living
(abiotic) agents, or physiological disorders. They are
caused by environmental factors, such as nutrient
deficiencies, moisture excess or deficit, extreme high
and low temperature, improper cultural practices, and
improper pH. The diseases caused by these factors are
recognized only by symptoms and can be prevented
by avoiding the causal environmental condition or by
providing the factor that is lacking.
Pathogen Characteristics Fungi

and Spread
Fungi are simple plants commonly called
molds. They obtain their food from plants that they
attack or from decaying organic matter in the soil
(Fig. 1). Most fungi have threadlike vegetative growths
called mycelium/hypha from which various types of
structures that are seed-like bodies known as spores
are usually produced. They are capable of surviving
adverse conditions through special structures
(sclerotia) and infect again when favorable conditions
occur.
Fungi are responsible for majority of plant
diseases. Fungal diseases fall into one of two general
categories: those caused by fungi that live in the
soil and attack roots of plants and those caused
by fungi whose spores are dispersed in the air and
Fig. 1. attack aboveground parts of plants. Fungal disease
Fungi. symptoms include damping off, root rots, wilts, leaf
spots, blights, mildews, and rusts.
Wind, rain, drainage water, insects, seeds, planting
materials, contaminated tools, and persons working
on plants spread the spores. They infect plants by

273
entering wounds caused by pruning, careless use of
equipment, animal feeding, and rough handling by
the grower. They also enter through natural
openings such as stomata and hydathodes or by
direct penetration of the epidermis.
Bacteria
Bacteria are very small, one-cell organisms

that can only be seen through a microscope
(Fig. 2). They often multiply by cell division, splitting
themselves into two. They need wounds on plants
to incite disease development. Bacteria do not form
spores. The pathogenic bacterial cells are elongated
or rod-like. Some bacteria can survive for a long time
by surrounding themselves with protective coating,
which prevents their drying. They occur on the
surface of diseased plants either as exudates or
as the results of the breaking open of the diseased
tissue. Bacterial disease symptoms include soft rots,
Fig. 2.
wilts, scabs, canker, and leaf spots. They usually
Bacteria.
affect the stem and roots of the plant.
When exposed, the bacteria readily spread to
other plants by splashing rainwater, running water,
insects, animals, farm equipment, and people. They
gain entry into the host through natural openings or
wounds.
Viruses
Viruses are even smaller than fungi and

bacteria. They are only visible under the electron
microscope (Fig. 3). Viruses need a host tissue for food
and reproduction. The virus particle consists of
only nucleic acid (the infective part) enclosed in
a protein coat. Viral diseases may take long time
to be recognized or identified, as often the only
effect on the crops is a gradual loss of vigor.
Symptoms often depend on environmental
Fig. 3. conditions such as temperature. Viral disease
Viruses.
symptoms include mosaic (light-green yellow, or
white mingled with normal green), resetting (short
and bushy growth), ring spot, leaf curling, and
stunted growth.

274
The viral diseases are not spread by wind or
water. Sucking insects such as aphids, planthoppers,
thrips, and whiteflies commonly transmitted them
from infected to healthy plants (Fig. 4). Workers who
smoke while working among the plants unknowingly
transmit virus particles also to other susceptible
plants. Virus can also infect new plants through
infected seeds or seed tubers.
Nematodes
Fig. 4.
Virus particles.
Nematodes are tiny, slender, and thread-like round
worms (about 1 mm long), which are usually present
in large numbers in the soil (Fig. 5). Their mouth is
equipped with a spear or stylet that punctures plant
cells to feed on the contents. Feeding habits of
nematodes vary, depending on the species. Some
feed on the external part of the plant, while others
burrow into plant. They have life cycle like insects;
with eggs and several larval stages.
Some nematodes can cause damage by sucking
plant roots. The roots may form galls (root-knot
nematodes), excessive root branching, retardation
of root elongation, and overall reduction in root
Fig. 5. mass. Nematodes do not cause rotting of roots but
Nematodes.
facilitate the entry of root-rot organisms through
punctures they make. Others may transmit viruses.
Nematodes are spread through movement of
infested soil and plant materials.
Development of Plant Diseases A plant disease develops as product of the

combined interactions between the causal pathogen,
the host plant, and their environment. These factors
Susceptible Host
form what is called the “disease triangle” or the
pathosystem within the ecosystem (Fig. 6). A fourth
factor, time can be added to the disease triangle
Pathogen Favorable
Environment when the progress of the disease in the population is
considered.
The degree of disease occurrence depends
Fig. 6. on the nature of these factors. A small amount of
The disease triangle. causal pathogen may multiply rapidly and become
established if the host is very susceptible and the
environment is favorable (e.g., humidity, temperature,
moisture, and wind for dispersal of spores over

275
distances). On the other hand, a large amount of
pathogen on a plant under unfavorable environment
Disease will occur only when the may cause only minimal pathogenic effect or none
pathogen interacts with the susceptible at all.
host under favorable conditions. The The management is focused on manipulating
presence of pathogen alone is not
sufficient to cause disease.
one of the three factors of the triangle to prevent the
disease from infecting the crop plant. For example:
• Plant resistant variety (host)

• Removing infected plants (removing
pathogen)
• Apply furrow irrigation rather than overhead
irrigation because high humidity stimulates
spore formation and spread of the disease
Diagnosing Plant Diseases In designing an effective and successful disease

management strategy, growers must correctly
diagnose the cause of the disease problems in
the farm. Diagnosis is the identification of a plant
disease through its characteristic symptoms, signs,
and other factors related to disease progress.
Symptoms are the manifestation of the diseased
condition of the plant (e.g., wilt, spot, gall, mosaic).
Signs are the visible structures produced by the
pathogen in the host associated with the disease
(e.g., spores, mycelium, bacterial cells).
Monitoring, using simple methods to come up
with a realistic estimate of the disease intensity, must
be a regular activity in the farm. The information
collected will provide the grower an idea which pests
and diseases will most likely to build-up. Thus, if the
disease symptoms are recognized early, there may
still be time to prevent it from reaching a high level of
infection and causing economic loss to the crop.
Diagnosing plant diseases is difficult because
we cannot see the causal organisms. Besides, the
plants can be infected with more than one disease.
Symptoms look slightly different in wet and dry
seasons. Thus, there is a need for a grower to be
trained in the identification of early symptoms of the
plant disease. Often, experiences and a thorough
knowledge of field’s recent history are necessary to
find the cause for specific plant symptoms. During
the field survey, asking questions can also help

276
identify the problems and understand more about
the causal agents.
The following are suggested steps that can be
used to diagnose problems in the field:
1. Examine the distribution of the disease in

the field and identify the infected plants. Use
reference materials to determine symptoms
and signs. Determine what plant is affected.
Some control products used, such as organic
sprays and horticultural oil, might injure the
foliage of certain plant species.
2. Examine and observe the symptoms and
signs. When making diagnosis, don’t be too
quick to assume that the problem is a disease.
Examine the symptoms and signs in detail.
For example, if leaves are covered with yellow
spots, they may be suffering from a bacterial
or fungal infection. However, if a closer look
at the leaves may find webbing and tiny black
specks as well, then the plants are infested
with spider mites.
3. If diseases very common in the area are
known, then the symptoms and sign observed
may be typical of one of those problems. For
example, the leaf spot on tomato and downy
mildew on cucurbit generally appear every
year in the farm. Other diseases may appear
only sporadically in the farm.
4. If the problem is not one of those ever-present,
common diseases, then research can be
conducted. Various reference materials such
as disease guides published by agencies and
institutions are available or can be found in the
Internet.
5. Once familiar with the symptoms caused by
different pathogens, following the diagnosis
process may no longer be needed. Instead,
apply the appropriate measures to make the
environment less favorable for build –up of the
pathogens.
6. If a serious disease problem in the farm is
observed and cannot be diagnosed, then

277
private and government technicians or
contact specialist from state university near
the area can be consulted or given a diseased
plant or plant part for identification.
Disease Management Practices Control measures to prevent the incidence of

disease is to reduce the amount of inoculum that
initiates and spreads the disease, and to minimize
the loss. The present trend is to apply a set of
management measures/practices.
Plant disease management practices that may
be used by organic growers can be divided into
two general approaches: strategic and tactical.
Strategic practices are primarily aimed at
preventing disease problems in the whole farm
system. Basic practices that can be considered central
to all disease management in organic farms are:
promoting soil fertility, using crop varieties
resistant to diseases, promoting biodiversity,
using crop rotations, and sanitizing to prevent the
spread of pathogens (Fig. 7). Tactical practices
can be curative or preventative and aimed at
specific disease and crop combinations, usually to
anticipate serious crop loss that may occur. These
include cultural, biological, and bio-fungicidal
techniques.
Strategic or Preventive Practices
• Promote Soil Fertility

Plants suffering from nutrient deficiencies
are weak and likely candidates for disease
infection. In some cases, nutrient excesses can
encourage disease. The high levels of nitrogen,
for example, promote succulent plant growth,
which increases susceptibility to blight and
incidence of rust and powdery mildew on
some plants. The best approach is to strive
for balanced fertility. Maintain an abundant
supply of organic matter, such as compost,
in the soil and apply additional fertilizers
according to the need of the plants as indicated
by plant growth or soil tests. A plant grown in a

278
balanced way in a soil that has sufficient organic
matter is less susceptible to diseases.
• Use Resistant Varieties

Plant varieties differ in their susceptibility
to pathogens. Several points to remember in
making the best use of resistance in avoiding
disease problems:
- Select cultivars with resistance to the disease

common in the farm.
- Collect seed only from the healthiest and
most vigorous varieties that naturally resist or
tolerate disease infection.
- Check cultivars recommended for the area
because plant resistance works better in some
localities than in others.
- As much as possible, refrain from using
hybrid. Instead, use traditional indigenous
breed of plants that are genetically varied,
and thus less susceptible to fungal infection.
• Promote Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the sum of species in a given
area. It is reflected in the number of species
present and the variety of interactions that
occur among them. Mixtures of varieties,
intercropping, or and companion planting (using
different crop species and herbs) increase the
complexity and diversity that benefit disease
management in the farm. Tolerating at least some
weeds can be important for promoting diversity
Fig. 7. within crops.
Examples of general disease
prevention practices in the whole
farm: use of resistant variety, • Practice Crop Rotation
biodiversity promotion, This is one of the most effective ways to
and crop rotation. manage diseases in an organic farm. Rotation
is done by growing crops in different parts of
the farm each year. A sound rotation can help
promote the health of plants and help them
resist the attacks of plant pathogens. It is more
essential in reducing disease carry-over between
crops such as soil-borne diseases. The mechanism
involves the pathogen’s simple starvation or lack

279
of plant host. It also means that the disease-
causing organism loses when competing with
other soil organisms. Crop rotation also has a
direct bio-fumigant effect on causal organisms.
For example, when brassicas decompose in
soil, they release various compounds that affect
the population of microorganisms and can also
eliminate plant pathogens in the soil such as
those causing bacterial wilt.
• Practice Hygiene and Sanitation

Good sanitation is a crucial step in keeping
most pests under control. Thoroughly clean
shovels, tiller parts, digging forks, especially if
soil-borne pathogens are present in sections of
the farm. Disinfect pruners between cuts when
working among diseased plants. Removing crop
debris and destruction of diseased plants help
prevent spread of disease.
Tactical Management or Intervention

Against Diseases
• Cultural Practices
Various cultural practices can be adapted
to manage specific pathogen. Some ways that
may be useful in organic-vegetable production
systems are:
- Manipulating the time of sowing and crop

density. Generally, more open canopies
(wider spacing between rows) will reduce
spread of plant diseases as leaves dry more
quickly, the air can freely circulate, and
humidity is reduced.
- Shallow sowing of seeds. This technique
promotes rapid seedling emergence that can
help reduce occurrence of disease such as
stem or root rot.
- Preparing raised beds and mulches. These
are well known methods that indirectly
manipulate pathogen attack by modifying
soil conditions, generally warming it up and
drying it out.

280
- Time of weeding can also be important. Weeds
although having detrimental effects on crop
yield, can also provide alternative food for
pathogens.
- Manual removal of diseased tissues of plants.
This is usually a stop gap measure that will
reduce but not prevent spread of disease.
• Biological Control
Use of friendly microorganisms to control
plant pathogens. The aim of biological control
is to shift the balance of competition between
the pathogen and the crop in favor of the crop.
Beneficial fungi or antagonist could be used to
attack or inhibit the growth of pathogens that
cause plant disease. The antagonistic fungus,
Trichoderma sp. has become widely available
in many countries. It can suppress soil-borne
plant pathogens in vegetables. Other biocontrol
agents that may be used to control some air-
borne diseases include Bacillus subtilis, and
Streptomyces spp.
• Addition of compost to soil can help in competing
against disease by raising the level of organic
matter. Compost encourages large populations of
beneficial, disease suppressing organisms in the
soil.
• Chemical Control
It covers the application of a diverse range
of products, normally in liquid form and based
on natural plant products (see procedures in
making plants into biofungicides), compost teas
from vermicompost, manure-based compost
(see module 2.4 and 2.5 for details on how to
make compost tea and use it as fungicide), and
inorganic salts. They are generally used to reduce
disease infection or eliminate the pathogens.
Plant extracts and compost teas affect the
pathogen either directly or indirectly by stimulating
the plant to resist the pathogen’s attack. The
compost teas seem to rely on placing a diverse
mixture of microorganisms on the plant, which
either directly work to exclude plant pathogens or

281
boost the plant’s reaction to invasion. These can
be applied as seed treatments or sprays.
Simple inorganic chemicals such as
bicarbonate of soda have been used against
plant diseases with some success. However,
there are restrictions on the use of some of
these inorganic chemicals.
The use of organic sprays extracted from
plants, horticultural oil, and soft soap are used
against the vector of viral diseases such as the
aphids, whiteflies, and thrips. Soft soap can
be effective as long as the aphids are in direct
contact with the solution.
Recognizing Diseases
of Vegetables
Crucifers and Lettuce Cabbage, Cauliflower, 'Pechay,' Mustard, Broccoli)
Damping-off Disease
Causal fungi - Pythium debaryanum, Rhizoctonia solani,

Sclerotium rolfsii
Other Hosts: tomato, eggplant, pepper, cucurbits,
beans
Symptoms
Two types of damping off are observed: pre-
emergence and post-emergence damping off.
Fig. 8.
Damping off on lettuce. • Pre-emergence damping off - Seed decays from
the time that it is sown until the young shoot
breaks through the seed coat. The pathogen
enters through the seed coat and cause rotting
especially after seed has imbibed water (Fig. 8).
• Post-emergence damping off – There are lesions
on seedlings mostly near the soil surface. The
lesions consist of water or brown, sunken,
shriveled area constricting the stem. The infected
portion becomes too weak to support the plant,
resulting in its toppling over even if the leaves
are still green and turgid. The base of the stem
disintegrates, root system decays, and the whole
plant dies.

282
Management
• The fungal pathogen favors wet weather.
Therefore, sow the seeds when the soil is dry.
If seedlings are raised in seed trays, the
medium must contain river sand (if available) so
that water will seep down and not stay long at
the base of seedlings.
• Disinfect seedbed soil by heat treatment (soil
sterilization) before sowing the seeds.
• Add more composts or other decomposed organic
material on seedbed.
• Coat the seed with antagonistic microorganisms
such as Trichoderma sp. to prevent infection and
control the pathogen.
• Spread seeds uniformly on seedbeds. Do not sow
too deep or too densely.
• Water the seedbed only in the morning so that the
soil is dry at night.
• Provide proper ventilation to reduce dampness in
the seedbed.
• Remove infected seedlings including the soil and
burn them to destroy the fungus.
Downy Mildew
Causal fungus - Peronospora parasitica
Symptoms and Signs

• Most prevalent in humid conditions, especially
during rainy season.
• The distinct feature of the disease is the
production of white growth directly below the
area, mostly on the underside of the spots (Fig. 9).
• A yellow, irregularly shaped area appears on the
upper side of the leaf where sporulation occurs.
• On the surface of cabbage heads, the pathogen
causes numerous sunken, black spots ranging
in size from necrotic flecks to 2 cm in diameter,
with little or no sporulation.
• Cauliflower and broccoli floral heads develop
Fig. 9. dark brown internal streaks.
Downy mildew on cabbage.

283
Management
• Use resistant/tolerant cultivars of crucifers.
They may vary in their reactions to downy
mildew, but those with high levels of resistance
are not available.
• Practice crop rotation. Do not grow any type of
crucifer for at least 2 years.
• Follow proper plant spacing. Close spacing
will result in a high humidity and may stimulate
infection. There should be sufficient ventilation
and adequate air movement during day and
night to avoid build up of excess humidity,
which may favor the development of the disease.
• Destroy plant debris and cruciferous weeds.
They will serve as sources of pathogen.
• Prune leaves when they become too luxuriant
and dense.
Alternaria Leaf Spot

Causal fungus - Alternaria brassicae
Symptoms
• Also known as black spot, gray or black mold
(Fig. 10).
• Symptoms usually appear on the older leaves.
• Typically, lesions begin as small, yellow areas
that enlarge to about 1.5 cm in diameter and
are dark colored spots with concentric rings.
• The concentric rings contain spores that
Fig. 10.
develop during moist periods.
Alternaria leaf spot.
• The brown discoloration of cauliflower and
broccoli heads is caused by infection of the
pathogen.
Management
• Plant resistant or tolerant varieties to reduce
disease incidence.
• Use pathogen-free seeds in the management of
this disease.
• Apply hot water and seed treatment that are
effective against the pathogens.
• Avoid overhead irrigation particularly with
cauliflower and broccoli, in which head rot may
occur.

284
• Use plant spacing and planting pattern that
expose plants to full sun throughout the day.
• Plow in plant debris as soon as possible after
harvest to control the disease.
• Biofungicidal sprays of compost teas, plant
extracts, and horticultural oil when cultivars are
grown under conditions favorable to disease
development.
Web Blight
Causal fungus- Rhizoctonia solani
Symptoms and Signs

• Early infections are seen as threads of microscopic,
colorless hyphae growing across the undersides of
leaves (Fig. 11).
• The threads increase in density and form clumps
of white mycelium (Fig. 12).
• Olive-green areas appear on upper leaf surfaces
Fig. 11.
Web blight on pechay. and later become necrotic and merge causing
entire leaves to dry.
Management
• Practice solarization of soil by laying sheet of
clear plastic over the moistened area for few
weeks.
• Mulch with rice straw to prevent splashing of
soil into the leaves, especially during rainy season.
• Avoid splashing some soil particles on the leaves.
• Maintain good soil structure through good
drainage. Excessive moisture that will favor the
Fig. 12. survival of the pathogen is avoided.
Clumps of white mycelium. • Rotate crops to starve out or remove the host
pathogen.
Clubroot
Causal fungus - Plasmodiophora brassicae
Symptoms
• Enlargement of fine roots, secondary roots, and
the tap root, resulting in the formation of spindle-
shaped club.
• The clubs are generally widest in the middle and
taper toward the ends.

285
• Severely clubbed root systems are impaired
and cannot efficiently absorb water and
nutrients. Therefore, the plants are stunted and
may wilt during slight water stress.
• Lower leaves frequently turn yellow in advance
stages of disease development.
• The disease is often most severe in low-lying,
poorly drained soils.
• Fungal infection occurs mostly in cool places such
as Baguio and not in lowlands.
Management
• Use resistant/tolerant cultivars and adapted
cultivars. They must be tested in each planting
location because of some differences in their
susceptibility to the pathogen.
• Use of disease-free seedlings. Do not transplant
seedlings that have little clubs of swollen roots.
• Apply lime to soil to raise the pH to 7.2. This is
very effective in reducing disease development,
as the spores do not germinate readily in
alkaline soil.
• Crop rotation is impractical in most cases
because the resting spores survive for such a
long time and weed hosts can maintain the
inoculum.
• Conduct soil sterilization to kill the spores.
Sooty Mold
Causal fungus - Cladosporium sp.
Symptoms
• This fungus feeds on insect’s honeydew that
drip on the surfaces of leaves and fruit. The
pathogen never penetrates the plant at all
(Fig. 13).
• Fruiting structures consist of black clusters of
spores on the leaf surface.
Fig. 13. • Under severe infection, the plant turns yellow,
Sooty mold on cabbage. wilt, and dies.
• The presence of the disease is usually an
indication of aphid and whitefly infestations.

286
Management
• Apply organic sprays and horticultural oil to reduce
the population of aphids and whiteflies.
• Practice companion planting.
Black Rot
Causal bacterium - Xanthomonas campestris pv.
campestris
Symptoms
• Black rot is considered as one the most important
diseases of crucifers.
• Leaves of affected seedlings turn yellow and
drop off prematurely (Fig. 14).
• On older plants, lesions typically begin at the
leaf margin and progress inward, forming
Fig. 14.
Black rot on cauliflower. V-shaped chlorotic lesions.
• These lesions expand inwards to the center of
the leaf.
• With time, lesions begin to dry and become
necrotic.
• Infection normally occurs at the hydathodes, but
it can occur at any place on the leaf lamina
where insect or mechanical wounds allow
bacterial entry.
• Black rot infections can serve as avenues for
soft rot entry.
Management
• Rotate with non-cruciferous crops to allow time
for debris from the previous crucifer crop to
decompose.
• Use resistant cultivars when available; black
rot-resistant cabbage cultivars have been
developed.
• Plant pathogen-free seeds. Avoid overhead
irrigation.
• Avoid working in the fields when the foliage is
wet.

287
Soft Rot
Causal bacterium - Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp.
carotovorum (Figs. 15a–15c)
Symptoms
• Soft rot occurs on all crucifer crops, but it is
particularly damaging to Chinese cabbage and
common cabbage.
• Infected plant tissues first develop a water-
soaked lesion that enlarges rapidly in diameter
and depth.
• The affected area becomes soft and mushy and
generally turns dark in advance stages of disease
Fig. 15a.
Soft rot on Chinese cabbage. development.
• Soft rot-infected plants almost always give off
an offensive odor, perhaps in part due to
invasion by secondary organisms.
• Disease losses from soft rot may occur in the
field and during transit or storage.
Management
• Remove debris and infected heads from the field.
• Practice crop rotation with cereals or other non-
susceptible crop. However, this has little value
because the bacteria can survive in the soil and
dead plant tissues for many years.
Fig. 15b. • Avoid injury to the crop; the wounds can be
Soft rot on lettuce.
entry points of the bacteria.
• Choose fields that are well drained to reduce
soil surface moisture. Plants should be spaced
sufficiently to allow ventilation for rapid drying of
foliage.
• Place rain shelters to prevent soil splash and
foliage wetting to reduce soft rot incidence.
• Avoid overhead irrigation during warm, humid
weather.
Fig. 15c.
Soft rot on cabbage.

288
Tip Burn
• Physiological disorder - Calcium deficiency, too
much moisture followed by very hot, sunny days.
Symptoms
• Symptoms are characterized by yellow or brown
leaf margins, especially at the tip of the leaf.
• Later, leaves dry up and turn brown (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16.
Tip burn on cauliflower. Management
• Provide uniform supply of moisture and augment
soil with calcium phosphate or seaweed
fermented extract.
Cucurbits Cucumber, Watermelon, Muskmelon,

Bitter Gourd, Squash
Downy Mildew of Melon

Causal fungus - Pseudoperonospora cubensis
Symptoms and Signs

• Symptoms occur mainly on the leaves where
they begin as yellow angular spots; these spots
eventually turn brown (Fig. 17).
• During periods of high moisture, a white gray
fungal growth may be seen on the lower surface
of leaf lesions where the sporagiophores
protrude through stomata and produce pigmented
sporangia abundantly.
• As infection progresses, the plant wilts and dies.
Management
• Use resistant cultivars when available.
• Promote dry condition through pruning and
proper site selection.
• Remove and destroy severely infected leaves.
Fig. 17. • Apply homemade sprays such as sunflower,
Downy mildew on cucumber. egg yolk combined with coconut oil (EYCO), and
compost teas in the absence of resistant cultivars
and when the crop is grown under conditions
favorable to disease development.

289
Powdery Mildew
(Causal fungi - Erysiphe sp.)
Symptoms and Signs

• All cucurbits are susceptible to powdery mildew,
but watermelon is the least affected.
• Symptoms appear first as pale yellow spots on
leaves and stems (Fig. 18).
• Soon thereafter, sporulation becomes evident as
Fig. 18. white, powdery masses of conidia are produced
Powdery mildew on cucumber.
over the lesion surface.
• Lesions frequently are numerous and coalesce
to cover the entire leaf surface.
• Leaves become chlorotic, then turn brown, and
dry prematurely. Later the plant dies.
Management
• Plant resistant cultivars when available.
• Apply biofungicidal sprays of compost teas,
plant extracts, and horticultural oil when
cultivars are grown under conditions favorable to
disease development.
Anthracnose
Causal fungus - Colletotrichum lagenarium
Symptoms and Signs

• The disease is particularly damaging to
watermelon, cucumber, and cantaloupe, but
may also occur on other cucurbit crops (Fig. 19).
• On cucumber and cantaloupe, leaf lesions begin
Fig. 19. as yellowish to water-soaked areas, which
Anthracnose on muskmelon.
enlarge rapidly and turn brown and circular.
• Petiole and stem lesions are elliptical and
sunken.
• Fruit lesions appear at or near maturity as
water-soaked spots that develop into sunken,
circular lesions lined with dark, fungal stroma-
bearing masses of pink spores.
Management
• Plant resistant cultivars when available.
• Remove and burn the infected leaves as early as
possible.

290
• Apply biofungicidal sprays when susceptible
cultivars are grown under conditions conducive
for disease development.
Fusarium Wilt (Fig. 20)

Causal fungi - Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cucumerinum
on cucumber
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. melonis on cantaloupe
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. niveum on watermelon
Symptoms
• Plants infected with this disease exhibit yellowing
of the older leaves and later of younger leaves.
• Young seedlings are killed or severely stunted.
• Older plants begin to wilt at midday for a few days,
then permanently wilt and die.
• Vascular bundles are discolored and become
yellow or brown.
Management
• Use resistant varieties when available.
• Practice sanitation to reduce the spread of
pathogen in infested soil to farm tools and
workers
• Minimize field-to-field movement.
• Rotate crops to limit the development of new
races of this persistent soil- borne pathogen.
• Apply compost to increase beneficial fungi that
will compete with the pathogen.
Fig. 20.
Fusarium wilt.
Cucumber Mosaic (Fig. 21)

Causal virus - Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV)
Vector - Aphids (Fig. 22)
Other Hosts: cucumber, pepper, watermelon, eggplant,
other cucurbits
Symptoms
• Mosaic-infected leaves mottled with yellow, white,
and light and dark green spots or streaks.
Fig. 21. • Foliage curls downwards and the leaves in the
Cucumber mosaic. growing tip become distorted.
• Fruit is reduced in size and deformed. (Fig. 23)

291
Management
• Adjust planting dates to avoid high vector
population in young plants.
• Use virus-free propagation materials.
• Minimize external entrance of insects if planted
in protected structure.
• Rapidly eliminate virus-infected plants.
• Avoid overlapping or continuous planting of
sensitive species in the cropping rotation scheme.
• Control vector of the disease by applying
biopesticides such as plant extracts, oil, and soft
Fig. 22. soap. Once the plants are infected, there are no
Aphids (vector). available control measures.
Fig. 23.
Deformed fruits.
Solanaceous Tomato, Pepper, Eggplant
Black Leaf Mold (Fig. 24)

Causal fungus - Pseudocercospora fuligena
Symptoms and Signs

• Symptoms begin on lower leaves. They first
appear as yellow patches on the upper leaf
surface, which later turn brown. On the lower
leaf surface, gray to black sporulation occurs.
These spots coalesce to cover most of the leaf
Fig. 24. surfaces.
Black mold on tomato. • The leaves roll and begin to dry. Many remain on
the plants, which appear sooty covered.

292
• In severe infection, most of the plant foliage can
be killed and eventually plant dies (Fig. 25).
Management
• Plant resistant or tolerant cultivar.
• Eliminate sources of infection by removing and
destroying infected crop residues to prevent
spread of spores.
• Use healthy planting material. Do not use
seedlings that show symptoms of the disease.
Otherwise, the disease may be introduced into
Fig. 25. the field.
Severe infection of the disease. • In greenhouse, provide good ventilation to
reduce the high relative humidity, leaf wetness
from dew, and warm temperatures that are
favorable for disease development.
• Properly space, put stake, and prune the
infected leaves/plants to reduce disease infection.
• Compost teas, antagonistic organisms, and
botanical plant extracts may be used to control
the disease.
Early Blight
Causal fungus - Alternaria solani
Symptoms
• Small, dark, and circular to angular spots form
that enlarge into circular lesions composed of
concentric rings. These spots eventually spread to
cover the leaves (Fig. 26).
• Elliptical lesions also observed on stems and
petioles, which are drastically weakened at the
site of the lesion.
• In the late stage of infection, the green or ripe fruit
Fig. 26. has large dark lesions in its calyx area or on its
Early blight. upper shoulder.
Management
• Treat seeds with hot water to help reduce disease
incidence.
• Use disease-free transplants.
• Practice crop rotation.
• Avoid planting adjacent to overlapping crops.

293
• Prune infected leaves and spray compost teas to
delay the disease infection.
Late Blight
Causal Fungus - Phytophthora infestans
Symptoms and signs

• Leaf lesions are irregular, water-soaked
patches that may expand to encompass large
areas of leaf. A white fungal sporulation
may be observed underneath the lesions.
Later, the lesions dry and turn brown
Fig. 27. until blighting of the entire foliage occurs (Fig. 27).
Late blight on tomato.
• Lesions are at first irregular and water-soaked,
which may progress and kill sections of stems
and petioles or they may remain superficial
and dry out to form dark brown lesions.
• On fruit, lesions are firm, olive to brown, irregular-
shaped areas that cause its surface to have a
rough, leathery texture. Lesions may enlarge to
encompass the entire fruit (Fig. 28).
Management
Fig. 28. • Use resistant or tolerant cultivar to prevent the
Infection on fruits. occurrence of the disease.
• Use disease-free transplants or planting materials.
• Avoid planting tomato near potato plants.
• Prune infected leaves and spray compost teas
and plant extracts to delay the disease infection
or spread.
Cercospora Leaf Spot

Causal Fungus - Cercospora capsici
Symptoms
• Leaf spots are circular with brown borders and
light gray centers (frog eye). As the spots enlarge,
the centers crack, drop, and give a shot-hole
appearance (Fig. 29).
• Infection is also noticed on stem, petioles, and
Fig. 29.
Cercospora leaf spot on pepper. fruit peduncle, as elliptical dark borders and gray
centers.
• Severe infection kills the plants.

294
Management
• Treat seeds with hot water since the fungus
survives on seed.
• Use disease-free transplants.
• Provide wider plant spacing.
• Prune infected leaves and spray compost teas to
delay the disease infection.
Fusarium Wilt
Causal Fungi - Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici
(tomato)
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. melongenae (eggplant)
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasifectum (pepper)
Symptoms
• Initial symptoms are yellowing of the foliage.
Yellowing progresses from the lower leaves
upward, followed by browning and drying of
the older leaves. Plants begin to wilt at the
top during the day and recover at night. But
wilting progressively worsens until plants are
permanently wilted.
• Vascular systems turn brown and can be
detected by cutting the affected stems diagonally
(Fig. 30).
Management
• Use resistant or tolerant cultivar, which is the
best prevention of wilt disease.
• Treat seeds with hot water to reduce the
disease incidence.
• Plant in well-drained soil.
• Apply lime to raise soil pH to 6.5–7.0. This
may have effect on nutrient availability, boost
Fig. 30. the crop vigor, and create a favorable effect
Dark discoloration on microclimate in the soil that stimulates the
on vascular growth of antagonistic microorganisms.
system.
• Long rotation with non-related crops that is
not susceptible to wilt will control the wilt disease.
• Apply biocontrol products such as Trichoderma
sp. in the seedbed before and after sowing of
seeds as preventive measure.
• Practice soil solarization and use plastic mulch to
reduce population of pathogens in the soil.

295
• Remove and burn infected plants.
• Apply balanced fertilization. Deficiency of
potassium and excess nitrogen easily foster
Fusarium wilt.
Anthracnose
(Causal Fungi - Colletotrichum capsici)
Symptoms
• Circular and slightly sunken spots appear on ripe
or overripe fruits. Under favorable condition, the
lesions with pink spore masses appear on green
or ripe fruit (Fig. 31).
Fig. 31.
Anthracnose on pepper. Management
• Use resistant or tolerant cultivar.
• Put up or place stakes to allow air circulation and
drying of wet leaves.
• Preventive sprays of antagonists will help delay
the infection.
Bacterial Wilt
(Causal Bacterium - Ralstonia solanacearum
(Pseudomonas solanacearum)
Symptoms and Signs

• Bacterial wilt occurs in scattered or groups of
Fig. 32. plants.
Bacterial wilt on tomato.
• The initial symptoms of the disease are wilting
of terminal leaves, followed in 2–3 days by
sudden and permanent wilting. Adventitious
roots may develop on the main stems (Fig. 32).
• In later stages, vascular browning, water
soaking of pith, followed by browning of cortex
near the soil line occur (Fig. 33).
• When infected stems or roots are cut crosswise
and squeezed tightly, a gray to whitish fluid
appears (ooze), or a bacterial streaming from
the stem sections is observed when suspended
in water (Fig. 34).
Fig. 33.
Vascular browning.

296
Management
• Use resistant or tolerant cultivars.
• Use disease-free transplants; sterilize soil
medium to be used in seedling production.
• Practice rotation with non-susceptible crops.
For example, rotation of tomato with flooded
rice reduces disease incidence because the
wilt pathogen is unable to survive in a field that
Fig. 34 has been flooded.
Bacteria oozing from vascular
system - a diagnostic method.
• Apply compost. High organic matter in the soil
improves conditions for growth of microorganisms
including antagonistic organism that may
reduce bacterial wilt pathogen.
• Incorporation of Brassica species such as mustard
and cabbage in the soil (biofumigation) will
suppress the bacterial wilt.
• Use grafted tomato if available. Tomato seedlings
are grafted on resistant rootstocks (usually wild
eggplant cultivars).
Bacterial Spot
Causal Bacterium - Xanthomonas campestris pv.
vesicatora
Symptoms
• Small, water-soaked spots on leaves later
become brown and circular. These numerous
lesions may coalesce into necrotic areas;
leaves generally turn yellow and drop.
• On stems and petioles, the lesions are elliptical
Fig. 35.
Bacterial spot on tomato.
(Fig. 35).
• Infected fruit shows small, raised, corky, and
dark lesions.
Management
• Use pathogen-free seeds or transplants.
• Put up rain shelters to reduce water splash
that may reduce disease severity during heavy
rainfall.

297
Root Knot
Causal organism: Nematode - Meloidogyne spp.
Symptoms
• Above ground, the plants are stunted with
some yellowing. Severely affected plants may
wilt.
• Galls are formed on primary and secondary
roots, become large and are very obvious. Root
galls are typical symptoms of knot nematode
infection (Fig. 36).
Gall Management
• Use resistant cultivars, although some nematode
populations may overcome resistance.
• Practice crop rotation. Flooding in rice production
greatly reduces nematode populations.
• Use clean tools and other good sanitation
practices to minimize the spread of nematodes.
• Plow area to expose the nematodes to drying
conditions and eliminate potential host plants.
• Improve the organic matter in soil by adding
compost to promote populations of beneficial
organism that feed on nematodes.
Fig. 36. • Solarize infected area by covering the wet soil
Root knot nematode on tomato. with a clear plastic sheet.
• Plant marigold in infested soil.
• Drenching the soil with neem may also be
effective.
Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl

Causal Virus – Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (Fig. 37)
Vector - white fly (Bemisia tabaci)
Symptoms
• Leaves turn yellow and mottled, curl, and become
smaller.
• Flowers abort and fruits discolor.
• Leaf size is reduced.
Fig. 37. Management

Tomato yellow leaf curl.
• Adjust planting dates to avoid high vector
population in young plants.

298
• Use virus-free seedlings. Raise them under
protective structure to prevent feeding of insect
vectors.
• Rapidly eliminate virus-infected plants.
• Avoid overlapping or continuous planting of
sensitive species in the crop rotation scheme.
• Lay down reflective mulch to deter vector feeding.
• Apply organic sprays such as homemade plant
extracts, oil, and soft soap to control vector of the
disease such as aphids and whiteflies.
Blossom-end Rot
This is a physiological disorder caused by

calcium deficiency and water imbalance. Any soil
condition affecting the uptake of calcium may result
in this disorder. It occurs in acid soils with high salt
content.
Symptoms
• Usually appear on developing green fruits.
Fig. 38.
Blossom-end rot on tomato. • Light tan lesions form which turn into brown,
sunken areas at the blossom-end part of the fruit.
• Lesions become leathery and accompanied by dry
rot.
• Internal black rot of tissue is observed at the
center of the fruit.
Management
• Ensure balance nutrition for plants by supplying
compost and refrain from adding extra nitrogen.
• Provide regular and even irrigation.
• Use compost. It favorably regulates the pH in soil.
• Apply lime (4 kg calcium carbonate/m3). In severe
cases, spray with a solution of 7.5 g calcium
nitrate/L of water.

299
Sunscald
This is a physiological disorder due to sudden

exposure of fruit to direct sunlight (Fig. 39).
Symptoms
• Light colored, papery lesions appear on the
exposed fruit surface.
• Secondary infection may occur, with pathogens
causing soft rot.
Fig. 39.
Sunscald on pepper.
Management
• In very sunny season, the plant should have
leaves to protect the fruits from sunburn.
• Practice good water management.
• Apply limestone to soils with low pH
• Apply gypsum (calcium sulfate) to soils with high
pH and low calcium levels.
Fruit Bursting
This is a physiological disorder caused by

fluctuating moisture and temperature.
Symptoms
• Bursting of tomato fruits is prevalent in protected
areas such as inside screen house (Fig. 40).
• Ripe fruit cracks at the stem end due to
fluctuations in moisture and temperature.
• It occurs when varieties developed for hot
Fig. 40.
climates are exposed to or grown in humid, wet
Crack on fruit.
conditions.
Management
• Ensure uniform moisture levels in the soil by
adding compost.
• Provide for good air circulation inside the screen
house.
• Avoid pruning too many leaves at one time.
During rainy season and when rains follow
a longer dry period, fruit cracking cannot be
avoided.

300
Disorder Caused by Waterlogged Soil
This is a physiological disorder that occurs after

heavy rains and flooding.
Symptoms
• Infected plants show wilting and dark
Fig. 41.
Wilted plant. discoloration on affected stem usually at the soil
line (Fig. 41).
• Plants wilt due to waterlogged condition
wherein all the cavities are filled with water,
depriving roots of oxygen.
Management
• Improve drainage system to remove excess water.
• Incorporate more compost or even river soil to
improve drainage.
• Prepare raised beds in tomato production.
Onion Anthracnose/Twister (Fig. 42)

Causal fungus - Colletochrichum gloeospoiroides
Symptoms and Signs

• White, oval, sunken lesions may occur on leaf
sheaths and blades.
• As disease progresses, cluster of orange
acervuli form in concentric rings in the shallow,
sunken area, which later harden and turn black.
• Leaves curl, twist, and develop chlorosis.
• The neck elongates (false stem). Roots are
reduced and infected plants may die.
• Bulbs are slender and may rot before harvest or
during storage.
Management
• Destroy crop residue to decrease initial inoculum.
• Use resistant or tolerant cultivar and plant in
well-drained soil.
• Apply compost. High organic matter in the soil
improves conditions for growth of microorganisms,
including antagonistic organism that may reduce
the pathogen.
Fig. 42. • Use antagonists such as Trichoderma as seed
Anthracnose on onion. treatment and soil drenching.

301
Purple Blotch
Causal fungus - Alternaria porri
Symptoms
• Symptoms start as water-soaked areas or
lesions on leaves that turn brown with purplish
center.
• As lesions enlarge, they become zonate and
brown to purple.
• In moist weather, the surface of the lesion may
be covered with brown to gray fruiting structures
of the fungus (Fig. 43).
Management
• Use resistant or tolerant cultivar.
• Destroy infected crop residues to decrease initial
inoculum.
botanical plant extracts may help prevent and
control the disease.
Fig. 43.
Purple blotch on onion.
Legumes Stringbean, Cowpea
Powdery Mildew
(Fungus – Erysiphe poligoni )
Symptoms
• There are white, powdery spots on the upper
surface of the leaf. Later, these spots appear on
both leaf surfaces (Fig. 44).
• The disease progresses from the older to the
younger leaves.
• When the leaf becomes heavily infected, it shrivels
and falls from the plant.
Fig. 44. Management

Powdery mildew on cowpea. • Use resistant or tolerant cultivar.

302
• Follow the recommended planting distances.
Closer planting creates microclimate that favors
• Compost teas, antagonistic organisms, botanical
plant extracts and oil may help prevent and control
the disease.
Cercospora Leaf Spot (Fig. 45)

Causal fungus- Cercospora canescens
Symptoms and Signs

• Leaf spots are brown to rust, irregular in size and
shape, angular, and form a checkerboard pattern.
• Dark, fuzzy growth of fungus appears on the
undersurface of the leaf under favorable condition.
• Tissue at the center of leaf spots often drops,
producing a shot-hole effect.
Fig. 45. Management

Cercospora leaf spot on stringbean.
• Use disease-free seeds. The use of resistant/
tolerant cultivars is a must.
• Plant seeds at recommended planting distances.
Closer planting creates a microclimate that favors
• Remove/prune infected leaves to reduce the
inoculum.
• Avoid working when plants are wet.
botanical plant extracts may help prevent and
control the disease.

303
SELF-TEST
A. Answer the following:
1. What is plant disease?
2. What are the causes of plant disease?
3. What are the different pathogen types and their characteristics?
4. What are some steps that can be followed to diagnose plant disease occurrence in the
farm?
5. List some strategic or preventive disease management practices in organic vegetable

production. Discuss each briefly.
6. Enumerate some tactical disease management practices in organic vegetable production.

Discuss each briefly.
7. What are the four important diseases of crucifers? Describe symptoms and control
strategies for each disease.
8. What are four important diseases of cucurbits? Describe symptoms and control
strategies for each disease.
9. List some physiological disorders in vegetables and describe their symptoms and control
measures.
10. What is an important disease of legumes? Describe symptoms and control strategies of
the disease.
B. Disease Identification
1. Identify the disease infecting the sample plant parts of vegetables.
2. State measures to control these diseases.

304
References:
AVRDC. Identification of diseases in tomato. Tainan, Taiwan: Asian Vegetable Research and
Development Center. Training Office, International Cooperation Program, 1992.
Burgess, L.W.; Knight, T.E.; Tesoriero, L.; Phan, H.T. Diagnostic manual for plant diseases in
Vietnam. Research Monograph No. 1–9, 210p. Canberra, Australia: Australian Center for
International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), 2008.
Ellis, B.W.; Bradley, F.M. The organic gardener’s handbook of natural insect and disease
control: A complete problem-solving guide to keeping your garden and yard healthy
without chemicals. Pennsylvania: Rodale Press Inc., 1996.
Davies, G.; Lennartsson, M. Organic vegetable production: A complete guide. Trowbridge,
Wiltshire, England: The Cromwell Press Ltd., 2005.
Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Agricultural Research (DA-BAR). Package of technology
of different vegetable crops. Technology generation and dissemination for the growth
and development of vegetable industry. TGDGDVI-DAR FU. Quezon City: DA-BAR, 2005.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Tomato integrated pest management: An
ecological guide, 2000.
Ilag, L.L.; Ilag, L.L. Learning the principles of plant pathology. 2nd ed. College, Laguna,
Philippines: University of the Philippines Los Baños, 2002.
International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR. The bio-intensive approach to small-
scale household food production: Module on pest management. Silang Cavite,
Philippines, IIRR, 1993.
MacNab, A.A.; Sherf, A.F.; Springer, J.K. Identifying diseases of vegetables. The
Pennsylvanian State University, 1994.
Mikkelson, K.O. A natural farming system for sustainable agriculture in the tropics. Puerto
Princesa City, Palawan: Aloha House, Inc.
Nagpala, A.L.; Lando, L.D.; Bacbac, J.D. Diseases of vegetable crops with economic
importance in Cordillera: A compendium. Baguio City, Philippines: Cordillera Highland
Agricultural Resource Management (CHARM) Project, 2002.
PhilRice. Integrated pest management in rice-vegetable cropping systems. Muñoz, Nueva
Ecija: Philrice, IPM-CRSP, 2007.
Quebral, F.C. 1981. Assay on the fungicidal properties of some medicinal plants. Nat.
Crop. Prot. Center Ann. Rep. 1981. The Bio-intensive Approach to Small-scale
Household Food Production. Silang Cavite, Philippines: International Institute of
Rural Reconstruction (IIRR), 1993. - (as cited in IIRR).
Schwartz, H.F.; Mohan, S.K. Compendium of onion and garlic diseases. American
Pythopathological Society. Minnesota, USA: APS Press, 1995.
Van Haute, J.; Van Haute, L.Q. 2008. Let nature handle our pest and disease problems.
In: Growing Rich, Tasty Veggies in Harmony with Nature, Vol. 2. Ecological Gardening
with Focus on the Philippines. D’ Wheelbarrow Farm. Las Piñas City, Metro Manila: My
Backyard Garden Pub.

305
Table 1. Plants that can be prepared into crude extracts as biofungicides.
Part(s) Mode of Preparation Target
Plant Name Diseases Controlled
Used and Application(*) Pest(s)/Pathogen
'Acapulco' leaves Extract juice and spray at Alternaria fruit rot, early blight, purple blotch, leaf spot
(Cassia alata) a rate of 1 cup juice/liter Cercospora leaf mold, leaf spot, early blight, frog eye,
water. Colletotrichum leaf spot, anthracnose, fruit rot, smudge
Diplodia fruit and stem rot
Fusarium damping-off, stem and root rot, early blight,
Helminthosporium wilt,
Pestalotia leaf blight
leaf spot
Amaranth leaves Extract juice of 1 kg leaves, Alternaria fruit rot, early blight, purple blotch, leaf spot
(Amaranthus then mix juice with 3 liters Cercospora leaf mold, leaf spot, early blight, frog-eye
gracitis) of water and spray. Colletotrichum leaf spot, anthracnose, fruit rot, smudge
Curvularia leaf spot, leaf blight
Helminthosporium leaf blight
Pestalotia leaf spot
'Damong Maria' leaves Extract juice and use as Alternaria fruit rot, early blight, purple blotch, leaf spot
(Artemisia spray at the rate of 2–5
vulgaris) tablespoon juice/liter water.
Garlic cloves Chop finely to extract the Alternaria fruit rot, early blight, purple blotch, leaf spot
(Allium sativum) pure juice. Mix 1 part of Cercospora leaf mold, leaf spot, early blight, frog-eye
juice with 100 parts of Colletotrichum leaf spot, anthracnose, fruit rot, smudge
water to form stock solution Curvularia leaf spot, leaf blight
ready for spraying. Diplodia fruit and stem rot
Fusarium damping-off, stem and root rot, early blight,
Helminthosporium wilt
Pestalotia leaf blight
leaf spot
mildew on solanaceous plants
Ginger rhizome Extract juice and use as Cercospora leaf mold, leaf spot, early blight, frog-eye
(Zingiber spray.
officinale)
Horseradish leaves Extract juice of 1 kg leaves, Alternaria fruit rot, early blight, purple blotch, leaf spot
or Drumstick then mix juice with 3 liters Colletotrichum leaf spot, anthracnose, fruit rot, smudge
(Moringa of water, and use as spray. Diplodia fruit and stem rot
oleifera) Pestalotia leaf spot
'Ipil-ipil' leaves Extract juice of 1 kg leaves, Alternaria fruit rot, early blight, purple blotch, leaf spot
(Leucaena mix with 1 liter of water and Cercospora leaf mold, leaf spot, early blight, frog-eye
leucocephala) use infusion as spray. Colletotrichum leaf spot, anthracnose, fruit rot, smudge
Curvularia leaf spot, leaf blight
Helminthosporium leaf blight
Pestalotia leaf spot
'Kakawate' leaves Extract juice of 1 kg leaves, Cercospora leaf mold, leaf spot, early blight, frog-eye
(Gliricidia then mix juice with 3 liters
sepium) of water, and use as spray.
'Kamantigue' leaves Extract juice of 1 kg leaves, Alternaria fruit rot, early blight, purple blotch, leaf spot
(Impatiens then mix juice with 3 liters Cercospora leaf mold, leaf spot, early blight, frog-eye
balsamina) of water, and use as spray. Helminthosporium leaf blight
'Lagundi' leaves Extract juice of 1 kg leaves, Cercospora leaf mold, leaf spot, early blight, frog-eye
(Vitex negundo) then mix juice with 3 liters
of water, and use as spray.

306
Table 1. Continued........
Part(s) Mode of Preparation Target

Plant Name Diseases Controlled
Used and Application(*) Pest(s)/Pathogen
'Makahiya' whole Pound 2 kg of the plant, Diplodia fruit and stem rot
(Mimosa pudica) plant soak in 1 liter of water for Pestalotia leaf spot
1 day and use as spray.
'Mana' leaves Extract juice of 1 kg leaves, Diplodia fruit and stem rot
(Jatropha then mix juice with 3 liters Fusarium damping-off, stem and root rot, early blight,
multifida) of water, and use as spray. wilt
'Mayana' leaves Extract juice of 1 kg leaves, Cercospora leaf mold, leaf spot, early blight, frog-eye
(Coleus then mix juice with 3 liters
scutellarioides) of water, and use as spray.
Onion (red) bulb Chop finely to extract the Alternaria fruit rot, early blight, purple blotch, leaf spot
(Allium cepa) pure juice, mix 2 teaspoon Colletotrichum leaf spot, anthracnose, fruit rot, smudge
of pure juice with liter of Curvularia leaf spot, leaf blight
water to form your stock Fusarium damping-off, stem and root rot, early blight,
solution. Helminthosporium wilt
To use as spray, mix 1 part Pestalotia leaf blight
of solution with 20 parts of leaf spot
water.
Papaya leaves Pound 2 kg of leaves, soak Cercospora leaf mold, leaf spot, early blight, frog-eye
(Carica papaya) in liter of water for 2 days Diplodia fruit and stem rot
and use as spray.
'Sambong' leaves Extract juice and spray at Cercospora leaf mold, leaf spot, early blight, frog-eye
(Blumea a proportion of 1 part juice
balsamifera) and 1 part water.
'Takip-kuhol' leaves Extract juice of 1 kg leaves, Fusarium damping-off, stem and root rot, early blight,
(Centella then mix juice with 3 liters Helminthosporium wilt
asiatica) of water, and use as spray. leaf blight
Source: Ecological Gardening with Focus on the Philippines, Vol 2. Let nature handle our pest and disease problems, 2008.

307
308
Module 5
Organic Livestock and Poultry
Production
5.1 Principles and considerations in organic livestock
production 310
5.2 Organic poultry production 322
5.3 Natural farming technology for organic hog production
in micro-, small- and medium-scale integrated organic
farming systems 339
5.4 Duck ranger: the organic production of ducks 357
5.1 Principles and Considerations in Organic
Livestock Production
Significance: One of the fundamental principles of organic

farming is that organic production systems shall
benefit the quality of life of all parties involved as
one and indivisible, the farmers, the communities,
and the ecosystems. Quote from IFOAM Principle:
"Nourishment and well-being are achieved through
the ecology of the specific production environment.
For example, in the case of crops this is the
living soil; for animals it is the farm ecosystem;
for fish and marine organisms, the aquatic
environment.”
It is important to understand the relationship
between organic livestock and crop production, that
they are best used in integrated systems, either
directly on one production unit, or indirectly by
making use of them through coordination and
exchange of inputs and outputs. Organic animal
manure from organic livestock production can
become an organic farm input for crop production for
soil fertility management. Organic crops are used as
input for feeds, health care, and others.
However, both systems, whether or not
combined as an integrated organic farming system
or separated for geographic, economic, social,
individual or whatever reason, depend on a healthy
environment, on many beneficial living organism
(microorganism, insects, birds, other wild animals)
and a multitude of plants that are always short of
being appreciated.

310
For organic livestock farmers, it is important to
understand:
• the natural behavior and basic needs of the

animals to define an appropriate housing,
pasture, management and dietary requirement
to assure healthy growth of the animals and
• the necessary interventions for disease
prevention and management in acute
situations through other means than synthetic
veterinary medicines.
Description: This module presents the basic principles of

organic livestock production as an introduction to the
different production modules specific to the different
livestock and poultry to develop the understanding
of organic livestock in relation to the principles of
organic agriculture and organic crop production. It
should be studied and understood by anybody who
wants to be acquainted with organic farming. Organic
livestock producers should use this knowledge as a
basis in raising organic livestock or poultry.
Objectives: After completing this lesson, the learners are

expected to:
1. understand the principles of organic livestock

for use in livestock and poultry production as
well as in relation to organic crop production;
2. use this knowledge as a basis to develop
organic livestock and poultry production units
and improve organic crop production systems;
and
3. be aware on how to convert from conventional
to organic operations.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, powerpoint presentations, on

site tours of organic livestock/poultry operations
Specific Strategies: • Powerpoint or other forms of presentations,

inclusive of actual production units are for
providing basic information and framework for
group discussions.

311
• Participants discuss their understanding of the
principles of organic livestock and how they will
be applied in the actual production systems.
Materials and Equipment LCD for PowerPoint presentations, white board,

Requirements: index cards for group exercises, Manila paper etc.

312
General Principle of Organic One of the fundamental principles of organic
Livestock Production farming is that organic production systems shall
benefit the quality of ecosystems. Organic livestock
production aims to be an integral part of organic
farming in order to achieve this goal as well as to
assure the welfare and promote the health and meet
behavioral needs of animals in organic production.
This is in stark contrast to conventional livestock
production systems, which are designed to be linear,
independent production system with inputs taken
from outside the production units and rarely designed
to fit into existing ecosystem, much less to enhance
and/or improve them. Conventional systems are
often designed with no or little connection to the land,
but organic farming systems recognize the importance
of the links between the health of the soil, the crops
and the health of the animals. Organic farming
promotes systems that are based on biological
synergies in order to develop into sustainable forms of
agricultural production.
Role of Livestock in Organic Animals are essential to a truly sustainable

Production organic production system. As early as 1924, original
proponent of biodynamic agriculture, Rudolf Steiner
defined a “healthy farm” as a farm that had animals
embedded in the system: “Within our farms, we
should attempt to have everything we need for
agricultural production, including, of course, the
appropriate amount of livestock…”
It is widely accepted that livestock plays an
important role in nutrient cycling as nutrients are
returned to the soil via manure and compost, even if
there are many other techniques of “nitrogen fixing”
for agricultural production purposes. Nevertheless,
animals continue to play a major role in organic
agricultural systems aiming for biological synergies,
as versus energy- and water- intensive industrial
types of agricultural production system, in an era
that must restore the ecological health of the natural
resources destroyed by conventional, exploitive,
and fuel-based farming systems. The following are

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three examples of the synergetic effect of
livestock and crop production in organic farming
systems:
• The development of rice, duck, fish, azolla

production systems based on traditional rice
farming systems in Asia
• Free-ranging poultry, which can fertilize the

fields of crops such as grapes and other fruit
trees and at the same time keep insects in
check, and feed on the emerging weeds
• Rice husk and hull that are used for organic

hog farming as source of feeds and bedding
will eventually fertilize the soil
Animal Welfare in Organic Organic livestock production systems have

Production developed, and are further improving towards
production systems that put strong emphasis on
ecological synergies, animal welfare and health for
crops and animals.
Organic livestock production is based on

fundamental respect for animals and their
requirements and recognizes animals as “sentient”
beings. Organic production aims to protect the
animals’ right to the “five freedoms,” which are:
freedom from hunger, thirst and malnutrition; freedom
from fear and distress; freedom from physical and
thermal discomfort; freedom from pain, injury and
disease; and freedom to express normal patterns of
behavior.
Animals thus should have:
• readily accessible clean water;

• a nutritionally complete and balanced diet;
• appropriate shelter and comfort;
• freedom of movement with regular access
to pasture and/or free-range, open-air
runways; and
• humane handling, transportation and
slaughter.

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To comply with the principles above, the
organic producers will have to undertake a different
approach towards the following:
• Farm landscape to consider biodiversity,

crops which can be used for feeds, medicinal
plants, trees and shrubs for shade and as
windbreakers
• Design of housing, which can be permanent
and/or portable shelters
• Appropriate stocking rates, not only to satisfy
organic standards, but to reach optimal, not
maximum numbers
• Becoming knowledgeable in formulation of
feeds from readily available materials; to
either plant them or coordinate their
production with other organic farmers;
• Reduction of animal stress through the
adoption of different management techniques
that will achieve optimum productivity and
health of the animals
Animal Health in Organic Organic livestock production is growing rapidly

Production throughout the world. Though very different in
details due to varied cultural, climatic and economic
conditions, organic standards prohibit the use of
chemically synthesized veterinary medicinal products
and antibiotics for prevention of diseases. They
emphasize on health maintenance through prevention,
while sick and injured animals are to be treated using
natural medicines, feed additives and probiotics.
Organic livestock production has improved over
the past years with regards to animal health and
productivity. But in most countries worldwide, it is
still challenging to replace the synthetic medicines
and feed additives to achieve optimum animal
health and productivity. This is particularly true in
the Philippines, where organic livestock production
is in infant stage and where conventional livestock
production systems are not easy to convert into
organic production systems because they are
practically reduced to factory farming with high
stocking in poultry and hog production with all its
ill effects on animal health and the environment.

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Both use breeds which require high protein diets,
synthetic feed additives and synthesized medicines
as well as antibiotics for preventive treatments.
Herbal Products Increased research on the use of herbs,

which have been used traditionally either as feed
supplements or medicines, has led companies to
produce herbal products for prevention and treatment
of various ailments as well as to augment production
performance, both in conventional and organic
livestock production. They are not readily available
in all countries, which forces organic farmers to use
farmstead production of these products. This can be
considered as a blessing because it improves the
skills and performance of the farming system or as an
additional burden to the farmer. Ideally, the products
should be available to give the producers the choice
if they want to buy the ready-made or produce their
own.
Ethnic Veterinary Medicine Ethnic veterinary medicine practice has been

Practices known in Asia for thousands of years. It would be
specifically valuable in the Philippines to make this
knowledge available to organic farmers, particularly
in the absence of standardized commercial herbal
medicines.
Fermented Plant Juice In the Philippines, farmstead production of

Products fermented plant juices has proven to be efficient.
Some can be bought ready made. (Refer to separate
module on production inputs)
IMO - Indigenous Microorganism

• Made from microorganism present in the
bamboo and the forest grounds
• Cultivated in steamed rice as medium; fermented
with raw sugar (muscovado) or molasses
• Serves as decomposer; controls non-beneficial
microorganism
FPJ - Fermented Plant Juice

• Fermented plant juice is fermented extract of
the plants’ liquid and chlorophyll content. Crude

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sugar (muscovado) or molasses is used to extract
the essence through osmosis.
• Use green leafy plants, young leaves with shoots
such as in ‘kangkong,’ pumpkin leaves or
‘kalabasa’ leaves, young (3 ft long) banana trunk,
bamboo shoots or ’labong.’
FFJ - Fermented Fruit Juice

• FFJ increases plant nutrition because it contains
high percent of potassium.
• It helps digestion of animals.
• The nutrients from the fruits increase resistance
of crops against disease and protect plants from
insects.
• It acts as a hormone and promotes and hastens
growth.
FAA - Fish Amino Acid

• Fish amino acid is liquid made from fish entrails,
gut, and gills and may or may not include golden
apple snails (‘kuhol’) as additional source of
nitrogen.
• FAA contains abundant amount of nutrients and
various types of amino acids.
OHN – Oriental Herbal Nutrient

• OHN is made from popular oriental crops such
as garlic (antibiotic and for control of parasites),
ginger (for upper respiratory system), chili (for
blood circulation), and neem seeds (pest control).
• OHN is a very important input to develop the
immune system of plants and animals and control
crawling pest (ginger).
Calcium/Calcium Phosphate
• It is made of bones and meat boiled to remove fat,
dried, and broiled until charcoal black.
• It is mixed with coconut vinegar and fermented.
• Calcium Phosphate (Calphos) is easily absorbed
and applied when plants are about to flower.
LAS/LABS – Lactic Acid Bacteria Serum

• It is a mixture of rice washing, brown sugar, and
fresh milk.

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• It is used as soil amendment and foliar spray,
and applied to beddings in livestock production.
Animal Nutrition in Organic Animals should be fed in a way suited to their

Production physiology. Ruminants should receive a balanced
diet according to their specific nutritional needs
and should not be fed a diet that consists entirely
of concentrates. They need adequate amounts of
roughage since they have the unique availability to
digest cellulose and other plant materials, provided
that too high concentrates do not affect the pH in
the rumen. Out of this concern, certain standards
indicate specific minimum amounts of roughage in
the dry matter of the ruminants’ diet.
An organic farmer should know that a balanced
diet for animals means rations that are not too high
nor too low in protein content. A balance diet also
means the production of plants in healthy soil to
supplement the macro- and micro nutrients as well
as trace elements in feeds.
It is important to research, develop, and grow
alternative fodder and forage to corn and soy
bean, which are currently predominantly used in
conventional livestock production.
The list below presents some examples. This
is to be completed through further research and
from farmers’ experience, as of organic livestock
production develops.
• Root crops: Turnips (‘singkamas’), sweet

potato (‘kamote’), cassava (‘kamoteng kahoy’)
• Nitrogen fixing crops: Flemingia, Indigofera,
Desmodium rensonii, Trichantera gigantea
• From the sea: seaweeds, algae, etc. There is
still a lot to be researched on these.
• Minerals, vitamins and trace elements:
‘alugbati,’ kangkong, ‘kamote’ tops, ‘talinum,’
‘malunggay’
• Medicinal crops: ‘banaba,’ ‘bayabas,’ ‘kaimito,’
‘lagundi,’ lemon grass, oregano, ‘sambong’

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Breeds and Breeding For optimum productivity in an organic livestock
farm, it is important to choose animal breeds that are
proven high producers. In organic farming however,
the criteria of “high producers” may be judged
differently from conventional farms. Production
charts are important. Other characteristics are
equally important to an organic environment such as
mothering ability, hardiness and thriftiness, resistance
to disease and parasites, ability to forage and adapt to
local crops available in the ecosystem of the farm.
An organic farmer in the Philippines might like to
consider looking for pure native breeds and improve
them through breeding and selection, or practice
cross-breeding of native and high breeds.
Converting to Organic Livestock The establishment of organic animal husbandry

Production requires a conversion period for land and animals.
Organic farming, being a holistic approach, will be
designed in such a way as not to exhaust the land.
Using the biological synergies, it should maintain a
healthy ecosystem, or in cases of conversion from
conventional farming, often improve the ecosystem.
Organic production systems aim to be as self-
sufficient as possible. Therefore, after the conversion
period, the animal husbandry shall not be dependent
on conventional raising systems. It shall produce
livestock in the farm organically from birth.
Producers who convert to organic livestock

production should:
• understand the principles of organic

agriculture, the interdependency of all its
aspects;
• be knowledgeable of the applicable organic
standards as well as government policies;
• visit existing organic operations, state
universities that are involved in the promotion
of organic farming, training centers, websites,
and the likes;
• develop a farm development plan with short,
medium, and long term goals;

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• study the market: demand, prices, competitors,
consumer preferences, packaging, and
existing distribution systems;
• ideally convert the land first in order to have
a certifiable source of feeds and/or source of
organic feeds from other organic farmers;
• assess the farm: Is it suitable for the
management system you want to adopt?
What changes are needed to make the farm
set up usable, efficient as well as organically
certified (housing, stocking, free ranging)?;
• study available management, nutrition, and
approved health care programs;
• develop livestock record keeping system for
sound management, profitability, and organic
certification compliance; and
• develop and implement an action plan.

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SELF-TEST
1. What is the role of livestock in organic production?
2. Based on the principles of organic livestock production, animals should have:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3. What is the standard in keeping organic livestock healthy?
4. What can be used to prevent or treat various ailments?
5. Give examples of alternative fodder and forage for organic livestock?
6. The establishment of organic animal husbandry requires a conversion period for

animals and land. What should a producer know or do to convert to organic livestock
production?

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5.2 Organic Poultry Production
Mercedes P. Tarun
Significance: Organic poultry production focuses on the

integration of humane, environmentally and
economically sustainable agricultural production
systems. It is created to produce acceptable levels of
crop, livestock and human nutrition, protection from
pest and diseases, and an appropriate return to the
human and other resources employed.
Description: This module explains aspects of organic poultry

production systems as currently practiced by the
existing organic poultry producers.
Objectives: After completing this module, participants must

be able to:
1. identify and describe the basic management

practices in the production of organic poultry
(layers and broilers) and
2. compare the advantages and disadvantages
of organically produced eggs and meat with
those produced following the conventional
method.
Learning Approaches: 1. Lecture/discussions

2. Hands-on /group exercises
3. Field trip
Specific Strategies: 1. Discussion on the basic principles in raising

organic chickens (broilers and layers)
2. Visit organic poultry farm and observe existing
management practices.
Materials and Equipment: 1. Breeds of chicken

2. Housing
3. Feed ingredients
4. Probiotics

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Organic Farming and its Organic farming refers to the principles of
Implications to Poultry sustained and cyclic use of natural resources through
Production a management system that prohibits the use of
synthetic chemical substances and focuses on soil
resources protection and ecological balance to
produce natural and safe agricultural products.
Organic food is produced based on a set of
standards and principles on the use of chemical
pesticides/herbicides/insecticides, food additives,
animal welfare, and sustainability. Organic growers
aim to produce food as naturally as possible, free
from trans-fats, genetically modified organisms
(GMOs), and most additives.
Organic food is produced in an organic farming
system without the use of synthetic chemicals
or GMO. Emphasis is placed on a holistic farm
management approach using crop rotations and
ruminant animals as an integral part of the system.
Organic systems recognize that our health is
directly connected to the food we eat and ultimately
the health of the soil. In the production of animal
products, animal welfare is an important issue with a
free-range system of rearing.
The Organic Chicken To be fully organic, chickens must be fed

Production organic grain-containing diet. This grain has been
grown organically without artificial fertilizers
or sprays (Fig. 1). Such feed is expensive,
therefore, we have to offer our customers
a choice of either fully organic or “additive-
free” chickens. Additive-free birds are reared
in the same way and conditions as the organic
chickens. But the grain in additive-free feed is not
organically grown and is therefore cheaper. This
means that the additive-free chickens can be sold
at a lower price.
To achieve the objectives of animal welfare,
environmental protection, and sustainable use of
Fig. 1. resources, certain principles are adhered to:
Sample birds in organic poultry
production.
• Management of livestock as land-based
systems so that stocking rates are based
on the carrying capacity of the land and not
inflated by reliance on purchased hectares

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from outside the farm system. Thus, the
potential for nutrient concentration, excess
manure production, and pollution is avoided.
• Reliance on farm or locally derived
renewable resources, such as homegrown
poultry feeds in order to reduce the need for
non-renewable resources as direct inputs or
for transport.
• Reliance on feed sources produced
organically which are suited to the animal’s
evolutionary adaptation and minimize
competition for food suitable for human
consumption.
• Maintenance of health through preventive
management and good husbandry to reduce
the development of animals resistant
to therapeutic medicines as well as
contamination of workers, food products, and
the environment.
• Use of housing systems, which allow natural
behavior patterns to give priority to animal
welfare considerations.
• Use of breeds and rearing systems suited to
the production systems employed in terms of
disease resistance, productivity, hardiness,
and suitability of ranging.
Preliminary Considerations The availability of capital alone is not enough

in Organic Chicken assurance of a successful business operation. In
Production organic poultry, a raiser must consider the following:
1. Technical know-how. Technical knowledge

and training in both egg and meat type
production is an important requisite in the
business.
2. Market assurance. Profit depends on the
timely disposal of products.
3. Availability of stock, feeds, and other supplies
for a continuing operation. A systematic
production program for the production of
feed resources and stocks must be
considered to have an assured supply for a
sustainable production.

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Benefits from Organic Chicken Benefits derived from organic chicken:
1. Organic food tastes better.

2. Organic food production helps protect future
generations. Food choices in the family and
community determine children’s health.
3. Organic food has higher levels of nutrients.
Some research findings show that organic
foods have higher nutrient levels.
4. The use of antibiotics, antimicrobials,
hormones and others that promote growth
are prohibited in organic production. Selling
animals treated with veterinary drugs or
chemicals is prohibited.
5. Chemical residues are missing or at very low
levels in organically produced food. Organic
growers have pest and disease management
strategies that do not use artificial and toxic
chemicals.
6. Organic farming could be one of the ways
family farms can survive.
Stocking The main problems on breeds, sourcing and

rearing are as follows:
• Availability of appropriate breeds

• Transportation cost
• Minimum quantities of birds that the large
producers will supply
Breeds of Chicken Breeds for Egg and Meat Production
Most organic producers use intensively bred

hybrids for egg laying. Breeders have started
developing lines specifically for free-range
production such as Kabir from Israel and Sasso
from France with performance comparable to that
of the purebred.
Breeds for Broiler Production
Stocks for broiler production are derived by

crossing heavy and medium breeds of chicken.
Cornish is the most popular breed used for the

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male line. They are bred to females of White Rock,
New Hampshire, Rhode Island Red, and other
medium breeds to produce F1 crosses that constitute
the broiler chickens.
Stocking Rate Free-range system is suitable for a general

farm although it may require a bit of labor to feed
the birds, shut them in their houses at night, and let
them out in the morning. Small houses are provided
accommodating from 50 to 150 birds. In slatted-
floored houses, 0.069–0.093 m2 (0.75–1 ft2) of
floor area is allowed per bird while in solid-floored
houses, 0.14 m2 (1.5 ft2) floor area is sufficient.
The houses should be raised 0.31 m (1 ft) above
the ground and should be protected from damage
by other farm animals grazing in the vicinity. The
birds are allowed to run freely over a field, and
125 birds per ha (50 birds per acre) can be run on
grass without reducing its capacity for carrying
other stock. If other animals are not running in the
field, a stocking rate of 375 birds per ha (150 birds
per acre) is allowed. It is an advantage to move
the houses every 1 or 2 years to prevent the area
from becoming “fowl-sick.” On arable farms, it is
customary to move the birds on to stubble fields
so that they can consume any shed corn or other
feed source in the field.
The Farm Structures The poultry house ensures minimum interference

from the natural elements during the growth
and reproduction of birds. They are constructed
according to the needs of the birds.
Organic standards aim to provide an environment
for poultry in which all normal behavior patterns
can occur, as this will minimize the stress to the
birds. Low stress levels are likely to have a positive
effect on both the health and production capacity
of the flock. There are two approaches on housing
used by organic producers:
• Mobile systems with houses that can be

moved so that chickens can utilize grasses
in an arable rotation.

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Advantages:
- Birds can be moved to fresh grass so
that the risk of soil-borne parasites is
minimized.
- The size of the huts ensures that they
remain movable.
• Static housing systems where the birds

have access to an outside area covered
Fig. 2.
Sample view of poultry housing
with vegetation (Fig. 2).
in organic production.
Disadvantages:
- Other production inputs (feed, straw or
other litter material and water) need to
be transported to and from the houses,
which increases the labor requirements.
- It carries the risk of freezing in cold
weather. Electric supply to the housing will
have the danger of trailing cables.
- The cost of mobile housing per bird is
likely to be higher than fixed systems.
- For layers, it is advisable to use well-
designed equipment inside, with the
collection of droppings, nests and
perches separate from feeding and
drinking facilities.
- Egg collection needs to be carried out
manually.
At an early stage of their lives, birds are

restricted within the housing with a low circular
partition an incandescent bulb or heater. The
partition can be removed at around two weeks and
be allowed access to a fenced area outside for
feeding, which prevents older birds getting access
to the feed. An additional housing will be needed to
meet maximum stocking density. Litter materials
straw can be used for scratching to avoid
breastbone blistering.

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Intensive vs. Extensive Intensive system vs. extensive system is an
Production important distinction in range poultry production.
• Intensive range poultry production can be

an enterprise and requires only a small land.
However, careful manure management is
needed to prevent excessive soil fertility.
• Extensive range poultry production requires
land and is usually part of a diversified
operation with ruminants (Fig. 3). Mixed
husbandry can be very important in range
poultry production. Buying land just for
extensively raising poultry is unlikely to be
Fig. 3. profitable. In addition, grazing ruminants
Range type housing for organic shorten the grass for the poultry, eliminating
poultry production. the need for mowing. Increased farm
diversity can enhance biological diversity and
environmental quality.
Soil fertility is a major motivation for range

poultry production. Many producers want to take
advantage of range poultry manure to improve
their pastures for ruminants. Range poultry,
according to Oregon producer Robert Plamondon,
is "almost essential in reviving a played-out farm on
a shoestring budget." Some vegetable growers
insist that in order to build a sustainable system,
livestock must be incorporated into the farm for
fertility. However, excessive soil fertility can also be an
issue, especially in intensive systems.
Much of the fertility in poultry manure is derived
from concentrate feed, an important input in
poultry production. Layer manure has 1.5% nitrogen
(N), 1.3% phosphorus (P), and 0.5% postassium
(K). Broiler manure is usually mixed with litter.
Birds deposit a lot of their manure in the house at
night. These "night droppings" can be removed and
spread directly on pastures, or composted first.
Litter is a large-scale problem in the conventional
poultry industry. When too much litter is applied
to the ground, pollution occurs. However, in small-
scale production, litter is usually an asset rather than
a problem, because the volume is much smaller.

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Excessive fertility on poultry range can be managed
by grazing with ruminants, by making hay, or by
rotating crops, since these activities remove nutrients.
Many producers believe that birds are healthier
and happier when raised on pasture. Raising small
outdoor flocks can reduce the concentration of
disease-causing pathogens, and UV light from the
sun is a good sanitizer. Still, birds will be exposed
to pathogens from wildlife, and pathogens can
build up in intensively used areas. Also, exposure to
the elements and stress from predation may have
negative impacts on bird health.
The guidelines for raising organic chickens are
more stringent than free range and vary slightly
from country to country. For international certification,
they must comply with international standards.
From birth, the chickens must be raised following
the standards. Their feed must be 95% organic and
cannot contain antibiotics or vitamins and minerals in
supplement form. The chickens are allocated a larger
area to range than other methods. Removal of beak is
not carried out.
Nutrient Requirement Birds require essential nutrients for body

and Feeding Management growth and maintenance. From birth, the
chickens must be given feeds that do not contain
antibiotics in supplement form. Instead, probiotics
must be given. These nutrients are supplied
through the feeds as energy, protein, vitamins,
minerals and certain unidentified factors. For
maximum efficiency, these nutrients have to be
supplied at the right quantity, quality and balance
depending upon the type of bird and its production
stage. Malnutrition can cause stunting, decreased
fertility, susceptibility to diseases and other
problems. The nutrient requirements of poultry at
different stages of production are given in Table 1.
One of the primary objectives of an animal
nutritionist is to develop a successful feeding
program that will be translated into a defined
economic return for the business. Precision
nutrition is defined as providing the animal with
the feed that precisely meets its nutritional

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Table 1. Nutrient requirement of meat-type and egg-type chickens at
different stages of growth and production.
Broiler Production Egg Production

Starter Finisher Layer
Starter Grower Pullet
Nutrient (0-5 (5-7 (20-40+
(0-6 weeks) (6-12 weeks) developer
weeks) weeks) weeks)
Protein (%) 20-22 18-20 20 18 14.5 18
ME (Kcal) 3000 3200 2600-2670 2850-3050 2850-3200 2950-3000
Calcium (%) 1-1.1 0.7-0.9 1-1.2 0.8-1.0 0.8-1.0 2.6-2.8
P (%) 0.45 0.40 0.40 0.35 0.45 0.45
requirements. Before developing a feeding program,

the nutritionist should have a comprehensive
knowledge about the animal in question. Table 2 is an
example of a typical feed formulation.
Two types of grit are provided for poultry: soluble
and insoluble. Soluble grit, usually limestone or
oyster shell, is a source of calcium for laying birds to
balance their requirements for eggshell production.
Insoluble grit, usually granite or flint, is supplied to
aid the gizzard in the performance of its natural
function of food grinding. Generally, the digestibility
of whole grains is increased by 10 and of mashes
by about 3% if access to insoluble grit is allowed, and
it should be supplied to all types of poultry.
Table 2. A typical feed formulation (all-mash).

Ingredients Parts (kg)
Yellow corn (ground) 47.49
Soybean meal 24.56
Rice bran D1 10.00
Copra meal 8.00
Fish meal 6.00
Molasses 2.00
Lactobacillus sp. 0.20
Limestone 1.00
Salt 0.25
Vitamin/Mineral premix 0.50
Total 100.00
Calculated Nutrients
Crude protein (%) 21
Metabolizable energy (Kcal/kg) 2,801
Calcium (%) 1.02
Phosphorus (%) 0.34

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Brooding Management Brooding is probably the most critical stage in
the life cycle of a chicken. At this stage, chicken is
most vulnerable to many environmental influences
because of inborn physiological deficiencies. Up
to about 4th week of age, the ability of the chicken
to regulate its own body temperature does not
become fully developed. For this reason, it has to
be provided with outside sources of heat (Fig. 4).
Under the present system of poultry
raising where chicks cannot avail of the
natural brooding by the mother hen, heat must be
Fig. 4. provided by artificial means. In the farm, this is done
Animals during their brooding stage. by using artificial brooders provided with electric
bulbs or by using litter materials as beddings such
as rice hulls and rice straw. A deep litter is a form
of dry compost, which is used as flooring for
both meat- and egg-type chicken. It is made of
agricultural wastes. It is laid on the floor where
bacteria work on the dry compost. During
decomposition, methane gas and carbon dioxide
are emitted. The compost becomes sterilized or
purified as the action progresses. Upon consuming
the wastes, the bacteria are killed in the litter
including the harmful ones. The deep litter, if properly
maintained, has a sterilizing effect where all bacteria
are killed at once. It is therefore safer for the birds
especially day-old and growing chicks to live in this
special surroundings than in an ordinary soil. Since
manure is part of the deep litter, it is not necessary
to clean it regularly as with other kinds of flooring,
thereby generating savings from decreased labor.
The litter also becomes a source of fertilizer for
agricultural crops.
Protein-rich feed is indicated for brood chicks to
give them a good start. Fresh drinking water should
be provided.
Two kinds of brooding:
1. Artificial - brooding with the use of electric bulb

2. Natural - a mother hen sits on the eggs

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Essential factors for successful brooding:
1. Good quality chicks to start with

2. Proper temperature
3. Adequate floor space
4. Proper ventilation
5. Adequate lighting facilities
6. Proper sanitation
Disease Prevention Recommended Program of Activities for Disease

and Control Prevention and Control
Objective Activity
Maintaining relatively • Minimize undesirable stresses

clean flock • Provide good nutrition according to age
and purpose
• Provide appropriate space, facilities,
equipment, and housing
• Keep accurate record and evaluate them
regularly
Preventing the entrance • Purchase healthy chickens

of disease agents • Strictly regulate and control the entry
of visitors
• Require disinfection of footwear
• Provide separate areas for feed delivery
and sale of manure
• Regularly assess disease control
performance and activities of personnel
Eliminating disease • Dispose immediately and appropriately

agents the dead chickens
• Isolate and properly treat sick animals
• Observe hygiene and sanitation in the farm
Over-all disease control • Periodically evaluate production

performance.
Vaccination of Poultry for Vaccinate chickens at early age against a certain

Common Infectious Diseases disease, which are prevalent in the locality only.
Record Keeping Records, if properly kept will enable one to have

a more accurate evaluation of the overall operations
of the poultry farm. The costs of production can be
computed, which will help in figuring out the price at
which products can be sold. The previous record will
further give guidance on which management practices
to apply as a way to improve future operational and
non-operational expenses and other systems.

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Consider the following record for flock manage-
ment and control:
1. Brooding/rearing records
2. Medication
3. Flock Performance record
Record Keeping Form A. Brooding/Rearing Records

Chicks Received:_____________Date: _________Batch No.________
Chicks Loaded:______________Strain:_________House No.________
Wk Days Total
# ITEM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Death Bags
1 Mortality
F C
2 Mortality
F C
3 Mortality
F C
4 Mortality
F C
5 Mortality
F C
6 Mortality
F C
7 Mortality
F C

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Form B. Medication Record
Date Kind Quantity Remarks Mortality

Form C. Sales
Quantity Sold Unit Price Total Value (P)
Date
Eggs # Culls Wt Eggs Culls Eggs Culls
Form D. Flock Performance Record

Month :___________________ Strain:_______________
Batch No._________________
No. of Eggs
Date FC Mortality Culled Transferred Remarks
Layer Laid
Total
Hen-day eggs/bird/month______________
Hen-day eggs /bird to date______________
Amount of feed to produce a dozen eggs_______
Percent protein in the ration__________________

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SELF-TEST
A. Directions: Write your answers in the space provided.
1. To achieve the objectives of organic agriculture, the following must be considered:

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________
2. In organic poultry, a raiser must consider the following:

a.
b.
c.
3. Benefits derived from organic chicken:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
4. Three main problems on breeds, sourcing and rearing:

a.
b.
c.
5. Two approaches on housing used by organic producers:
a.
b.
6. The differences between intensive and extensive range of producing organic chicken
are:
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
___________________

336
7. What are some of the most important nutrients needed by both meat- and egg-type
chicken?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
____________________________
8. List some recommended activities for disease prevention and control.
9. Explain the importance of record keeping.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_____________________

337
References:
Gillespi, R. Livestock and poultry production. Albany, New York: Litton Educational
Publishing, Inc., 1981.
Herren, R. The science of animal agriculture, 2nd Edition. Albany, New York: Delmar
Publishers, 2000.
King, J.O.L. An introduction to animal husbandry. London: Blackwell Scientific
Publications, 1978.
Pond, W.G.; Pond, K.R. Introduction to animal science. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.
736p.
REED Business. World poultry. www.worldpoultry.net.
PCARRD. The Philippines recommends for feed formulation. Los Baños, Laguna: PCARRD-
DOST, 1978.

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5.3 NATURAL FARMING TECHNOLOGY FOR ORGANIC HOG
PRODUCTION IN MICRO-, SMALL- AND MEDIUM-SCALE
INTEGRATED ORGANIC FARMING SYSTEMS
Andry K. Lim
With contributions from Josephine C. Gamboa, and Jacqueline Haessig Alleje
Significance: Natural Farming Technology in this module

refers to the Korean Natural Farming, which is
heavily based on the fermentation of plant and animal
material for the production of farmstead-produced
farm inputs, applied and adapted to this technology.
Organic livestock production is a significant part
of organic farming and an important source of protein
for human consumption.
Raising hogs is important in the Philippines, as
pork takes an important place in the culinary tradition
in many parts of the country. So, it is very important
that the pork consumed by Filipinos comes from
healthy and ecologically sound production systems.
The current conventional, intensive livestock
operations are sources of potential pollution and
hazard to human health. They heavily rely on feeds
produced outside the farm, and to a great extent on
imported feeds.
This technology has been proven to be very
effective for backyard, small-scale, and medium-
scale hog farms. However, in many cases, it cannot be
completely organic in its implementation due to lack of
organic corn, copra or rice. It is important to continue
efforts of developing fodder trees and leguminous
shrubs, and organically producing corn, copra, and
rice to complete this nutrient cycle in organic livestock
production.
Description: This module explains the concepts of integrated

organic technologies applied in hog production, using
the technique of fermentation for the production of
farm inputs for animals and crops alike.
The feed formulations and procedure are based
mostly on the experiences of the author in his farm.

339
Feed formulations can be changed or modified to
suit a particular situation in the farm.

able to:
1. understand the concept of the Natural

Farming Technology applied in hog
production, conceptualize the farm layout, and
the design of the buildings, particularly the
floors and beddings;
2. produce some of the farm inputs with the help
of the module on farm input production; and
3. raise the hogs following this technology.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, group exercises
Specific Strategies: 1. Discussion on the benefits of microorganism,

healthy soil, and fermented products as probiotics
in organic farming systems
• Importance of proper management practices

and prevention in animal health
• Importance of farmstead production of
different crops as feeds and feed inputs and
phyto-chemicals for the animals
• Importance of integrated farming systems
and cooperation among organic producers to
secure the organic chain of supply
• Importance of involving government in the
development of organic feedlot production
and research on animal feeds
• Importance of carefully using water in an
organic farming system
2. Group discussions with presentation on the

results of the exercises
Materials and Equipment LCD for powerpoint presentations or white board

Requirements: Illustrations in the absence of power point
presentation
Manila paper, index cards, markers for group
exercises

340
Samples of crops used in feed production, samples of
fermented juices
Visuals such as pictures

341
Introduction The Korean Natural Farming Technology using
fermented feed and forages can be successfully
applied in raising organic pigs. Traditionally,
farm animals used to eat what naturally grew
or planted by the farmers on site. Today,
intensified livestock farming methods require
separate feedlot production to feed thousands of
heads raised in one single farm operation.
For the development of organic livestock
operations, it is important to go back to the
traditional way of raising animals and to draw
knowledge from the past that will allow farmers
to develop sustainable production patterns. In this
process, it is necessary to establish the dietary
requirements of the livestock and evaluate which
feed component can be produced at the farm and
which ones are available from other organic sources.
So far, the natural farming technology for
organic hog production developed and practiced
at Helen’s farm in Davao is able to provide at farm
level, the source of:
• protein from forage crops planted at the farm

(fresh and fermented);
• phyto-chemicals for health care in form of
fermented supplements; and
• carbohydrates from tubers.
However, the farm is not self-sufficient in protein

and carbohydrate sources. Carbohydrates will have
to be mainly sourced outside from rice- and corn-
producing units or coconut plantations. Additional
proteins are sourced from soybean.
For rice producers, this technology can be
integrated in the organic rice production, which
will allow the farmers to “hit two birds with one
stone.” While the manure of the animals can
become a low-cost farm input for soil fertility
management, the rice bran can become a source
of carbohydrates for the animals. The same is
applicable for corn growers.
Furthermore, this technology can be considered
as an ecologically sound production system since

342
it does not emit any wastewater and foul odor. It is
not a hazard to the environment through biological
pollution. The system in its present form is able
to completely forego the use and application of
allopathic or synthetic veterinary medicine.
Korean Natural Farming The four main components of this technology

Technology are the housing, bedding, feeds, and management,
Four main technology inclusive of health care management.
components:
• Housing • The housing and management in this
• Bedding technology is intended to allow the pigs to
• Feeds develop their natural behavior, which is to
• Management and move adequately, to root, to dig and thereby
health care absorb vital minerals and elements from the
natural surrounding.
• The feeds prepared through the process of
fermentation results in a highly digestible,
nutritious, and palatable product with
outstanding benefits for the growth and health
of the animals.
Applications Micro-scale Operations
Applied to micro-scale operations (backyard

farming, often practiced by women to improve
the family income), this technology is currently
becoming the only viable production form in
the Philippines. Conventional backyard farming
has become unprofitable due to high cost of
commercial feeds and does not pass the strict
regulations of the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR) regarding environmental
pollution.
Small-scale Operations
For small-scale application, especially if

integrated in small-scale rice production systems,
this technology shows great benefits for the
farmers due to its low cost and high output. It
greatly improves the income of small rice farmers.

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Medium-scale Operations
This technology is the only organic technology

today to be profitable at a medium-scale operation.
Thus, it is suitable for operations in rural communities
as well as in peri-urban farming.
Integrated Farming System

Benefits
In organic production systems, livestock should
ideally be integrated with crop production of any
kind since they complement each other and contribute
to the nutrient cycle which is important to maintain
long-term soil fertility and a balanced ecological
system. The pigs provide food to humans and
manure for crop fertilization purposes, while crop
by-products are used as animal feeds.
Fosters Harmony among Family Members
This technology fosters harmony among family

members since there is no need to clean pigpens, a
“dirty” work no family member likes to do. Children
and adults will rather enjoy harvesting the different
crops, for direct feeding to the pigs, which is often
done with pride by the children.
Saves Water
It is an appropriate technology to save water since

pens are not cleaned with brush and water or power
jet. The beddings only need to be always humid
enough to maintain microbiological activity and for
pigs to be comfortable.
Fosters Peace and Harmony
The increased income of the family will contribute

to the satisfaction of the family’s needs, a basic
requirement for peace and harmony.

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Easily Integrated within Communities
as a Non-polluting Production System
This system does not cause pollution of water,

soil, and air. The operations can be easily integrated in
the communities since there is no foul odor emission
and substantially less noise due to the different
approach in management and care.
Protects Natural Resources
A crucial natural resource, water in rivers, sea,

and underground water tables will not be polluted
and/or contaminated with high levels of pathogens,
antiobiotics and/or leached nitrate.
Description of Natural Farm

Hog Production Technology
Housing Location
Housing
The pig housing should be placed in an open
area, with sufficient sunlight and ideally slightly
elevated to protect them from flooding. Bushes, trees,
and grasses should be planted in the surroundings.
Choice of these crops should be done according to
the nutrition plan and health care plan for easy
sourcing of the needed crop materials.
Type of Housing
The housing can be built according to the means

and resources of the farmer.
• Low cost housing - made of indigenous

construction materials such as bamboo,
coco lumber, nipa or cogon roofing, with very
minimal use of cement
• High-cost housing - made of more durable
materials such as concrete foundations, steel
bars, galvanized metal roof, etc.

345
Design of Housing
The housing has to be a well-ventilated structure.

This can be achieved with a split-roof design to
allow air to circulate.
There is no concrete flooring in the housing.
Concrete may be used for walkways of caretakers,
but gravel or other materials might be sufficient as
well.
Division of building into pens: The size of pens
will depend on how many animals should be held
in one pen. A practical size of a pen can start at one
that can accommodate 10–12 heads (average
litter per sow), but can be made much bigger if so
desired. The important factor in defining the size of
the pen is the minimum requirement of 1.5 m2 per
pig.
Each pen contains a feeding tray big enough to
comfortably give access to all pigs at the same time
(30 cm per head).
The water supply is installed opposite the
feeding tray, most practically with a water line
and drinker or nipple to avoid wastage of water (by
gravity).
Coral for Open Air Access
When designing the housing, it is important to

foresee opening of pigpens to give access to an
outdoor coral for pigs to enjoy the natural elements
such as wind, sun, and rain.
Floor and Bedding
The beddings for the animals are made of one-

meter deep layer filled with soil, salt, sawdust, and
coco-coir fiber, which is consistently treated with
beneficial microorganisms. This approach sanitizes
the beddings and hastens the decomposition
of the manure of the animals and the organic
matters of the bedding to guarantee a clean
medium high in microbiological activity at any
given time without intensive spraying of water and
brushing to keep the pens clean.

346
The mixture of organic matters used for
the beddings can be adjusted according to the
availability of local materials. The best food
for healthy pigs is healthy soil, another aspect
provided for in this type of bedding. The animals
enjoy moving and playing while eating and
absorbing the beneficial microorganisms from
these beddings. It likewise reduces stress from the
animals and lessens the anti-social behavior found in
intensified livestock production systems.
The bedding treatment program is designed
to prevent and virtually eliminate the build up of
ammonia which is not only causing bad odor, but
can become a real health problem for the pigs,
particularly to their respiratory system. This
method will provide the animals with additional
nutrients and minerals, but most importantly,
the microorganisms present in the bedding. This
definitely improves the quality of the meat and the
animals’ welfare and health.
• It gives comfort to pigs, keeps them busy

plowing the soil, which lessens their anti-
social behavior (fighting, tail biting, etc.).
• It lessens noise because of changed behavior
of pigs.
• It absorbs the liquid and solid wastes of the
pigs.
• It avoids the build up and lessens the emission
of bad odor or ammonia.
• It lessens water consumption and labor
requirement for cleaning.
This type of flooring is permanent and can

stay up to 10 years by simply adding organic
matters when needed to maintain the depth
of 1 m. If desired, it can be removed partially to
fertilize the fields and subsequently filled again
with new organic matter.

347
Breeds In the absence of organic breeders in the
Philippines, a start up operation will purchase piglets
from conventional farms for fattening. The piglets
must be 45 days old when purchased. Medium-
size farms and cooperatives may venture into
breeding and selling of 45-day piglets to small
operators to create income and render an important
service to small producers.
Nutrition Unfortunately, there are few available data to

estimate the quantity of forage consumed by pigs,
while the nutritional value of forage crops is still
not widely known and understood. Consequently,
most nutritionists give little or no nutritional credit
to the forage when formulating diets for pigs. In
our experience, the component of forage crops in
the pig’s diet is helping substantially to maintain a
balanced diet. However, further research is needed
in this area.
Management Practices A farrowing unit is 405 cm in width and

360 cm in length. Floor is made of concrete to
prevent piglets from being crushed to death. About
5–6 cm of soil is placed on top and is treated with
OHN, LABS, FPJ, and IMO.
Gilts
The gilts are housed individually in pens using

the same beddings as in the coral for the growers.
After they have given birth to their litter, they stay
with their piglets for 45 days.
Piglets - Growers
After 45 days, all the piglets will be weaned from

their gilts and put in one coral (family style), where
they will stay together as growers.
General Practice
The sow’s brood piglets are fed with soft herbs

and vegetables such as ‘talinum,’ ‘kangkong,’ and
‘alugbati’ that are rich in minerals. After 25 days,

348
protein-rich plants or leguminous plants such as
Indigofera, Rensonii, and Trichantera are introduced.
The 60-day old piglet is given calcium phosphate
from bones and calcium from eggshells.
As much as possible the pigs should have access
to free-range area, either by designing the housing in
such a way that they can freely go in and out, or by
leading them out on scheduled time.
Cleaning of Pens
There is no need to clean the pens, which are

mainly composed of the beddings and soil. Pens
must be kept wet because sows like mud. It can be
kept wetter than the pens of growers.
The walkways for humans (which might be
covered with gravel or cement) however, need to
be maintained clean and it is advisable to likewise
spray them with LABS or other fermented juices for
sanitation purposes.
Sick Animals
Sick animals should be treated immediately with

the fermented oriental herbs or other phytotherapies,
and if necessary, separated from other animals.
Production of Feeds
Benefits Lessen Production Cost through Farmstead

Feed Production and Use of Crop Production
By-products
Operators of micro-, small- and medium-scale,

conventional fattening farms rely on ready mixed
feeds mostly composed of local and imported
corn, imported soybean meal, synthetic vitamins,
minerals, animal gut and bones, and antibiotics.
Due to increased cost of imported ingredients, the
cost of feeds becomes one of the major expense
components in piggery operation. In many cases,
micro and small pig fattening becomes unprofitable
and therefore rubs the rural population of added
income. The absence of organically certified feedlots

349
and feeds for organic livestock in the Philippines
has greatly retarded the development of organic
livestock operations.
Gain Self-sufficiency in Feed Production
Breaking away from these unsustainable

practices, this technology gives the farmers the
possibility to be, if not completely, at least partially
self sustaining with regards to the production of the
feeds for the animals.
The area required for the production of diet crops
in addition to the carbohydrate crops such as corn,
rice, and copra for 10 heads is a minimum of 270 m2
up to 1,000 m2 , depending on planting pattern.
If practiced within an organic rice farm operation,
the farmer can be 100% self-sustainable in the
production of the feeds because the by-product of
rice farming such as reject grains, rice hull, and
rice husk are used for feed production of the animals.
This approach is referred to as integrated farming
system.
Protect Environment, Landscape, Biodiversity
Farmers protect and enhance the fragile pieces

of the landscape such as wetlands, waterways, and
woodlands.
Basic Ingredients of Feeds The basic recipe of the feeds is rice bran, corn
or copra combined with other crops, green leafy
vegetables, and crops high in nitrogen such as
fodder trees, shrubs, and soybean. The carbohydrate
requirement of the animals is provided by rice
production by-products primarily rice husk (‘ipa’),
corn, 'copra.’
Composition of Daily Feed In addition to the carbohydrate-rich crops,

Requirement other requirements for the production of feeds are
divided into three groups and can all be grown in the
farm.

350
Group 1: 50% or half of crop requirement
• One sack (50 kg) of carbohydrates (rice hull,
corn, copra) to ¾ sack (5–7 kg) of other crop
sources of nitrogen, vitamin and mineral
(composed of the three crop groups)
Group 2: 30% requirement

• Crops rich in protein supplies 18–27% crude
protein, namely Azolla, Flemingia, Indigofera,
Rensonii, Trichantera gigantea, ‘saluyot’, jackfruit,
mulberry, ‘kadios’
Group 3: 20% requirement

• Vitamins and minerals, micronutrients from
‘kamote’ tops, ‘kangkong,’ native spinach (‘kulitis’),
’talinum,’ ’alugbati,’ ’malunggay,’ and others
Herbal nutrient supplements and phyto-chemicals

for health and disease management
• For respiratory tract infection: oregano,

’lagundi,’ and ’banaba’
• For improved lactation: ’malungay,’ lemon
grass, leaves of lady finger chili, and green
papaya fruit
• For intestinal flu: avocado, guava, star apple,
OHN, and ginger
• Deworming: fermented young ’ipil-ipil’ leaves
Designing Home-made Feed design is according to the nutritive

Feeds cycle theory that is unique to Korean Natural
Farming. It is based on the growth stages of a plant
or animal. We give feed precisely according to this
cycle. Generally, pigs need protein when young,
phosphoric acid during adolescence, and calcium
after maturity. The amount of food needed will also
change. Needed food is given at the right time, age,
and quantity.
Study the specific module on farm input production
before proceeding with the preparation of home-
designed feeds used in this technology.

351
In order to make this technology adaptable to
small-scale farms, the following “rule of thumb” on
feed quantity requirement has been established:
• Feed requirement consists approximately of

10% of the animal weight.
• To maximize the nutrient content of the feed,
fermented liquid mixture is added at the ratio
of 2–5 tablespoons to 1 kg of rice bran, corn,
‘copra’ (depending on the feeds).
Types of Feed Mix
This program assures weight of above 75 kg,

6 months from birth.
NF 1 - for 0–74 day old piglets

NF 2 - for pigs that are 75 days old or older, or
about 2 ½-month old pigs.
Concentrate Granule Mixture (Annex 1)
Dry ingredients:
• 100 kg rice bran, 2 kg salt, 1 kg ground
coconut charcoal, 10 kg corn bran, 5 kg
soybean meal, 5 kg copra meal
Concoction of Fermented Plant Juice (FPJ):

• Group 1: 5 L
• Group 2: 1.5 L
• Group 3: 200 mL
Fresh vegetables and fruit crops: 5–7 kg
Health Care and Maintenance The basic approach towards health care of
the animal is prevention through natural dietary
supplements. The pigs do not receive antibiotics,
hormones, or artificial supplements. The system
ensures that pigs are eating crops grown on healthy
soils and receive only natural amendments such as
compost, green manures, and minerals.

352
Piglets and pigs that have access to fresh green
crops and grass become strong. Moreover, feed
expense is less. High fiber intake from vegetable
crops helps to develop a healthy digestion with an
improved feed conversion. Thus, the pigs grow faster
with less feeds.
The gilts can again have offspring in only 6
months after birth without any growth hormones or
synthetic additives. However, the first pregnancy
of gilts should be properly timed, neither too early
nor late. They should not reach 100–150 kg before
pregnancy.

353
SELF-Test
1. How is natural farming technology or the Korean Natural Farming adapted in organic
swine production?
2. Enumerate the benefits of natural farming technology.
3. Describe the main components of natural hog farming technologies:
a. housing design
b. bedding
c. feeds
d. management and health care
4. What are the practices applied in managing the following:
a. gilts
b. growers
5. What is the ration of feed requirement of the following groups?
a. Group 1
b. Group 2
c. Group 3
6. Enumerate the basic ingredients of the concentrate granule mix.

354
Annex 1: Designing Fermented Feeds according to Korean Nutritive
Cycle Theory
NF1 Ingredients:
Dry ingredients:
Rice Bran (D1) 100 kg
Sea salt (coarse) 2 kg
Coconut charcoal 1 kg
Corn bran 10 kg
Soybean meal 5 kg
Copra meal 5 kg
FPJ Group 1 5L
FPJ Group 2 1.5 L
FPJ Group 3 400 mL
LABS 300 mL
FFJ (papaya/banana) 300 mL
FAA (fish) 200 mL
KAA (‘kuhol’) 200 mL
OHN (ginger) 100 mL
OHN (garlic) 100 mL
Plants and vegetables 5–7 kg (freshly chopped)
Concentrate Granule Mixture:

1. Prepare the FPJ - 1 L each of Group 1 (not less than five plants). Combine all liquid
and mix thoroughly for 15 minutes until a vortex is created at the center.
2. In a big basin, mix all dry ingredients: 10 kg rice bran, 2 kg salt, and 1 kg pounded
coconut charcoal. Then slowly pour 5 L of Group 1 at the center and mix the liquid
preferably by hand until mixture becomes uniform. Set aside.
3. Prepare the second batch by mixing together the following liquid from Group 2
category and adding 300 mL FPJ, 300 ml LABS, 300 mL FFJ (papaya/banana), 200 mL
of FAA, 200 mL of KAA (add if animal is small and weak), 100 mL OHN-garlic, 100 mL
OHN-ginger.
4. Mix the liquid to 5 kg rice bran. Combine the 10-kg and 5-kg mixture evenly by
hand. Mix to the remaining rice bran and add the 5–7 kg chopped plants to the
mixture such as kangkong, kamote tops, malunggay, kulitis, leaves of pepper (sili), and
saluyot. Make sure all the materials are mixed very well.
NF2 (at age 75 days)

1. Prepare 100 mL calcium phosphate (bones) and 100 mL calcium (eggshells) and slowly
add to the rice bran. Mix thoroughly by hand.

355
2. Add this to NF 1 mixture when pig is about 75 days old.
3. For additional protein requirement of the piglet during the growing stage, add 15%
of soybean meal, 10% of corn meal, 5% of copra meal.
4. Store mixture in tightly closed plastic container and leave it for 3 days to ferment.
Then, it is ready for consumption by the animals.

356
5.4 DUCK RANGER: THE ORGANIC PRODUCTION
OF DUCKS
Rectorino P. Escobin, Jr.
Significance: Duck ranger is a development program that

applies the principles of rice-duck systems, which is
simply the growing and raising of rice and ducks in
the same piece of irrigated land. It embodies workable
schemes that harness the synergistic relationships of
crops and livestock, for an efficient and sustainable
use of our natural resources.
Through the rice-duck systems, the nature’s
own way of controlling pests and diseases is
demonstrated. Ducks are natural enemies of
(biological control) and feed on rice pests like golden
snails (Pomacea spp.), insects, and weeds. The
systems avoid the use of hazardous chemical inputs
such as pesticides, inorganic fertilizers, hormones,
and antibiotics, and hence, embrace the principles
of organic agriculture. It paves the way for a holistic
approach in promoting agro-ecosystem’s health
including biological cycles and soil biological activity.
A vital component of this organic system is the
free-range growing of ducks in rice paddies. This
provides an environment that satisfies the behavioral
needs of the birds. Ranging provides the ducks
access to rice paddies and allows the birds to perform
their natural role in the ecology as foragers and
scavengers. With such systems, the cost of feeding
ducks is substantially reduced.
Description: This module explains the Duck Ranger Program

as it adopts the UPLB rice-duck model with built-
in rice-duck calendar. It describes the procedure in
establishing farm models. It introduces the mobile
duck shed as a convenient facility for an association
of smallholder rice-duck practitioners, and solar
'balut' incubator as part of the processing and
commercialization schemes.

357
Objectives: At the end of this module, training participants
must be able to:
1. state the principles and practices of organic

agriculture as they relate to duck production;
2. describe the duck ranger as a development
program that applies the principles and
practices of organic farming;
3. enumerate the components of the UPLB rice-
duck model;
4. illustrate the considerations in setting-up
farm models of duck ranger; and
5. cite the socioeconomic and environmental
benefits of the duck ranger system.
Learning Approaches: a) Lecture-discussion,

b) Video and slide presentations
c) Field trips to commercial duck farms, rice-
duck farms, ’balutan’-traditional hatchery (using
electric incubator and ’tuong’), duck herders
Materials and Equipment: Audio-visuals, computer, commercial duck farms,

rice-duck farms, hatchery, farm pictures
Evaluation Plan: Self-test at the end of the module

358
Organic Farming of Poultry General Considerations
and Livestock
According to IFOAM (2001), organic management
techniques in animal husbandry should be governed
by the farm animals, physiological and ethological
needs. Things to consider include:
a) That animals should be allowed to conduct

their basic behavioral needs;
b) That all management techniques, including
those where production levels and speed of
growth are concerned, should be directed to
the good health and welfare of the animals.
In farm animals, organic management system aims

to develop a harmonious relationship among land,
plants and animals, considering their physiological
and behavioral needs (IFOAM 2001; UKROFS 2001).
This can be achieved by providing good quality
organically grown feeds; appropriate stocking density;
husbandry system appropriate to behavioral needs;
and farm practices that seek to promote health and
prevent diseases.
IFOAM (2001) and USDA (2000) through the
Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 (OFPA), which
is being administered by the National Organic
Program, require that certification bodies/standardizing
organizations should ensure that the management of
the animal environment considers the provision for the
following:
a) Sufficient free movement; fresh air and

natural daylight according to the needs of the
animals;
b) Protection against excessive sunlight,
temperatures, rain, and wind according to
the needs of the animals;
c) Enough lying and/or resting area according to
the needs of the animal. For all animals
requiring bedding, natural materials shall be
provided;
d) Ample access to fresh water and feeds
according to the animals' needs;

359
e) Adequate facilities for expressing behavior in
accordance with the biological and ethological
needs of the species;
f) that no construction materials or production
equipment shall be used in a way that may
significantly harm human or animal health.
g) poultry, rabbits, and pigs shall not be kept in
cages.
Breeds and Breeding
IFOAM (2001) states that for a farm to be certified

as organic, the breeds that should be used are the
ones that are adapted to local conditions. Breeding
goals should not be in opposition to the animals’
natural behavior and should be directed towards good
health. Artificial insemination is allowed but embryo
transfer techniques are not. Hormonal heat treatment
and induced birth are not allowed unless applied to
individual animals for medical reasons and under
veterinary advice. The use of genetically engineered
species or breeds is not allowed.
Feeds and Nutrition
USDA (2000), IFOAM (2001) and UKROFS (2001)

require that poultry and livestock should be fed 100%
organically grown feed of good quality. All feeds
should come from the farm itself or be produced
within the region. The diet shall be offered to the
animals in a form allowing them to execute their
natural feeding behavior and digestive needs. The diet
should be balanced according to the nutritional needs
of the animals and should be made of products that
are organically grown. Exemptions may be allowed
in situations where it proves impossible to obtain
adequate organic feeds. The following products shall
not be included in, nor added to the diet or in any
other way be given to farm animals (IFOAM 2001):
a) synthetic growth promoters, stimulants or

appetizers;
b) preservatives, except when used as a
processing aid;

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c) artificial coloring agents;
d) urea;
e) farm animal by-products (e.g., abattoir waste)
to ruminant;
f) droppings, dung or other manure/excrements;
g) feed subjected to solvent extraction (e.g.,
hexane, or the addition of other chemical
agents);
h) pure amino acids, and
i) genetically engineered organisms or products
thereof.
Animal Health Care
When it comes to animal health care, USDA

(2000) in agreement with UK Register of Organic
Food Standards (UKROFS 2001) has set forth organic
standards such that:
a) The producer must establish and maintain

preventive livestock health care practices,
including:
1) Selection of species and types of livestock
with regard to suitability for site-specific
conditions and resistance to prevalent
diseases and parasites; provision of a
feed ration sufficient to meet nutritional
requirements, including vitamins, minerals,
protein and/or amino acids, fatty acids,
energy sources, and fiber;
2) Establishment of appropriate housing,
pasture conditions, and sanitation practices
to minimize the occurrence and spread of
diseases and parasites;
3) Provision of conditions which allow for
exercise, freedom of movement, and
reduction of stress appropriate to the
species;
4) performance of physical alterations as
needed to promote the animal's welfare
and in a manner that minimizes pain and
stress.
b) When preventive practices and veterinary
biologics are inadequate to prevent sickness,

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a producer may administer synthetic
medications as long as the medications are in
the list of allowed synthetic substances under
existing Laws and Regulations (USDA 2000).
c) The producer of an organic poultry and
livestock operation must not (USDA 2000):
1) Sell, label, or represent as organic any

animal or edible product derived from
any animal treated with antibiotics, any
substance that contains a synthetic
substance not allowed under existing
laws and regulations.
2) Administer i) any animal drug, other than
vaccinations, in the absence of illness;
ii) hormones for growth promotion; iii)
synthetic parasiticides on a routine basis;
iv) synthetic parasiticides to slaughter
stock; v) animal drugs in violation of
existing laws and regulations;
3) Withhold medical treatment from a sick

animal in an effort to preserve its organic
status. All appropriate medications must
be used to restore an animal to good
health when methods acceptable to
organic production fail. Livestock treated
with a prohibited substance must be
clearly identified and shall not be sold,
labeled, or represented as organically
produced. For Philippine organic standards
on husbandry management, breeds and
breeding, animal nutrition and animal
health care, please see Philippine National
Standard-PNS/BAFPS 07:2003.

Duck Ranger System The idea is to grow/raise rice and ducks in the
same piece of land. The ducks are free-ranging in
paddy fields serving as biological control for the
destructive golden snails. This reduces the need
for molluscicide application by as much as 100%.
The ducks feed or drive away insect pests and
consume or trample weeds resulting in substantial
reduction in the use of insecticide and herbicide.

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Moreover, the manure of ducks serves as organic
fertilizer for rice and other crops, resulting in savings
on the cost of inorganic fertilizer.
On the other hand, the paddy fields and the
surroundings serve as good feeding grounds (fallen
grains, ratoons, snails, insects, larvae, grubs,
earthworms, succulent leaves, inflorescence, and
small frogs) for ducks, thereby minimizing on the cost
of feeds. While providing the natural aquatic habitat
for the waterfowls, raising ducks in the paddies create
additional livelihood in the community. This integrated
approach is environment-friendly and does not
endanger human health (Fig. 1).
1. No labor cost for weeding.
2. Mixing mud.
3. Pest control.
ranging ducks after harvest
4. Golden snail control.
5. Organic fertillizer for rice.
6. Mouse control.
rice crop with ranging ducks
supplementary feeding
Fig. 1. Ducks ranging in rice paddies and the various benefits of rice-duck systems.
The UPLB Rice-Duck Model
The UPLB “rice-duck model” with built-in “rice-duck

calendar” involves growing rice and ducks together in the
same piece of irrigated land. Ducks serve as biological
control for snails, insects, and weeds thus, minimizing
(if not completely eliminating) the use of chemical
pesticides that are harmful not only to humans but also
to the environment. Instead of being pests, the snails,
insects, and weeds become nutritious feeds for ducks.

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A product of years of research, the UPLB rice-duck
model is comprised of at least 1 hectare of rice field;
100 Mallard ducks; a duck shed-run area, in slightly
elevated place near the paddies with at least 100 ft2
shed space and 100–200 ft2 run area. Presence of
some trees to provide shade; and a farmer’s house
nearby (Fig. 2).
Setting-up the model. To set-up the model,

select a site with at least 1 ha of irrigated rice crop.
This will be sufficient to provide enough ranging
space for 100 ducks, but feed supplementation in the
shed-run area would be necessary especially when
the ducks are laying eggs. Also, 100 ducks would be
a good flock size to control rice pests with or without
standing crop as long as the usual 20 cm x 20 cm
plant spacing is adopted. Such spacing will enable the
ducks to pass through in between rows and hills.
The duck shed-run area. Build the shed on

elevated areas to avoid flooding as the ducks do not
Fig. 2. UPLB rice-duck model.

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like muddy sheds. Also, dirty eggs will be downgraded
when sold. A shed floor space of at least 100 ft2
and a fenced run area of 100–200 ft2 will suffice.
The shed is where the ducks sleep and lay eggs
while the run area is where the ducks drink, feed and
play. The duck shed-run area is important especially
at times of the year when the ducks are needed to
be confined. Sheds may have GI sheets as roofs,
coco lumber as posts and frames, and used nets or
bamboos for walls.
Presence of some trees. Trees provide the

needed shade for the ranging ducks during hot
summer months, otherwise, performance of ducks in
terms of growth or egg production would suffer. On
hot and sunny hours of the day, the ducks stop ranging
and look for a shaded area where they could stay.
Farmer’s house nearby. The model is for a

small-scale rice-duck production. Having the farmer’s
house near the shed ensures care and security for the
ducks. The assumption here is that there will always
be, a family member staying in the house, to look
after the ducks. Hence, hired labor is not necessary.
Best time to range the ducks. The best time

to range the ducks in the rice paddies is after rice
harvest. This is to take advantage of the abundance
of feed materials specially fallen, immature and
discarded grains. After a while, ratoons will start
to shoot up and become available to the ducks. The
other feedstuffs will be snails, insects, grubs,
earthworms, small frogs and fishes, depending on
the bio-physical conditions.
Ranging schedules. The ducks can be allowed to

range in the paddies on the following periods:
a) after harvest,
b) during fallow,
c) before and during land preparation, and
d) 30 days after transplanting until panicle
initiation.

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The ducks should be confined in the shed-run
area on the following periods:
a) during and after leveling,

b) during transplanting and 30 days thereafter,
c) at panicle initiation until harvest, and
d) at time and place where there are migratory
birds.
Feeding and management. Duck raising

business can be classified into three categories
namely, a) balutan or hatchery, b) growing ready-to-
lay ducks or herding, and c) layer duck raising. The
balutan sector is about balut-making, and hatching
ducklings does not require a defined feeding/
management regime, but is required in the other two
sectors. Different farmers apply different feeding
strategies in growing ready-to-lay ducks and raising
layer ducks.
The duckling stage. The following are some

pointers in taking care of the ducklings in a rice-
duck system. From day-old up to one-month of age,
ducklings are fed with chick booster or starter. Others
will mix some boiled rice with commercially mixed
feeds, especially during the first 2 weeks of age. At
3 or 4 weeks of age, the ducklings will be slowly
trained to range until they learn to search for their
own food in the paddies. This will reduce the cost
of feeds drastically. However, ranging ducklings of
this age would require full-time herders (caretakers).
Two herders could effectively take care of 2,000–
4,000 ducklings. But with such big flock sizes,
the ducklings may be required to be moved from
one place (newly harvested rice fields) to another,
and they can only be allowed to range in rice fields
without standing rice crop. Otherwise, the rice crop
will be damaged.
Ready-to-lay ducks. Given a good ranging

area, the growing ducklings can satisfy their feed
requirements from the range with no or only minimal
supplementation of either commercially mixed feeds
or discarded rice grains. Upon reaching 4–5 months

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of age, the herders with large flocks will now sell
the ducks as ready-to-lay. At this point, rice-duck
practitioners can adopt the UPLB rice-duck model,
buying only 100 ready-to-lay ducks to be ranged in a
hectare (or more) of rice field with or without standing
crop.
Raising layer ducks. Ducks will normally start

laying at 5–6 months. When laying, they require lots
of nutrients, and ranging will not be enough to provide
the necessary nourishment. Feed supplementation is
a must to have a satisfactory rate of egg production.
A feed supplement of 100–120 g of feeds (based on
dry matter) per day per duck may suffice. With an
average egg production of 55–60 eggs/day from
100 ducks, the farmer could get additional net income
of about P50,000/year from the sale of eggs.
Rice-duck Calendar
In the rice-duck model, the ducks are allowed to

range in the rice field, with or without standing crop,
with appropriate crop spacing (the usual spacing of
20 cm x 20 cm), and at the time that will not damage
the rice crop and will not put the ducks in danger.
These are all put together in what we call “rice-
duck calendar.” The calendar is an appropriate
scheduling of rice and duck activities so as to
harness complementary interactions of the two
commodities (Fig. 3).
For example, the calendar guides the farmer on
when to buy the ducklings to take advantage of the
abundance of feed materials in between harvesting
and transplanting. In other words, the date of
purchase of ducklings should be in time for the
growing stage (when ducklings require lots of energy)
to coincide with rice harvest, the time when fallen
and discarded grains are abundant in the rice fields.
Mobile Duck Shed
A mobile duck shed is made up of local materials,

which houses the ducks while ranging from one

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Fig. 3. Rice-duck calendar.
location to another. This is also used for the rice-duck

scheme that caters for farmers wanting to avail of
services of the ranging ducks but cannot take care of
the ducks themselves.
The mobile duck shed is pulled by a hand
tractor during transport operation which has a five
horsepower diesel engine as the prime mover. The
transmission system of the hand tractor is based
on the UPLB design which utilizes two used car
differentials that are directly connected. The tractor
can be detached from the shed so it can also be used
for other farm operation (Fig. 4).
Solar Balut Incubator
An originally designed solar balut incubator

combines the use of solar water heater and solar
(photovoltaic) cells. The solar power provides the
necessary heat for the incubator in hatching ducklings
thereby substantially reducing the cost of incubation.
The solar powered duck incubator is more
economical because of the savings on electricity or
petroleum, not to mention the environment-friendly
nature of the system. This technology on clean energy

368
Fig. 4. The mobile duck shed takes the ducks to distant paddies and serves as temporary shelter
while ducks are ranging. The tractor can be used for farm operations like plowing.
(solar power) is highlighted as a vantage point to

give the association of smallholder farmers a good
chance of competing with the more affluent farmers
and corporations.
The first unit of solar balut incubator in Wawa,
Siniloan, Laguna has a capacity of 4,000 eggs
and is managed and maintained by a 25-member
association of rice-duck farmers. Included in the
design of the incubator are the control mechanisms
for the three requirements for incubating eggs—
temperature, ventilation, and humidity. Although this
solar incubator is mainly used for hatching ducklings,
it can also be used for processing duck eggs into
balut, a traditional Filipino delicacy, which is a
boiled, partially incubated duck eggs.
Egg Payback Scheme
Financial and organizational sustainability can be

enhanced if the smallholder rice-duck practitioners
can form or are members of farmer associations. For

369
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 5. The solar balut incubator uses two solar power systems. The solar water heater
heats up the incubator (a, b, and c), while the photovoltaic or solar cells (PVC) transform
sunlight into electricity that powers the controllers (d).
example, with regards to egg production and operation

of solar balut incubator (designed to be owned and
managed by the farmers), the association can lend
ready-to-lay ducks and feeds to the members, who in
turn, will pay back in kind through a process called
“egg payback scheme.” The farmers give back to
the association 20 duck eggs per day until the total
amount borrowed for ducks and feeds is paid. The
collected eggs by the association become the raw
materials of the solar duck incubator for processing
balut and hatching ducklings. The goal is to enable
them to internally generate their own funds as part
of the empowerment process and manage their own
finances sustainably.

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Socioeconomic Benefits
From the experiences of 100 farmer-beneficiaries

and the series of activities that UPLB had conducted,
the rice-duck systems through the duck ranger
program resulted in the following benefits:
1. Improved farm productivity and increased

income of the farmers. Cost and returns
analysis of a 100 layer rice-duck operation
showed an additional net income of P50,000/
farmer per year. This is on top of the income
from rice.
2. Reduced cost of production. A cost reduction
of P4,000/year, equivalent to 4 L of chemical
pesticides. Savings of about 30% on feed
cost.
3. Value-added from incubating duck eggs into
balut or ducklings. Savings on electricity with
the use of solar incubator.
4. Increased economic activities and jobs
created in duck raising, duck herding, feed
retailing, duck and egg trading, egg and meat
processing, picking-up snails and others.
5. Environmental and human health
concerns. Farmers were no longer using
molluscicide and had substantially reduced
the use of insecticide and herbidice, hence
reducing chemical hazards in the
environment.
Environmental Benefits
This technology addresses the negative

impact of pesticides on the environment. It can
drastically reduce if not eliminate chemical use, by
freeing from confinement and putting in place the
natural enemy (predator) of golden snails, insect
pests and aquatic weeds—the ranging ducks. By
using ducks as biological control for rice pests,
the detrimental impacts of pesticides on human
health, environment, and biodiversity are avoided.

371
Moreover, the use of solar duck incubator in the
rice-duck system embodies the use of alternative
energy source, which is even more economical than
those based on fossil fuels.

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SELF-TEST
1. What are the multi-fold benefits of the rice-duck system?
2. How can the rice-duck system improve the income of the farmers, and by how much?
3. What comprises the UPLB rice-duck model?
4. Assuming that the province where you come from will become part of a rice-duck zone,
construct a rice-duck calendar that fits your province, consider the number of rice crops
per year, planting time, harvesting, and the time to buy or hatch ducklings.
5. When is the best time to range the ducks in the paddies? Can we allow the ducks to
range in the paddies with standing rice crop? When and in what conditions?
6. The solar “balut” incubator utilizes the energy from the sun to heat up the incubator and
provide electricity for the control system. What are the two types of solar power system
that the solar incubator makes use of?

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References:
Escobin, R.P. Jr.; Medialdia, M.T.S.; Caramihan, C.F.L. 'Balut' quality of eggs produced in four
rice-duck zones of Laguna. Paper presented in the 44th Scientific Seminar and Annual
Convention of PSAS; 25–27 October 2008; Philippine Carabao Center, Muñoz, Nueva
Ecija.
__________. Productive performance of ranged Mallard ducks housed in traditional and
floating duck shed in Siniloan, Laguna. Phil. J. Vet. Anim. Sci. 34(1): 79–88, 2008.
Escobin, R.P. Jr.; Medialdia, M.T.S.; Bulatao, M.J.G.; Manalo, D.D.; Matienzo, E.L.A.;
Caramihan, C.F.L. The productive performances of Philippine mallard ducks (Anas
platyrynchos) in two rice-duck zones of Laguna. In: Proceedings of 43rd Scientific
Seminar and Annual Convention in Boracay, Aklan, Philippines, October 2006. 2006a.
__________. Mga sistema sa pag-aalaga ng itik sa palayan: A brochure. College, Laguna:
Agricultural Systems Cluster, CA, UP Los Baños, 2006b. - (Funded by the World Bank).
__________. Duck ranger—ang programa ng pag-aalaga ng itik sa palayan: A brochure.
College, Laguna: Agricultural Systems Cluster, CA, UP Los Baños, 2006c. - (Funded by
the World Bank).
IFOAM. Guidelines for the production processing, labeling, and marketing of organically
produced foods. Fairfield, Iowa: International Federation of Organic Agriculture and
Marketing (IFOAM), 2001.
Medialdia, M.T.S.; Escobin, R.P. Jr. Revisiting the rice-duck systems: Benefits and
implementation models. In: Proceedings of the AHAT-BSAS International Conference on
Integrating Livestock-Crop Systems; Khon Kaen, Thailand; 2005.
Vega, R.S.A.; Manalo, D.D.; Caramihan, C.F.L.; Medialdia, M.T.S.; Bulatao, M.J.G.; Escobin,
R.P. Jr. Duck ranging effects on population and size of golden snails (Pomacea
canaliculata) before and after transplanting rice. Paper presented in the 19th FCSSP
Scientific Conference;13–15 June 2007; DAP, Tagaytay City.
UKROFS. Standards for organic food production. Reference document of the U. K. Register of
Organic Food Standards, 2001. http:/www.defra.gov.uk/farm/organic/ukrofs /standard.
pdf.
USDA. Organic Foods Production Act 1990. USDA National Organic Program. SW, Washington,
DC, 2000. http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/archive/OFPA.html.

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Module 6
Organic Certification, Markets,
Trade, and Policies
6.1 Organic standards and certification 376

6.2 Organic markets and trade 408

375
6.1 ORGANIC STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATION
Leilani Ramona K. Limpin
Significance: Standards and Certification are important tools

used in defining products from organic agriculture
(OA) and to safeguard the integrity of organic
production. Originally on a voluntary basis organic
certification also serves to efficiently market
organic products. Understanding the standards
will direct practitioners in the planning, converting,
and managing organic operations. As organic
production and trade is more and more regulated
and subject to mandatory certification at national
and international levels, it is important to know
and understand the standards and certification
systems applicable to one’s production and/or
trading activity.
Description: This module presents the concepts, requirements,

and processes of organic standards and certification.
Objectives: After completing this module, learners

should be able to:
• define organic standards and certification;

• state the importance of applying for
certification;
• enumerate the different types of certification
system and the certifying body;
• determine the legal requirements and the
procedure in applying for organic certification
both at the local and international market;
and,
• identify the different services of the Organic
Certification Center of the Philippines.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, group exercises, field trip

376
Specific Strategies: 1. Discussion on the concepts of organic standards
and certification
2. Discussion and group exercise on the requirements
and processes of certification
3. Field trip to a certified farm
Materials and Equipment • Philippine National Standards for Organic

Requirement: Agriculture and Processing
• Organic Agriculture Act of 2010
• Farm pictures and product samples

377
What is certification? Certification is when an independent and
competent third party verifies and confirms that
a product, service, system, process, or material
conforms to specific requirements. The third party
visits an organization, assesses the management
system, and issues a certificate to show that the
organization abides by the principles set out in the
standard.
Broadly, the certification process may be split
into two parts: inspection (or control) to verify
that production and handling are carried out in
accordance with the standards against which
certification is to be done; and certification to
confirm that production and handling conforms to
those standards. Certification procedures for the
certification of organic products should make it
possible to track and control the flow of products
from primary production at farm level through each
stage of manufacturing right to the final consumer
product. Producers and exporters will have to
obtain certification against organic standards
applicable in those markets, in which they intend to
sell their products with an indication that they are
organic.
What is the importance Certification is needed to ensure that products

of certification? labeled as “organic” are produced and handled
in accordance with specified organic standards.
Certification creates trust in organic labeling and
promotes fair competition in the market place. It
also demonstrates to customers, competitors,
suppliers, staff, and investors that industry-
respected practices are used. Additionally:
• Certification helps demonstrate to

stakeholders that the business is run
effectively.
• The process of achieving and maintaining
the certification also helps ensure continual
improvement and refinement of activities.
The regular assessment process will
improve staff responsibility, commitment, and
motivation.

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• Certification can improve overall performance,
remove uncertainty, and widen market
opportunities.
History of Organic Certification Organic pioneers such as Rudolf Steiner, Robert

Rodale, Albert Howard, and Lady Eve Balfour first
published their ideas on agriculture in the 1920s,
1930s, and 1940s. Arising from the work of such
pioneers, acceptance as an organic producer in the
1940s and 1950s initially was based simply on a
declaration against the conventional sector.
Voluntary standards and inspection systems began
to develop independently in parts of Europe, the US,
and Australia. In the late 1970s and early 1980s,
certification organizations were developed across the
board. In the mid-1980s, several more specialized
organizations dedicated to certification started
operating, such as Skal (Netherlands), KRAV (Sweden),
and Farm Verified Organic (US).
Finally, with the advent of regulations in
Europe and elsewhere, in the 1990s, commercially
driven certification companies became interested
in organic certification. Given the complexity of
farming systems and the wide variation in
agroecological and social conditions, a broad
global understanding and agreement of what
constitutes organic food production and processing
was established. This achievement can largely be
credited to IFOAM, a non-governmental organization
founded in 1972 in response to the increasing
global interest in OA.
Types of Verification There are three types of organic certification

system all over the world and these are the First
Party, Second Party, and the Third Party Certification.
First Party Verification
First Party certification occurs when the

producer, with an installed internal control system,
claims that the farm is organic. This type of
certification system exists in areas or communities
where the producer and the consumer know each
other.

379
In the past 2 years, IFOAM has been studying
Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) and has
recognized it as an alternative guarantee system,
which falls under first party certification.
PGS is based on recognized and publicly
available standards for organic practice. Often
they are based on the IFOAM Basic Standards and
include reference to social justice norms. PGS
has transparent and systemized decision-making
processes, and aims to share the responsibility
for the organic guarantee. The guarantee system
is created by the very farmers and consumers it
serves, encouraging and sometimes requiring direct
participation of farmers and consumers. Trust is
created through open information and peer reviews.
Since PGS is specific to individual communities,
geographic areas, cultural environments, and
markets it involves less administration and lower
costs than export-focused third party certification.
Pillars of PGS
1. One of the pillars of participatory certification

is that it encourages, and actually relies upon,
the active participation of a wide variety of
stakeholders, including producers, consumers,
and trained agronomists, all of whom are
viewed as equals in the development of
standards and the implementation of certification
processes (ECOVIDA 2004; PGS Working Group
2007).
2. The second pillar is trust, which is built over

time between various stakeholders in the
system. Because trust is such an important
feature, participatory certification systems tend
to be viewed as long-term endeavors, as it is
understood that relationships of confidence
need time to develop (Fonseca 2004).
3. Closely linked to trust is the notion of

transparency, as one helps to engender the
other; i.e., if those involved in participatory

380
certification trust each other, it becomes easy
to share information openly, just as making
information available to everyone helps generate
trust. One way of ensuring transparency is
through the active participation of a wide variety
of actors, as more people get involved in the
process of certification, the easier it is to spread
information. In addition, all documents related to
certification, (such as producer questionnaires
explaining production processes, notes from farm
visits, official decisions made by the certification
committees, and a manual explaining how the
system functions), are available to anyone who
may be interested.
4. Another essential aspect of the participatory

certification paradigm is that it includes an
educational element or learning process for
all involved – producers, consumers, students,
professors, agronomists, etc. Indeed, farm visits
are not viewed as ‘inspections’ as in the case with
mainstream organic certification, but instead more
as peer reviews, where all those involved are free
to ask questions, and everyone is encouraged to
learn from each other and from the experience.
5. Stemming from this premise, another feature

of participatory certification systems is that
relationships and decision-making processes
are horizontal rather than vertical, with no one
person having official authority over others.
Instead, decisions are made through a process
of consensus, in which every participant has an
equal voice.
6. Organization is highly decentralized, and

decisions about how certification processes
should be structured are decided at local levels.
In this way, groups can take into account local
ecological, social, and economic conditions when
developing organic certification procedures, in
much the same way that organic practices focus
on the need to adapt to local particularities.

381
7. Although participatory certification groups tend
to be relatively autonomous at the local level,
they are often incorporated into larger networks.
The formation of networks, such as Brazil’s
ECOVIDA project (one of the global leaders in the
participatory certification movement), is a non-
hierarchical way of organizing, and it facilitates
information sharing, communication, and
organization.
8. Within the participatory certification paradigm,

it is not just decision-making that is locally
focused, but rather the entire production-
certification-consumption network. Indeed,
products certified in a participatory way are
almost entirely geared toward the local market
and, as of yet, none are exported with the organic
label. In part, this is because the relationships of
trust between producers and consumers that are
at the core of participatory certification systems
cannot be maintained when goods are purchased
far from their location of production.
9. As such, for many involved in the participatory

certification movement, export orientation is
not only currently unviable, but is also viewed
as undesirable. Instead, the vision of organics
promoted within participatory certification
systems focuses on achieving food security
and sovereignty through the promotion of
local organic production and consumption.
Verification or Validation Validation or Verification Process

Process of PGS
1. The first step for a producer wishing to achieve
participatory certification and enter the market
is to fill out an initial questionnaire outlining
past and present production practices. There
are three types of questionnaires – one for crop
production, one for animal production, and one
for processed goods.
2. Upon completion, the questionnaire is reviewed
in a meeting of the certification committee.

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Producer completes a questionnaire on past 3. If no obvious barriers to certification are evident,
and present production practices. a farm map, daily activity log, and sales log are
requested, and a visit to the farm or processing
The certification committee reviews the site is scheduled. This visit is not viewed as an
questionnaire and, if there are no obvious inspection per se, but rather as an interactive
violations of organic standards, a visit to the
production site is scheduled. experience designed to be educational for all
those involved. During the farm visits, committee
The certification committee visits the
members consult a checklist that includes basic
production site and fills out a checklist data about the farm operation (e.g., size of
covering the basic organic control.
territory, number of crops, etc.) as well as basic
organic control points, as outlined in IFOAM’s
A meeting is held during which the committee manual for organic inspectors.
decides to certify unconditionally, certify 4. Generally within a week of the visit, the
with conditions, or deny certification.
In addition, the producer is classified committee meets, discusses, and reviews the case
as 'natural' or 'organic.'
until a consensus is reached by the committee
whether or not a producer can be certified as
A letter outlining the committee decision is organic or not. The decision regarding certification
delivered to the producer.
is based on the set organic standards, and is
delivered to the producer in the form of a written
If certification is If certification is letter. If producers are in complete compliance
denied, assistance achieved, the producer and have completed a 36-month transition period
is offered to help the can immediately
producer make the begin selling organic away from conventional production, they will
transition to organic products in the
production. market.
be granted ‘organic’ status within the market
and certified without condition. In most cases,
however, certification comes with a set of
Follow-up communication
and visits are essential to conditions that must be agreed to by the producer.
ensure that producers meet 5. Follow up visits are set to check on the farmer’s
with any conditions for
certification and to assist compliance with the conditions. If the farmer
with continued capacity complied, then he/she will be moved to the
building.
organic section of the market. In case the
certification is denied, clear reasons are outlined
and the committee always offers to maintain a
relationship with the producer and help them
make the transition to organic production. In
almost all cases, the letter that the committee
provides for the producer also includes a set of
recommendations for improvement that are not
necessarily conditions for certification, but are
designed to help optimize production practices.

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Limitations and Challenges
Although participatory certification offers

an attractive alternative to mainstream organic
certification in many ways, it is not without its own
set of problems and limitations. These challenges
exist at an institutional level, at the level of producers,
and also within the participatory certification
committees.
1. At a macro or institutional level, participatory

certification struggles with a lack of formal
recognition on the part of both governments
and mainstream certification bodies (Meirelles
2003; Fonseca 2004). In some cases, producers
get around this problem by using other labels
such as ‘natural’ or ‘ecological’ to describe their
production (Fonseca 2004).
2. Another set of challenges involves the producers
seeking organic certification within participatory
systems. Although the bureaucracy associated
with participatory certification is minimal,
producers are still generally required to provide
some kind of documentation regarding their
operations. These documents are essential to
the certification process; however, majority of
producers have a very difficult time providing this
documentation, primarily because they are not
used to maintaining such records.
3. Another potential problem involving producers
is that concerns about one’s own eventual
evaluation by the certification committee can
affect judgment in other peer evaluations. This
issue has the potential to manifest itself in
two ways. One possibility is that producers may
tend to go easy on their peers in the hopes
that this will encourage an easy evaluation
when their own turn to be certified comes. The
other possibility is that, because of feelings
of competitiveness, producers can be overly
critical of their peers hoping that poor
evaluations of others will give them a higher
standing within the group.

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4. A final set of challenges associated with
participatory certification systems exists within
the certification committees. As mentioned,
conflicts of interest may arise when producers
are responsible for certifying other producers.
However, it is not just producers who have
the potential to bring personal issues into the
evaluation, but rather all committee members.
Indeed, interpersonal conflicts and strong
differences of opinion can provide significant
challenges for certification committees. As a
result, the ideals of equal participation,
horizontally, cooperation, and consensus
building can be difficult to achieve.
5. Another prominent limitation, recognized by
Fonseca (2004), is that the functioning of
certification committees, and of the entire
system, is highly reliant on volunteer labor.
Thus, although many members may be highly
committed to the ideals of participatory
certification and want to participate actively,
their time is limited by other factors such as
work and family responsibilities. Sometimes,
they do not have the time and the fact that
members join and then leave creates a lack of
consistency and continuity within the certification
committee. In addition, the process of building
technical capacity is limited by the fact that
people do not always have sufficient time for
education and training.
6. Other organizational challenges exist in part
because of the reliance on volunteer labor, but
also because the development of participatory
certification systems is relatively new, thus the
movement is still struggling.
7. Related to this problem, because participatory
certification systems are so highly context
specific, the standards and procedures of other
groups may be used as a basis, but they cannot
simply be replicated. As a result, other groups
find themselves learning through trial and error
and, through this process, gradually developing
functioning systems.

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Second Party Certification
Second party certification on the other hand

occurs when consumer groups verify the production
system and determine if it adheres to the standard
set by the consumers. This type of certification system
fits in a situation where there exists an organized
group of consumer and producers and is commonly
known as the Community Supported Agriculture
(CSA).
CSA is defined as a direct marketing partnership
between a farmer or farmers and a committed
network of community supporters/consumers who
help provide a portion of a given farm’s operating
budget by purchasing “shares” of the season’s
harvest in advance of the growing season. CSA
shareholders make a commitment to support the
farm financially (and/or through other roles)
throughout the growing season, thereby assuming
some of the costs and risks along with the grower.
Furthermore, Robyn Van En helped introduce the
CSA concept and described it as “food producers
+ food consumers + annual commitment to one
another = CSA and untold possibilities.” CSA is a
mutual commitment and partnership between a
farm and supportive members of the community.
The farmer(s) provide the wisdom and labor
needed to nurture a harvest of produce, and
shareholders provide adequate financial support
needed for the farm to operate in an economically
sustainable manner. The farm benefits from having
a reliable market at an equitable price, and
shareholders receive fresh, local, and affordable
produce grown by people they know and trust.
Its primary objective is to create an alternative
distribution system independent of the conventional
produce market, develop a mutual understanding
of the needs of both producers and consumers,
and develop a better way of life through mutually
supportive producer/consumer interactions and
cooperation.

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How does this work?
A farmer or grower, often with the assistance

of a core group, draws up a budget reflecting the
production costs for the year. This includes all
salaries, distribution costs, investments for seeds
and tools, land payments, machinery maintenance,
etc. The budget is then divided by the number of
people for which the farm will provide and this
determines the cost of each share of the harvest.
One share is usually designed to provide the weekly
vegetable needs for a family of four. Flowers, fruit,
meat, honey, eggs, and dairy products are also
available through some CSA.
Community members sign up and purchase
their shares, either in one lump sum before the
seeds are sown or in several installments throughout
the growing season. Production expenses are thereby
guaranteed and the farmer or grower starts receiving
income as soon as work begins.
In return for their investment, CSA members
receive a bag of fresh, locally grown, organic produce
once a week. Members prefer a wide variety of
vegetables and herbs, which encourages integrated
cropping and companion planting. These practices
help reduce risk factors and give multiple benefits
to the soil. Crops are planted in succession in order
to provide a continuous weekly supply of mixed
vegetables. As crops rotate throughout the season,
weekly shares vary by size and types of produce,
reflecting local growing seasons and conditions.
• CSA varies considerably as it is based on farm

or garden location, agricultural practices, and
specific farm and community goals and needs.
Memberships are known to include a variety
of community members including low-income
families, homeless people, senior citizens, and
differently-abled individuals. If provided, an
extra fee typically is charged for home delivery.
Most CSA invite members to visit the farm and
welcome volunteer assistance. Working shares
are an option in some cases, whereby a member

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commits to 3–4 hours a week to help in the farm
in exchange for a discount on membership cost.
• Apprenticeships are growing in popularity

on many CSA. For some farms, they are an
integral component of a successful operation.
Apprenticeships offer valuable hands-on
education.
• Property arrangements tend to be quite flexible.

Beyond private ownership, there is leasing of
land with lease fees factored in as a regular
budget item. CSA is also an excellent opportunity
for holding land in some form of trust
arrangement.
• Every CSA strives over time for a truly sustainable

operation, both economically and environmentally.
Many try to develop to their highest potential by
expanding to provide additional food items such
as honey, fruit, meats, eggs, etc. Networks of
CSA have been forming to develop associative
economies by growing and providing a greater
range of products in a cooperative fashion.
Some CSA provide produce for local restaurants,

roadside stands or farmers' markets while building
farm membership.
Third Party Verification
Third-party verification is the only verification

process for OA that issues a certificate. It was first
instituted in the 1970’s by the organic farming
groups that first developed organic standards. In
the early years, the farmers inspected one another
on a voluntary basis, according to a general set of
standards. Today, third-party certification is a much
more formal process.
Third-party verification system is done by a party
without direct interest in the economic relationship
between the supplier and buyer. Certification is
the formal and documented procedure by which a

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third party assures that the organic standards are
followed. And this leads to consumers’ trust in
the organic production system and the products.
Certification gives organic farming a distinct identity
and credibility and makes market access easier
through the posting of the organic mark on the
product labels.
For group certification done under third party
certification, IFOAM has facilitated the development
of the Organic Guarantee System to provide an
international guarantee of this type of certification.
Thus when organic farmers and traders are
operating in an anonymous market, certification
has been developed to show and guarantee the
consumers that a product has been produced in
an organic way according to the installed Internal
Control Systems (ICS).
An Internal Control System (ICS) is a documented
quality assurance system that allows an external
certification body to delegate the periodical
inspection of individual group members to an
identified body or unit within the certified operator.
This means that the third-party certifier has to
inspect the installed system if it is functioning
properly and perform a random spot-check and re-
inspection of the smallholder member.
The rational behind ICSs for group certification is
two-fold:
• To facilitate small-holder certification,

i.e., simplify certification and reduce its
cost for smallholders through coordinated
documentation; and,
• To implement and maintain a high quality
assurance system for organic standards in
smallholder production.
Group certification enables smallholders to

access organic markets and developing countries
to commercialize their products at the domestic and
international level. ICSs also provides a good basis
for sound quality systems to ensure organic quality
and provide consumers with organic products at
reasonable cost.

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Of the types of verification system presented,
the third-party verification is favored. This is
because the first two types of verification system
do not pass the mainstream market. The products
produced through the first and second certification
systems go straight to the consumer’s table thus,
labeling them as organic is no longer necessary.
Certification Bodies A certification body can be a private, non-

governmental body, a public body, or as a
combination of the two. It may be based on a
purely private or public initiative, or on co-operation
between various sector players and interests. In
order to ensure that the body can be financially
sound, it is important to ensure that its services are
in demand amongst organic and potential organic
operators, and that its services provide market
access at competitive prices.
Certification bodies must comply with the
international ISO/IEC Guide 65 in order to become
accredited in international markets. The Guide
may be obtained from national standards
organizations. In order for the certification body to
become accredited in relevant international markets,
it must also comply with the specific requirements
and regulations of those markets. For instance, for
a Philippine certification body to become
recognized in the US, this body must show its
competence and reliability in certifying against
the National Organic Standard applicable in the US.
A local certification body on the other hand are
nationally recognized or accredited in a specific
country. It may be established by the organic
stakeholders in that country or with the assistance
and cooperation of an international certification
body. Local certification bodies are not required
to have an ISO 65 accreditation but it would be an
advantage if such accreditation is achieved.
Presently, based on the 2007 Organic Certification
Directory published by Grolink, there are 468 organic
certifiers worldwide and 147 of which are located in
Asia.

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In the Philippines, the only accredited organic
certifier is OCCP. OCCP’s organic seal, in the meantime,
is recognized only in the country thus, serving as
a guarantee to would-be consumers of organic
products.
Exporting organizations that are currently
producing organic products such as banana,
pineapple, and coconut have tapped the services of
foreign organic certifying bodies. In Luzon, CERES
GmbH has been tapped to certify the virgin coconut oil
for the EU market. In the Visayas, Naturland has been
OCCP certified organic seal tapped to certify the organic muscovado for the EU
market. In Mindanao, the Soil Association, ECOCERT,
and SKAL have been tapped to certify farms for export
of organic products to the EU and Japan markets.
When to Apply for Local and When and where to apply for organic certification
International Certification highly depends on the target market of the producer
or processor. The selected market will define the
requirements for organic certification. This will
include the type of organic standard to be complied
with and which organic certification body to select.
For example, a producer would like to sell organic
rice in the Philippines organic market. The producer
at the minimum will have to comply with the
Philippine National Standard for Organic Agriculture
and Processing and has to apply organic certification
with OCCP.
On the other hand, if the same producer would
like to export its organic rice to the Netherlands, at
the minimum, the producer has to comply with the
EU Organic Standard as stipulated in EE2092/91.
And a complete list of EU accredited organic
certifiers is available at the www.ifoam.org or at
www.organicstandard.com. Inquiry can done at
www.grolink.org to determine and select the certifier
accredited in the Netherlands.
Organic Regulations As organic products began to be sold by more

mainstream retailers in Europe and the US in the
1980s and trade started to increase across borders,
the authorities became more interested in the
regulation of the market and concerned about the

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potential fraudulent claims and confusion in the
consumers’ mind of what constituted organic. In
most cases, the organic sector itself turned to
governments for legislation.
In the US, the Organic Foods Production Act
was passed in 1990. The development of the full
National Organic Program proved to be very difficult
and time consuming, and at times, there have been
major differences between the organic movement
and the US Department of Agriculture. In December
2000, the USDA released final regulations for
organic foods, which took effect in October 2002.
In Europe, Regulation 2092/91, covering the
labeling of organic foods, was adopted in 1991.
Although not the world’s first such legislation
(France, Spain, and Denmark already had legislation,
as did some US states), it probably has had the
most far-reaching consequences to date on the
organic movement. This significant impact has
resulted from the combined effect of it being the
first regional, statutory definition and the fact that
Europe represents one of the largest markets for
organic produce. Businesses, both inside and
outside Europe, had to comply if they wanted to
sell within or into the European market.
In 2000, Japan published its organic regulation
(Japanese Agricultural Standards [JAS]). Several
other countries throughout the world now have
a national legislation that regulates their organic
production, and many others are putting the
necessary resources into developing legislation.
Until recently, countries from Africa, Asia, Latin
America, and Eastern Europe did not have an
internal market for organic produce. Any certified
organic production in these countries was to supply
the international markets of the richer countries of
Europe, North America, Japan, and Australia. These
organic enterprises were managed according to the
standards of the importing countries, and were mainly
certified by certification bodies from the countries
where the Organic Movement started.
But things are changing, especially in Africa, and
Asia and the Pacific. Countries in these regions have
developed their national standards and legislation.

392
While Europe has achieved 100% organic regulation,
America and the Caribbean, Asia and the Pacific,
and Africa have 28%, 22%, and 3% respectively.
At the same time, accreditation of local certification
bodies is also emerging.
At the international and global level, the role
played by IFOAM should be recognized. Founded
as International Federation for Organic Agriculture
Movements in 1972, it has published basic organic
standards since 1980. These standards, continuously
updated and enlarged, are used as a reference, a
common point and a guideline for the development
of many new and different organic standards
throughout the world. The IFOAM Basic Standards
(IBS) have provided the basis of standards and
regulations in regions of the world with very different
climates, cultures, and agriculture practices. Parallel
to this project, was the development of Codex
Alimentarius (or food code), which was drawn up
under the joint FAO/WHO food standards program.
The purpose of the Codex Alimentarius was to act as
a guideline on the production, processing, labeling,
and marketing of organically produced food. The
Codex Alimentarius guidelines were finally adopted in
1999.
Philippines Contribution In marking the history of organic certification

in Organic Regulation and legislation worldwide, the Philippines is making
its milestone in developing its organic industry. In
December 27, 2005, President Gloria Macapagal-
Arroyo signed the Executive Order 481 (EO481) –
Development and Promotion of Organic Agriculture
in the Philippines. EO 481 has specific sections on
compliance with the organic standards, accreditation
of certifying bodies, and labeling of organic products.
On April 6, 2010, Pres. Arroyo also signed into
law the Organic Agriculture Act of 2010. It is the policy
of the State to promote, propagate, develop further
and implement the practice of organic agriculture in
the Philippines that will:
• enrich the fertility of the soil;

• increase farm productivity;

393
• reduce pollution and destruction of the
environment;
• prevent the depletion of natural resources
• further protects the health of farmers,
consumers and the general public; and
• save on imported imports.
Philippines’ National Standards The Philippines’ National Standards for Organic

for Organic Agriculture and Agriculture and Processing is the basic reference
Processing document if a farm or a processing facility is
certifiable or not. The aim of the National Organic
Standards is to set the minimum requirements in
attaining organic production and processing.
In general our National Standards are composed
of the following:
1. Aims of Organic Agriculture and Processing

2. Bases of Organic Agriculture and Processing
3. Conversion of Organic Agriculture
4. Crop Production
5. Animal Husbandry
6. Processing
7. Special Products
8. Labeling and Consumer Information
The National Standards also has annexes where

the allowed, restricted and prohibited inputs and
materials are listed.
Generally, the National Standards include the
following:
1. Conversion process is a requirement.

2. The avoidance of synthetic chemical inputs,
antibiotics, and GMO.
3. The use of farmland that has been free from
chemicals for at least one year.
4. Provision of the behavioral environment
requirement of the animals.
5. Keeping detailed production and sales record.
6. Maintaining strict physical separation or
organic and non-organic products.

394
The Philippine National Standards for Organic
Agriculture and Processing can be downloaded from
the Department of Agriculture Website www.da.gov.ph
or at OCCP website www.occpphils.org.
Certification Procedure The certification procedure starts when a

client submits the filled-out application forms. The
1. Application application forms include the producer’s information,
certification service contract, farm history, and the
production or processing information. After all these
2. Inspection assignment forms have been submitted, the certification staff
will check the forms if properly filled out and if
3. Actual inspection—includes farm walk, required information is written.
checking of inputs and its sources and After checking the filled-out forms, the executive
documentation
director of the certifying body will then endorse the
application to the certification committee for an
4. Writing and submission of inspection report inspection assignment. The executive director will
nominate inspectors to the certification committee
5. Deliberation of the certification committee
and the certification committee will select the
based on the application form, inspection report, inspector that will be assigned.
and other supporting documents
Once the inspector has been identified, the
executive director will then communicate to the
6. Release of certification decision chosen inspector his/her inspection assignment.
The application forms of the client will be sent to
the inspector for review and preparation for his/her
7. Appeal
inspection plan.
The inspector will then contact the applicant to
set an inspection date. During the actual inspection,
the inspector will introduce his/herself and orient the
applicant on how the inspection will proceed.
Normally for crop production inspection, it would
include farm walk, validation of the inputs used, and
checking of how the documentation system in the
farm works.
In the processing of the application, the
inspection will focus on the sources of raw materials,
the practice of Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)
and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
(HACCP).
For smallholder group application, the inspection
will follow the same process as the individual
application. The only difference is in the inspection
procedure. In the group certification, the inspector

395
will check the internal control system—how the
system works and how it maintains the organic
integrity of the products produced by the group. In
addition, the inspector will also have to check how
the policies, procedures, and sanctions are being
implemented. Actual farm inspection will be done
through random sampling and a minimum of 10% of
the total number of members will be inspected.
Once the inspection is done, the inspector will
conduct an exit interview where the findings will be
shared with the applicant. If the applicant agrees
with the findings of the inspector, he/she has to sign
the inspection report followed by the signing of the
inspector. If in case the applicant does not agree,
the inspector has to clarify the points of the
disagreement until they arrive at an agreement
without sacrificing the actual findings of the
inspector.
When this is all done, the inspection report will
be submitted to the executive director. This will
then be sent to the Certification Committee for
deliberation.
Once the certification committee has arrived at
a decision, the certification report will be sent to the
client through the executive director. In giving out
certification decision, there are only three possible
decisions: approved, disapproved, or approved with
condition. The certification decision has to be released
2 months after the inspection.
In case the client does not approve of the decision
of the certification committee, an appeals committee
will be formed by OCCP to deliberate on the appeal.
The decision of the appeals committee will be the
final decision for the certification application.
To apply for certification, the following activities
are typically required in addition to normal operations:
1. Study the Organic Standards, which cover in

specific detail what is and is not allowed for
every aspect of farming, including storage,
transport, and sale.
2. Compliance - farm facilities and production
methods must comply with the Standards,

396
which may involve modifying facilities,
sourcing and changing suppliers, etc.
3. Documentation and record keeping -
extensive paperwork is required, detailing
farm history and current set-up, and usually
include results of soil and water tests.
4. Planning - a written annual production plan
must be submitted, detailing everything
from seed to sale: seed sources, field and
crop locations, fertilization and pest control
activities, harvest methods, storage locations,
etc.
5. Inspection - annual on-farm inspections are
required, with a physical tour, examination of
records, and an oral interview.
6. Fee - an annual inspection and certification
fee for local application starts at P25,000
while for international application, the fee
starts at Euro 1,000.
Furthermore, short-notice or surprise inspections

can be made, and specific tests (e.g., soil, water, plant
tissue) may be requested.
For first-time farm certification, the soil must
meet basic requirements of being free from use of
prohibited substances (synthetic chemicals, etc.) for a
number of years. A conventional farm must adhere to
organic standards for this period, often, 3 years. This
is known as being in transition. Transitional crops are
not considered fully organic. A farm already growing
without chemicals may be certified without this delay.
Certification for operations other than farms
is similar. For processors, it is assumed that the
operator is using certified organic raw materials
and compliant to GMP and HACCP. In addition, the
certification procedure will also check on other
ingredients used, the processing methodologies,
and handling conditions. A retailer or distributor
would be required to detail the logistical activity,
storage facilities, packing, and retailing activity.
A transport company would be required to detail
the use and maintenance of its vehicles, storage
facilities, containers, and so forth.

397
Organic Labeling Being able to label food product as ‘organic” is
a valuable marketing advantage in today's
consumer market. Certification is intended to
protect consumers from misuse of the term, and
make buying organics easy. However, the organic
labeling made possible by certification itself usually
requires explanation.
Based on the Organic Agriculture Act of 2010,
the label of the organic produce shall contain the
name, logo or seal of the organic certifying body
and the accreditation number issued by the BAFPS.
This Law allows only third-party certified to be labeled
as organically produced.
Organic Certification Center The Organic Certification Center of the

of the Philippines and its Philippines (OCCP) is a non-stock, membership
Services based, standard setting and certification organization.
It was formed by various organic stakeholders in
1999 and was formally registered with the
Securities and Exchange Commission in June 11,
2002.
The following are OCCP’s services:
1. Organic Standard Setting – the following are

the standards that have been formulated by
OCCP:
a. Organic Production and Processing
b. Organic Rice
c. Organic Muscovado
d. Draft Organic Fisheries
2. Organic Certification Service of OCCP includes
Farm, Processing, Smallholder, Organic
Fertilizer and Distributors/Traders.
3. Organic Inspection for Foreign Certifying
Bodies – so far, by CERES GmbH has
accredited OCCP as its inspection body in
the country. In addition, OCCP is also
working out the same service to other
certification bodies in the region to facilitate
trade or organic products and possibly
lower the cost of certification from foreign
certification bodies.

398
4. Trainings and Seminars – trainings and
seminars provided by OCCP are the following:
a. Seminar on Organic Agriculture
b. Seminar on Organic Standards and
Certification
c. Technical training on organic agriculture
technologies
d. Installation of the Internal Control System
for Group Certification
e. JAS Grading Systems Installation
f. Technical consultancy for international
certification
5. Research – OCCP’s intervention in research
is on organic standard for urban agriculture.
OCCP will continually engage itself in research
to further strengthen its organic standard.
Presently, it is actively consulting with
people from the academe such as the
University of the Philippines Los Baños
(UPLB), Benguet State University (BSU) and
the Central Luzon State University (CLSU).
6. Policy Advocacy – OCCP and its members
are actively participating in policy formation
and lobbying both at the local and
international level. One of OCCP’s interventions
is the crafting of EO 481. At the local level,
OCCP’s members are also pioneers in
crafting policies such as the non-burning
of rice straws, promotion of organic
fertilizer production, support against GMO
commercialization, and others.
Accreditation of OCCP With the formation of the national accreditation

board, selection and accreditation of organic
certifying body commenced. And in 2004, OCCP
was formally accredited by the Department of
Agriculture.
OCCP International Certifying CERES GmbH

Body Partner
Certification of Environmental Standards (CERES)
GmbH, is a German certifying body with ISO 65
accreditation. CERES also carries out inspections and

399
certifications according to different governmental
and private standards, such as regulation EEC
2092/91, USDA-NOP Final Rule, Japanese
Agricultural Standard for the production of organic
Foodstuff (JAS), or Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)
like EurepGAP.
Additionally, CERES provides inspection services
to several national or international private standards
of farmers' associations or certification bodies
(such as Demeter, Naturland, BIO SUISSE, QAI,
etc.). With the Soil Association Certification, CERES
signed a "Contract for Symbol Programme Product
Acceptance."
For further information on CERES, just log on to
www.ceres-cert.com.
Certification Alliance
Certification Alliance (CertAll) is a partnership

between local and international organic certification
bodies, inspectors, and supporting development
organizations, to offer a low-cost, one-stop
service for organic producers seeking local and
international certification for organic products.
Initiated in the Asian region, CertAll is open to
collaboration worldwide
CertAll offers a wide range of organic certifications
through its partners, i.e., certification to regulatory
requirements such as the EU regulation, the US
NOP, Japan JAS, the Chinese national standards,
as well as private organic standards, including
organic cosmetics, textiles, and aquaculture.
The Alliance is also a group of socially committed
organizations and individuals interested in
developing a multinational collaboration business
model as opposed to an international corporate
business model in certification. It is a group of
people who want to develop innovative business
models to make certification affordable and
accessible for all operators who want to adopt
organic principles in practice. This is the mission
that unites the Alliance.

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Certification Alliance Members:
EAST ASIA
Organic Food Development and Certification Center of

China (OFDC)
OFDC is China’s earliest and most influential

certification and research center for organic
agricultural products and China-GAP. OFDC has
achieved so much since its formation and now
provides multi-certification services for China’s
organic products certification, OFDC organic
product certification, international organic products
certification, and China-GAP certification.
SOUTHEAST ASIA
Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT)
ACT is an independent organization. ACT was

established in 1995 by Alternative Agriculture Network
(AAN), a network of 85 NGOs working on sustainable
agriculture. ACT is committed to support OA, a farming
system in harmony of ecology without the use of
synthetic chemicals and artificial fertilizers. However,
to encourage organic farming, confidence among
consumers is a critical factor.
Organic Alliance Malaysia (OAM)
OAM is a membership-based business

association that seeks to promote and protect the
organic industry in Malaysia. Primary goal of OAM is
to promote and protect the organic industry in
Malaysia. OAM wants all the consumers of organic
products to get the real stuff. OAM was established
to facilitate better cooperation among stakeholders,
to advance organic production, R&D, quality
assurance and market norms as well as to participate
and represent the Malaysian organic community
in policy development that will positively affect the
organic industry both nationally and internationally.

401
Organic Certification Center of the Philippines
(OCCP)
In November 1999, the Philippine organic

movement had opportunity to host the 4th IFOAM
Asia Scientific Conference and General Assembly.
One major concern identified in the Philippine
organic sector was that it does not have the
capability to establish and implement a certification
and inspection program. The hosting of the event
managed to pool financial resources of different
support groups and provided the initial seed money
for the establishment of a national certification
and inspection body. Since then interested parties
in the Philippines continued pursuing the
development of a certification body until the
establishment of OCCP in 2001.
Promoting Organic Farming and Marketing

in Laos (PROFIL)
The PROFIL project has been a leader in

developing the Lao organic industry since 2004.
Its sister project, PRORICE promotes organic rice
production and marketing in Lao PDR. PROFIL and
PRORICE are international cooperation projects
between the Lao Department of Agriculture and
the Swiss NGO Helvetas. These twin projects
are unique in Laos, due to their strong focus on
marketing of organic products and the development
of organic standards and an organic certification
system.
Koen den Braber
Hanoi Organics Co. Ltd, 12 Hang Chuoi, Hanoi,

Vietnam
Email: koenhuyen@hn.vnn.vn
Tel. 04-8359880/7734100
Fax: 04-7734100
Tel/Fax: 04.6405056 / 6405047
Handphone: 0903443105

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SOUTH ASIA
Organic Certification Nepal (OCN)
OCN is the first private initiative to certify

organic agricultural production, wild production,
processing and inputs for production in Nepal. It
aims to enhance market access, deliver economic
and social incentives to the producer, assure quality
food products to the consumer and also contribute
to improved ecosystems health. OCN is a result
of the goals and efforts of many governmental as
well as non-governmental organizations and
dedicated persons working in the area of OA for
many years. OCN has already started offering its
services to some producers.
SriCert
SriCert is an organic certification body in Sri

Lanka with both national and international presence.
SriCert helps farmers' movement in promoting
organic cultivation and certification of agricultural
products, collection of wild plants, and processing of
organic agricultural goods. It also has collaboration
with reputed certification agencies and technical
collaborations with well-reputed institutions with
similar nature and function. SriCert are involved
in certifying and promoting organic cultivation of
agricultural products for domestic market. It aims
to reduce the costs of production and help farmers
get reasonable returns. Organic farming is today's
answer not only to sustained productivity, but also
to safe and nutritious food, which is increasingly
demanded by conscious consumers within and
outside Sri Lanka.
Contact:
Thilak kariyawasam
Director
SriCert
tputhilak@sltnet.lk

403
EUROPE
Istituto per la Certificazione Etica ed

Ambientale (ICEA)
ICEA (consortium with external activity) is one

of the top certification bodies in Italy and in Europe,
having certified over 11,000 firms with strong ethical,
environmental, and social values, employing 300
technical staff and running 23 operation centers
throughout Italy and abroad. ICEA brings together
many of the historic associations from the organic
farming, bioarchitecture, ethical finance and
consumers sectors.
For further information on CertAll log on to www.
certificationalliance.org.

404
Self-Test
A. Fill in the blanks. Find the correct answer inside the box.
1. _______________ is an example of the first party verification system for organic

production.
2. Organic pioneers such as ______________, _______________, and _____________
were the first few people who published their own ideas on organic agriculture in the
1920s, 1930s, and 1940s.
3. ________________is when an independent and competent third party verifies and
confirms that a product, service, system, process, or material conforms to specific
requirements.
4. _________________ is defined as a direct marketing partnership between a farmer
or farmers and a committed network of community supporters/consumers who help
to provide a portion of a given farm’s operating budget by purchasing “shares” of the
season’s harvest in advance of the growing season.
5. _________________is the only verification process for OA that issues a certificate.
6. Once the farm or the processing facility has been declared as certified organic, the
products applied for certification carries the ________ that is usually seen on the
product labels.
7. A producer who claims that their product is organic needs to comply first to the
_____________ before he/she applies for certification.
8. Certification bodies who are interested in applying for international accreditation needs
to comply with _________ before they can be accredited.
9. OCCP stands for ____________________________________________.
10. ________________ is prohibited in organic agriculture.
Genetically Modified Participatory Guarantee Organic Certification Center

Organism System of the Philippines
ISO 65 Organic mark Organic standard
Community supported Certification Third party verification

agriculture
Rudolf Steiner,
Robert Albert
Rodale Howard

405
B. Enumerate the following:
1. What are the different types of verification?
2. Enumerate the importance of certification?
3. Who are the international partners of OCCP?

406
References:
Community supported agriculture of North America, University of Massachusetts Extension.

www.localharvest.org/csajsp.
Community supported agriculture project. University of Kentucky College of
Agriculture Sustainable Agriculture Undergraduate Curriculum. www.ca.uky.edu/
sustainbaleagcurriculum/rsahome.html.
Executive Order 481 (Promotion and Development of Organic Agriculture in the Philippines).
www.da.gov.ph.
FAO Commodities and Trade Technical Paper 2. “Environmental and Social Standards,
Certification and Labeling for Cash Crops." Prepared by Cora Dankers with contributions
from Pascal Liu, FAO –UN 2003.
Frequently asked questions for organic products. International Trade Center, UNCTAD/WTO
www.intracen.org.
Green revolution. http://www.answers.com/topic/green-revolution accessed on June 2006.
Henderson, M.; Van En, R. Sharing the harvest: A guide to community supported agriculture.
USA: Chelsea Green Publishing, Co., 1999.
History of organic certification by Grolink. www.grolink.se.
History of organic farming. http://www.answers.com/topic/history-of-organic-farming
accessed on June 2006.
IFOAM organic guarantee system and norms. www.ifoam.org.
Nelson, E., et al. An alternative approach to maintaining the integrity of the organic label.
Organic Agriculture Center of Canada, 2008.
Organic certification. http://www.answers.com/topic/organic-certification accessed on June
2006.
OCCP operations manual and organic standard.
Philippine national standards for organic agriculture and processing. www.da.gov.ph.

407
6.2 ORGANIC MARKETS AND TRADE
Description: Over the past 30 years, OA has developed into

a global industry with a global supply chain of
organic food and nonfood products across the globe.
OA is a market-driven industry, which has
achieved two-digit growth in many parts of the
world over quite a number of years due to increased
awareness and demand for safe and healthy
products from ecologically sound production.
With expanded organic markets, local and global
trade grew, earned in importance, and gained in
complexity.
At the global level, like any other trade, organic
trade is ruled by existing trade agreements
(WTO, SPS) governing the global trade applying to
all food and non-food traded products.
It is further subject to organic certification
rules and regulations. Thus, anybody engaging in
organic production or trade must know the existing
national norms and rules as well as the rules of
regions into which export is aimed for. It is advisable
to acquaint oneself with these issues governing
organic production and trade as early as the
planning stage of an organic production or trade
operation to make sure that the production system
to be established and the quality of the produce
or products are in line with the norms and quality
expectations of targeted consumers.
It is important to have a detailed knowledge of
market potentials, norms, product qualities, and
prices before engaging into export activities of
organic produce and products.

408
Objectives: After completing this module, the lelarners should
be able to:
1. describe the global organic markets, governing

rules and regulations, and the role of organic
certification;
2. state the importance of production cost
analysis and price structure of organic produce
and products for the Philippine domestic
market; and
3. explain the importance of harmonizing
national policies with international policies
on organic agriculture.
Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, PowerPoint presentations
1. PowerPoint or other forms of presentation to

provide basic information and framework for group
discussions.
2. Participants to discuss their understanding of
the domestic and international organic market
and trade along with certification issues, in
combination with the specific module on
organic standards and certification.
3. Participants should discuss and identify
agencies involved in the governance of organic
production and trade for domestic operations
such as DA-BAFPS, OCCP, DTI, and BFAD, as
well as for international trade such as country
specific and/or regions specific rules (NOP, EU
regulations, JAS) and their respective agencies
involved in the implementation of these
rules (USDA, EU governments).
4. Participants should discuss their understanding
of organic certification and governing rules,
how they affect their activities and business
potentials, the Philippine organic industry, and
competitiveness of the organic producers in the
global organic trade.

409
LCD for PowerPoint presentations, white board, index
cards for group exercises, Manila paper etc.
One day
Materials and Equipment
Requirements: Question and answer self-test
Estimated Time Frame:
Evaluation Plan:

410
International Organic Markets Global demand for organic products remains
robust, with sales increasing by over $5 Billion (B) a
year. Organic Monitor estimated international sales
to have reached $38.6 B in 2006, double that of
2000, when sales were at $18 B. Consumer demand
for organic products is concentrated in North
America and Europe; these two regions comprise
97% of global revenues. Asia, Latin America, and
Australasia are important producers and exporters
of organic foods. The global organic food industry
has been experiencing acute supply shortages since
2005. The international organic market for food
and drink grew to $33 B in 2005, and was expected
to approach $40 B in 2006. (Statistics published
in Organic Agriculture Worldwide 2008 edition).
The figures show that the demand for organic
products comes mainly from affluent countries
constituting three importing regions, namely US,
Europe, and Japan. This can create a potentially
fragile condition, as a dip in demand in the main
importing regions would have a major impact on the
global organic production, particularly in exporting
countries.
It is important that countries from Africa, Asia, and
Latin America as well as Eastern Europe increasingly
focus on developing their domestic markets and
interregional trade. Strong domestic markets will
benefit the local communities and consumers as well
as lower the business risk of organic production and
trade in the respective countries. They likewise will
contribute to sustainable economic growth, strengthen
the development potentials of the regions as well as
contribute to a vibrant global organic food industry.
Main Regions Importing Organic Products
The main organic markets worldwide are also

the main importing regions, namely Europe, US, and
Japan.
• Europe
The European market for organic food and
drink is the biggest worldwide with US $20 B in
2006.

411
• North America
US and Canada: US $17.3 B in 2006
• Asia
$780 M in 2006
Main Countries Exporting Organic Products
Others are mainly producing countries with

relatively small organic domestic markets but big
export volumes to the main importing regions.
• Oceania
The Australasian continent has over 40% of
global organic farmland and comprises less than
1% of organic food and drink sales.
Australia and New Zealand are important
exporters of organic products. The two countries
are global sources of organic beef, lamb, wool,
kiwi fruit, apples, and pears.
• Asia
China, India, Thailand, and Indonesia are
mostly producers of primary crops for export to
Europe and North America.
• Latin and South America

Over 90% of organic food produced in
countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Colombia,
and Mexico is exported.
The Philippines can be considered as a country

with a developing organic industry and with the potential
for export and a strong domestic market in urban as
well as rural areas, if proper development strategies are
applied.
If a producer in the Philippines aims to export
organic certified products, it might be useful to study
the international market and do some research on the
different importing regions. It is important to know
which type and quality of products are in high demand,
and under what conditions they are being traded. It is
also always useful to study competing producers and
countries in order to properly position one self.

412
Organic Production and Markets in Asia
In Asia, the area under organic management

is comparatively small, but increasing rapidly. The
total organically managed area in Asia amounted
to 2,632,630 ha in 2005 and grew to 3,090,924 ha
in 2006. The highest increase in this period took
place in India by about 300,000 ha, probably due
to increased domestic and export demand. For
many countries, no precise figures are available.
Lack of certification and lack of organic
regulations has hampered the development of
domestic markets and led to consumer confusion
in many Asian countries. The situation is slowly
improving; organic rules are in place in a number
of Asian countries including China, India, Indonesia,
Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan,
and Thailand. In 2008, certifying bodies from a
number of countries in the region have created a
certification alliance in order to facilitate organic
trade in the region and for export to the main
importing regions through the offering of cost
efficient certification services and the “one-stop”
approach through linkages among themselves.
The Japanese market for organic food and
drink remains the most important in the Asian
region. Emerging domestic markets in China,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand are
maintaining growth trends.
The range of marketing channels is diverse, as
are market conditions from rural India to Tokyo,
including organic bazaars, small retail shops,
supermarket shelves, multilevel direct selling
schemes, and internet marketing.
Exports are still largely composed of fresh
produce and low-value commodity crops. Aquaculture,
particularly shrimp farming, is becoming popular with
projects in China, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Organic Production and Markets in the Philippines


The main drivers for the development of OA in
the Philippines were NGOs, People’s Organizations
(POs), social action networks, and farmers’

413
associations in the early 1980s, when they realized
that the Green Revolution did not bring the desired
changes in their quality of life and income making
capacities. The government and the research
community did not recognize OA for quite some
time. Nevertheless, some scientists joined farmers
in developing alternative farming technologies.
Many external-funding donors supported these new,
different alternatives. With continued proliferation
of OA initiatives, the private sector through small-
and medium-scale operators for crop and organic
fertilizer production joined in and created the first
direct marketing initiatives in Metro Manila.
The formation of the Organic Producers Trade
Association in 1994, followed by initiatives to
develop organic standards, resulted in the
incorporation of the Organic Certification Center of
the Philippines and the formulation of the Philippine
National Standards (PNS). For more than a decade,
the industry was comprised of small-scale and
fragmented projects and initiatives spread across
the country.
But with the steady growth of international
organic trade, opening export potentials for the
Philippines, and due to consistent gain in popularity
of OA leading to a growing domestic market, the
government and research community started
recognizing the potential benefits of OA. Cooperation
between government agencies and private sector
initiatives started in 1997 with biosearch, an
organic and natural trade exhibit organized by
DTI-CITEM, and culminated in the formulation of
EO 481 and the Organic Agriculture Act of 2010.
Today certified organic farms for the domestic
market are supplying the market with rice,
sugarcane, coffee, herbal teas, assorted vegetables,
fruits, and culinary herbs. Organic certified
processed food products for domestic market are
only a few due to lack of ingredients of organic
certifiable quality. Some imported organic processed
food items are available in specialty stores and very
few chosen supermarkets, mainly in Manila or other
urban centers.

414
Organic Certified Products for Exports
• Banana products – fresh banana, banana chips,

banana puree, banana powder, and frozen banana;
• Coconut products – coconut oil, desiccated
coconuts, and young coconuts
• Mango products – fresh mango, mango puree,
mango halves, dried mango, and mango jam;
• Muscovado sugar
• Herbal tea/food supplements – ‘banaba,’ ‘lagundi,’
‘sambong,’ ‘ampalaya,’ ‘tsang gubat,’ and ‘noni’
• Papaya, honey, cashew, etc.
Until recently, only foreign certifiers provided the

certification of organic products. In 2006, the Organic
Certification Center of the Philippines (OCCP) through a
tie-up with CERES was able to certify organic products
for export to the main importing regions worldwide
(US, Europe and Japan).
It is expected that further development of the
organic sector for domestic and international markets
will greatly contribute to the country’s food security,
food sovereignty, food diversity, safe, and healthy
food. Furthermore, it will help in the creation of an
economic foundation for a “green development” to
satisfy the basic needs today without jeopardizing
future development opportunities.
Building a Domestic Organic Market
A solid domestic organic market will lessen a

potential export-dependence of organic certified
products and hopefully facilitate inter-regional trading.
It will be necessary:
• To further develop:
- support services and research for production
and marketing
- public information, education, and
communication campaigns
• To further improve:
- quality control of production and retailing
system

415
- the organic certification system
- government policies on OA
- compliance with international norms
Production Cost and Pricing of Organic

Products for the Domestic Market
Certified Organic products worldwide demand

a higher market price than non-organic products.
Sometimes the premium paid for organic products
is the only way for producers to survive and to be
able to maintain a sustainable production form. This
seems to be true for any country, no matter how
developed the economies of the respective countries.
For some organic product lines, the premium
price is reflecting an objectively higher production
cost, in particular for processed food, where
synthetic processing aid and ingredients have to
be substituted with more costly, natural, organic
ingredients and processes that do not allow “rock-
bottom" production cost.
Some organic products may have the same
production cost, but are still traded at the premium
price when market demand is higher than the
production capacity.
In the Philippines, it is difficult to establish
trends since there is no regular data gathering.
There are some trends that can be observed, and
lessons to be learned. Most importantly, the organic
producers are challenged with the somewhat
unique process of pricing, which is not practiced
in conventional food production.
Establish Actual Production and Distribution Cost
This requires a thorough analysis of the

conventional chain of supply and the organic
chain of supply, as the results for production and
distribution cost will depend on many factors: size
of land under agricultural production, volume
produced, distribution cost, distance to market,
type of product, etc. However, the result will be
the development of fair prices for producers and
consumers.

416
Organic Rice Production
The development of organic rice production in

the Philippines would not have been feasible without
foreign and local donors, who supported agrarian
reform beneficiaries’ communities. It is also true
that most of these farmers received up to P1/kg of
‘palay’ premium price for their organic rice, which
eventually greatly improved their family income. The
consumer, on the other hand, is paying more than a
small premium on organic brown and red rice due to
increased milling and distribution cost. Some traders
are making good money out of the trade with organic
rice.
A lot of rice distributed in Metro Manila is claimed
to be organic. A clear survey that validates these
claims is needed and may prove to be challenging.
However, this situation will improve when there is a
mandatory certification that shall make the market
more transparent and credible.
Organic Sugar
The only certified organic sugar in the Philippines

today is organic mascovado or muscovado sugar.
This specialty sugar is highly in demand in European
countries and in the US.
Presently, there are no big sugar mills producing
organic brown or washed sugar. There should be
a thorough analysis of the potential of organic
muscovado.
Organic Fruits
Organic banana is mainly for export. Pineapple

and papaya are for both export and domestic markets.
Organic fruits are usually more expensive than
conventionally produced fruits, but not as expensive
as the “quality fruits” of big commercial farms such as
Dole, Dizon, and Nenita’s. In smaller markets, organic
fruits can have almost the same price as conventional
fruits.

417
Organic Vegetables
There is a chronic under supply of organic

vegetables, which results in a lot of self-claimed
organic vegetables in the market. Thus, it is
important to increase the production capacity to
discourage some traders from selling mislabeled
organic products.
Recent surveys in Metro Manila have shown
that prices of traditional vegetables such as
eggplant, pole ‘sitao’, mungbeans, peanuts, ‘pechay’
and others are close to the prices of conventionally
produced vegetables. Specialty vegetables and
upland vegetables such as bell pepper, broccoli,
and cauliflower are priced higher. But some
vegetables such as the leafy lettuce type are
sometimes even cheaper than the “branded” ones.
It can further be observed that organic producers
are trying hard to maintain a year-round stable
price, while the conventional produce are subject
to big variations in price based on the season,
demand, and supply.
To get stable organic prices in the domestic
market, it will be important to increase the
production areas of organic vegetables and fruits
to meet the demand, and to reach an improved
“economy of scale” for the distribution.
It is important for organic producers to be able
to compute their real production cost and to share
this information with other producers to “negotiate”
with organic consumers a fair price for the organic
produce.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The government should increase its awareness

campaign on organic certification and implement
the policies of the Organic Agriculture Law. For
this purpose, the smallholder group certification
scheme should be promoted more actively to
ensure that small-scale producers reap the benefit
of their efforts to produce organically.
Technical capability and quality of produce
should be improved, the volume increased, and

418
production data established in order to develop the
organic trade.
Organic production and distribution systems with
the help of LGUs should be established wherever
possible.
The individual farmer, cooperatives, and networks
should practice appropriate production cost analysis
to determine fair prices.
Rules Governing Organic Organic Norms and Policies in the Philippines

Trade
Global organic trade is governed by existing
international trade agreements between governments
who are members of the World Trade Organization
(WTO). In addition to these basic trade agreements,
organic trade is subject to the sector’s specific rules
and regulations, based on organic standards and
certification.
National policies and norms have to be in
compliance with existing international rules and
regulations. Many national regulations are based
on the Codex Alimentarius and the IFOAM Basic
Standards.
For organic trade the most important rules are
the ones set forth by the main importing regions:
USDA-NOP (National Organic Program) for the US, EU
Regulations for Europe, and JAS/MAFF for Japan.
In the Philippines, the Organic Agriculture Law
and its implementing rules and regulations set the
policies, rules, and regulations. The Philippines policy
makes it mandatory to support a claim of organic
production through organic certification by an
accredited certifying body.
The Department of Agriculture’s Bureau of
Agriculture and Fisheries Products Standards (DA-
BAFPS) is designated and authorized by this Law
to grant official accreditation to organic certifying
body or entity. In addition, it is tasked to formulate
the necessary rules and procedures in the
accreditation of a certifying body.
For more information on organic certification
requirements in the Philippines, it is advisable to visit
the websites of OCCP and DA-BAFPS.

419
International Organic Status of Standards, Certifying Bodies,
Standards and Certification and Government Policies
The organic standards and certification

system was initiated by the organic movement as
voluntary quality control system to guarantee the
organic integrity and to distinguish itself from the
conventional products. It likewise served as
promotional and marketing tool for the past
30 years. Today, organic certification is mandatory
in many countries. Organic norms are based on
organic standards and government regulations.
In most countries, certification is done by
private certifying bodies, which operate under
conditions set forth by respective country rules and
international norms.
After a period of continuous growth over 30 years,
the international organic market is confronted with
two international standards for organic agriculture,
hundreds of private sector standards, varying
governmental regulations, and a host of conformity
assessment and accreditation systems. Mutual
recognition and equivalency among these systems is
extremely limited.
The IFOAM Norms and Organic

Guarantee System (OGS)
Two Main International Organic Standards
• IFOAM Basic Standards, first published in 1980
• Codex Alimentarius
- Guidelines for organic crop production, 1999
- Guidelines for livestock production, 2001
Certifying Bodies
• 385 certifying bodies (2006) engaged in organic

certification worldwide

420
Government Rules
• 47 Government Regulations – fully implemented

in 2006
• 13 Government Regulations – not fully
implemented in 2006
• 4 Government Regulations – for export only in
2006
Norms of Main Importing Regions
Three most important regulations of major

importing regions:
• Europe-EU organic regulations 2092/91 last

revised 2007
• US-National Organic Program (NOP) 2002
• Japan-(JAS) last revised in November 2006

The two pillars of the Organic Guarantee System
are the IFOAM Basic Standards for Organic Production
and Processing (IBS) and the IFOAM Accreditation
Criteria for Certification of Organic Production
and Processing (IAC). These two documents are
international norms to which certifiers must comply
with when conducting an IFOAM-accredited organic
certification.
The IFOAM Basic Standards address the specific

principles, recommendations, and required baseline
standards that guide standard setting bodies to
set standards for certification, which then will be
adhered to by operators. The IBS are rooted in IFOAMs
Principles of Organic Agriculture. The Principles of
Organic Agriculture are the basis for all of IFOAMs
work. For this reason, the principles are presented in
the introduction to the IFOAM Basic Standards. The
development of the IBS conforms to ISO/IEC Guide
59 Code of good practice for standardization, and
the WTO Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreement
Annex 3 Code of good practice for the preparation,
adoption and application of standards.

421
The IFOAM Accreditation Criteria are based
on the International ISO norms for the operation of
certifying bodies, and they are additionally developed
to reflect the particular circumstances of certifying
organic production and processing. IFOAM owns and
develops these documents.
IFOAM with its Norms and Organic Guarantee
System has played a major role in shaping organic
standards, certification and accreditation systems
and to facilitate organic trade over the past 30 years.
In order to assume its role as a leader and to serve
the organic stakeholders better through its OGS,
the Revision of the OGS was mandated by the last
IFOAM General Assembly (GA) in 2005. In its motion,
the GA established the following objectives for the
revision of the OGS:
• draw distinct line between organic and “not

organic”;
• safeguard the integrity of organic production
and certification;
• provide sufficient oversight mechanisms to
maintain trust between the parties involved;
• facilitate global acceptance of organic certified
under different systems; and
• be a platform for cooperation between the
affected parties.
The revision of the IFOAM OGS was supposed

to be ratified by the General Assembly of IFOAM in
2008. It will, however, undergo another round of
improvements and consultations.
IFOAM Accreditation
IFOAM Accreditation provides guarantees

to buyers, government authorities, other control
agencies, and the public, that a product has been
produced within a system that conforms to accepted
international standards for organic production,
processing, and certification. IFOAM Accreditation is
administered by a separate, independent organization,
the IOAS.

422
The IOAS is an independent, non-profit organization
that works on behalf of everybody involved in OA
to ensure trust and fair trade in products labeled as
organic. Services offered by IOAS are relevant to
consumers, organic producers, traders, certification
bodies, and government authorities.
The main activity of the IOAS is to independently
verify the competence (so-called accreditation) of
certification bodies active in the field of OA.
To date, there are 36 certification bodies
accredited by the IOAS with just under 150,000
registered organic operators based in 75 countries.
Profile of the IOAS accredited certifying bodies:
• 65% of the certification organizations work in

more than one country.
• On average, the certification organizations
have 14 full time staff members (the range
being from 2 to 75).
• Of the 42 accredited and applicant bodies,
17 are based in Europe, 8 in Asia-Pacific, 6
in North America, 6 in South America, 3 in the
Middle East and 2 in Africa.
Most certification organizations are non-profit, five

are for profit and two are government departments.
International Organic Trade consists of a maze

of standards and regulations
While the international organic guarantee system

has improved tremendously over the years in some
aspects, it can be said that the situation is less
than ideal for many countries wanting to join the
international trade, particularly developing countries
and countries with an emerging organic sector. This
is due to the fact that countries have different legal
systems and regulate organic production and trade in
different ways, but with similar aims and results.
To join international trade, one has to:
• comply with different requirements;

• obtain multiple certification; and
• obtain multiple accreditation.

423
Furthermore, the existing norms and systems
of the importing regions are creating a
hegemony, putting the rest of the nations
under pressure to unilaterally accept and
comply with these norms and systems
regardless of their conditions, state of the
industry, and other particularities. It can be
said that the current situation is hindering
international organic trade and becomes
an obstacle for developing countries
in developing their organic production
due to:
• lack of agreement, linkage, or equivalence

on standards;
on certification requirements; and
on the approval of accreditation
mechanisms.
Challenge
Change the existing Standards and Certification

System with its respective supra-national and
national regulations into a “Global Organic Guarantee
System” that respects the diversity of cultural,
technical, economical, geographical, and climatic
conditions of all countries, while respecting the
Principles of Organic Agriculture.
International Harmonization International Task Force on Harmonization and

of Organic Standards and Equivalence in Organic Agriculture – an Initiative
Certification of the UNCTAD, FAO, IFOAM
This Task Force, established in 2003, serves

as an open-ended platform for dialogue between
public and private institutions (inter-governmental
and civil society) involved in trade and regulatory
activities in the OA sector.
As a consequence approximately 40 participants
from governments, intergovernmental, and private
bodies have been reviewing the existing agriculture
standards, regulations and conformity assessment

424
systems in order to provide information and formulate
proposals on harmonization of the regulation of
production and trade in products from OA.
The Philippines is a member of this Task Force
and has all the interest in actively participating in
this process to improve and harmonize International
Organic Trade.

425
SELF-Test
1. Describe the state of organic production and markets in the Philippines.
2. List some of the certified products that the Philippines have exported.
3. What are some measures that are needed to build a local market for organic products?
4. Describe the two pillars of organic guarantee system.
5. What are some hindrances to international trade while being obstacles also to the
development of organic production in developing countries?

426
References:
For further information on standards, certification, accreditation, international, regional,

national rules and norms visit the following websites:
IFOAM. International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements. www.ifoam.org

IOAS. International Organic Accreditation Services. www.ioas.org
Codex Alimentarius. Commission of FAO and WHO. www.codexalimentarius.net
USDA-NOP. US-Department of Agriculture - National Organic Program.
www.ams.usda.gov/nop
European Commission on Organic Agriculture.
http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/qual/organic/index_en.htm
Japanese Organic Standards of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
http://www.maff.go.jp/soshiki/syokuhin/hinshitu/organic/eng_yuki_59.pdf
UNCTAD. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. www.unctad.org
OCCP. Organic Certification Center of the Philippines. www.occpphils.org
DA-BAFPS. Department of Agriculture Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Products
Standards. www.bapfs.da.gov.ph

427
428
Module 7
Farm Planning and Record
Keeping
7.1 Farm Planning and Record Keeping 430
7.1 Farm Planning and Record Keeping
Significance: For the development of an organic farm/

operation to become successful and profitable, it
is important to analyze the economic aspects of
production thoroughly and to understand the factors
that influence the economic condition of a farm.
A thorough initial assessment and planning at
the onset is as important as the efficient
management of the operation. Organic farming
is known to be “management” intensive, which
means that it requires a deep involvement of the
farmer to observe the cycles and laws of nature
and the growth of the crops and animals within the
given system. This is done to continuously improve
the production system and lower the costs and
increase the returns.
The bigger an operation at the start, the higher is
the risk involved.
For farmers who are converting the existing
farm operations to an organic system, it will be
important to make a detailed conversion plan, which
can be on a step-by-step, or gradual approach
in order not to loose the economic viability of the
operation.
One of the most important management tools in
successful organic farming is the proper keeping of
records.
Good record keeping serves to monitor
production schedule, quality, and quantity. It
allows improved farm planning, production cost
analysis, and compliance with government and
certification requirements.
Description: This module explains the basic concepts and

guidelines in planning and record keeping.

430
Objectives: At the end of this module, learners are expected
to:
1. state the importance of assessing the market

situation and the organic farm location,
resources, and skills in farm planning;
2. establish well-defined goals based on the
assessment of market and farm situation;
3. explain the relevance of record keeping
for production planning, monitoring, cost
analysis, legal and certification purposes;
4. formulate an organic production or business
plan; and
5. create record keeping forms relevant to
organic farm operations using the given
examples.
Learning Approach: Discussion, group exercises
Specific Strategies: 1. Discussion on the importance of farm planning

and record keeping
2. Discussion on a case study of farm planning
inclusive of establishing list of activities, records
required for the type of operation.
3. Preparation of sample farm plan
4. Filling up of sample forms for record keeping
Materials and Equipment • White board, Manila Paper

Requirements • Paper and pen or computer to design forms
• Organic certification standards to review
mandatory record keeping parts
• Printed copy of Organic Agriculture Law to review
government policies on claims on organic products
• Examples of forms for record keeping
• Examples of production cost computation
Evaluation Plan: 1. Prepare an organic production or business plan

2. Review information in this chapter to check if
business plan and forms are complete

431
Introduction Currently, for many small-scale farmers in the
Philippines, it is difficult to reach economic self
sufficiency because of the high fixed costs such
as land prices, buildings and machinery and the
prevailing monocropping of agricultural commodities.
In vegetable production, middlemen often dictate
farmgate prices and prices vary tremendously
depending on supply and demand.
A thorough initial assessment and planning at
the start is therefore important. Organic farming is
known to be management intensive so that farmers
need to look at the cycles and laws of nature and
monitor the growth of the crops and animals to
continuously improve the production system to
minimize the costs and increase income.
Improve the Production Ways to Minimize Cost

System
• Prepare own farm inputs such as fertilizers and
botanicals rather than buy from outside
• Produce own seeds and/or exchange seeds with
other organic farmers
• Diversify landscape of farm and include diverse
crops in farm design which are economically
profitable, such as:
- compost crops: nitrogen fixing ‘Madre de
kakao,’
- fodder crops such as Rensonii, Flemingia, and
others
- botanical crops: neem, ‘malunggay,’ ‘siling
labuyo’
- cash crop: banana, papaya, pineapple,
‘malunggay,’ bamboo
• Maximize production patterns through companion
cropping and crop rotation
Ways to Increase Returns
• Choose products with high market value

• Combine livestock with crop production
• Engage in farmstead processing and/or cooperate
with other farmers for processing and marketing
schemes

432
• Brand products to establish name and credibility
• Improve quality of products
In many cases, organic farmers will have to

cooperate with other farmers and/or with government
agencies to achieve their goals.
Initial Assessment In order to efficiently plan the farm/operation, it

is important to understand the climate and culture
of the location, as well as the local and international
trends of organic markets.
A sound decision on the type of organic
production/operation will depend on initial assessment
and personal preferences and skills.
The following are some questions/aspects that can
guide in the assessment.
Market and distribution

• What are the existing markets and distribution
possibilities, market prices?
• Who are the other organic producers?
• Is it possible to join a network of organic
producers?
Location/property
• Is property existing, leased, owned, or do you have
to look for a property?
• Location of property: Geographical location,
distance from urban center, market
• Type and size of property, topography, water
supply
• Existing ecosystem: trees and other crops
• Existing infrastructure: perimeter fence, buildings
Resources and skills

• Own existing financial and human resources,
knowledge, skills
• Other sources of required resources, information,
training, and knowledge
• Support systems of government, organic farmers,
international networks

433
Define Goal Based • Production type: Crop production, livestock, mixed
on Assessment production
• Production volume/required area
• Production system
• Distribution system
Layout/Design • Layout of farmscape defining production areas

for biodiversity, functional (windbreakers, soil
retention, insect repellent, insect attractant,
aesthetics), compost crops, cash crops (income
generating), food crops for home consumption
• Source of water supply, irrigation system,
drainage, water impounding areas
• Infrastructure
Cost Estimates Initial set up/capital expenditure

• Site development
• Infrastructure
• Farm inputs
• Equipment
Financial projection
• Estimated volume of production and selling price
• Estimated monthly overhead (production cost)
• Estimated gross profit
Record Keeping of Production

and Maintenance Practices
Type and Content of Records Farm records or records of activities will vary
depending on the type of operation. To establish a
list of records one wants to keep, it is advisable to
chart the flow of activities in the farm. Once the
activities are listed, it is easy to identify the needs for
the type of records and their respective content.
Forms for record keeping usually evolve as the
operation evolves. Records can be kept manually by
farm staff and subsequently encoded into computer
for further use, evaluation and data gathering. Good
record keeping makes an operation transparent and
traceable.

434
Records of Crop Production For crop production operations, the following
records should be kept:
• Information on soil fertility treatment:

- Type of organic fertilizer, nutritional
supplements, and other farm inputs for soil
fertility and plant health, indicating how
and when they were produced for farm-
stead production and/or supplier and date
of purchase thereof if purchased outside the
farm;
- Application of fertilizer and other farm inputs
(modality, quantities, places and dates of
application)
• Information on sources of seeds and planting

material
- Farm-stead production: production date, yield,
storage
- Purchases from suppliers: list of suppliers,
date, type, quantity of purchases (supporting
documents shall be kept on file)
• Planting/Production plans
- Overall planting plan with projected yields
- Seedling production
- Transplanting/Planting
- Indicating place, date, type of soil/plot
preparation, type of crop, projected date of
harvest and estimated yield
• Management practice on crop production until

harvest
• Compost crop production (if any)
Harvest/Postharvest Records • Date, place, crop, quantity of harvest

• Type of postharvest handling (washing, packaging,
crating, cooling, storage)
Distribution/Sales • List of clients

• Actual sales indicating buyers, quantities, and
prices

435
Legal Records • Business Name Registration (DTI or SEC)
• Business Permit (Municipality)
• BIR requirements
• Employees’ records (SSS, Pag-ibig, Phil. Health,
etc.)
Records for Organic • Organic Standards (should be kept readily

Certification available for periodical review, if necessary)
• Records of application for certification and re-
certification inclusive of contract with certifier
• Certificate

436
SELF-TEST
1. Prepare an organic production or business plan.
2. Review information in this chapter to check if business plan and forms are complete.

437
COMPOST PRODUCTION FORM
Brgy. Tinurik, Tanauan City, Batangas

Compost Used
Collection of Plant or Animal Date Set Up Chamber
Collected or Date Turned and Date Turned and Date Quantity (indicate location)
Material (if animal waste is from Compost Chamber or Heap
Delivered by Watered by Watered by Harvested Harvested or sold to (indicate
outside of farm: indicate source) or Heap Number Number
client)
438
Prepared by: _________________
Date: _________________
SEEDLING PRODUCTION FORM
Brgy. Tinurik, Tanauan City,
Batangas
Date of No. of Trays/ No. of Trays/ Date of
Variety Date of Pricking Area Population Remarks
Sowing Holes Holes Transplanting
439
Brgy. Tinurik, Tanauan City, Batangas
Gardener’s Weekly Activity Report

Name of Gardener: _____________________________
Date Activity Area Crops Start Finish Total Hours
Legend:
Compost Production (CP) Production (P) P5-Watering P8-Driving
CP1-Collection of animal manure P1-Seedling production P6-Weeding P9-Cleaning
CP2-Collection of plant materials P2- Land preparation P7-Harvesting
CP3-Shredding P3-Transplanting to plots
CP4-Filling of chambers P4-Farm input application Landscape (L)
CP5-Mixing, watering, turning P4a-Basal fertilization L1-Maintenance
CP6-Harvesting P4b-Foliar fertilization L2-Watering
P4c-Mulching L3-Pruning
Prepared by: _______________________ Submitted to: Noted by:

Date: ___________________ _______________________

440
PLANNING DOCUMENTS AND FORMS REQUIRED FOR PLANNING,
MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF AN ORGANIC VEGETABLE
PRODUCTION OPERATION
Organic
Activity Required Documents Management Government Certification
Tool Requirements Requirements
I. Farm Planning
a. Design Plan, layout x x
b. Cost estimates for
establishment & construction Land lease/purchase x x x
Development of farmscape x x
Development of production area x x
*Open field production x x
*Plotted area with concrete slab x x
*Plots without concrete slabs x x
*Plots with nets & tunnel bars x x
*Plots with trellis x x
*Plots without trellis x x
Structures such as storage, seedling
nursery, postharvest, compost
chambers x x
c. Production plan Production plan chart for 12 months x x
Estimated labor, farm input, and other
d. Operating cost estimates material requirements for 12 months x
e. Define roles and functions
of all collaborators (family
members, employees), Operations manual or guidelines,
establish policies policies x x
II. Production
a. Fertilizer production Compost production form x x
b. Fertilizer purchase Purchase request (PR) x
Quotations from suppliers x
Purchase order (PO) x x
Sales invoice (SI) x x x
Official receipt (OR) x x x
c. Farm input production Farm input production form x x
d. Farm input purchase Purchase request (PR) x x
Sales invoice(SI) x x x

441
e. Seedling production
* Seed purchase Purchase request (PR) x
Sales invoice (SI) x x x
* Seedling production Seedling production form x x
f. Land/plot preparation and
cultural practices
* Weeding Gardener’s weekly activity report form x
* Digging Gardener’s weekly activity report form x
* Basal fertilization Gardener’s weekly activity report form x
* Transplanting Seedling production form x
* Watering Gardener’s weekly activity report form x
* Application of foliar Farm input application form x x

* Health management Pest and disease monitoring form x x
e. Harvesting Vegetable harvest form x x
g. Postharvest handling Vegetable trimmings/waste report form x x
Weekly or monthly summary forms of
h. Production cost analysis farm activities x
III. Sales/Deliveries x x x
Sales reports per client and
Sales summaries
IV. Transportation/
Delivery Cost Delivery reports x x
IV. Financial
Management General accounting records x x
Organic Farming - Production, Training, Consultancy, Inc.

442
FARM RECORD KEEPING
Farm Planning Production Aspect
Composting Seedling Plot Transplanting Care for Harvesting

Production Preparation Crops
Design Costing Preparation Pest & Application

Weeding Mulching
of Medium Disease Watering of Fermented Cleaning Packing
Purchasing of Mgt. Prod.
Requirements,
Materials,
443
Implementation Sowing Digging
Inputs
Seedling Basal
Care Fertilization
Watering

Watering Application of Fermented Inputs
About PCAARRD
T
he Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources
Research and Development (PCAARRD) is one of the sectoral councils under
the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). PCAARRD was established
on June 22, 2011 through the consolidation of the Philippine Council for Agriculture,
Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) and the
Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development (PCAMRD).
The Council formulates policies, plans, and programs for science and technology-based
research and development in the different sectors under its concern. It coordinates,
evaluates, and monitors the national research and development (R&D) efforts in the
agriculture, aquatic, and natural resources (AANR) sectors. It also allocates government and
external funds for R&D and generates resources to support its program.
PCAARRD is engaged in active partnerships with international, regional, and national

organizations and funding institutions for joint R&D, human resource development and
training, technical assistance, and exchange of scientists, information and technologies.
It also supports the National Agriculture and Resources Research & Development Network
composed of national multi- and single-commodity and regional R&D centers, cooperating
stations, and specialized agencies.
As such PCAARRD has been a potent arm in catalyzing the Philippine AANR sectors toward
self-sufficiency and global competitiveness.
MAILING ADDRESS PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, AQUATIC

AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT (PCAARRD)
Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines 4030
TELEPHONES Los Baños - (63) (049) 536-0014 to 536-0015/
536-0017 to 536-0020 & 536-0024;
536-5896 to 536-5899
FAX Los Baños - (63) (049) 536-0016/536-7922
DOST Bicutan, Taguig, Metro Manila (63) (02) 837-1651
E-MAIL pcarrd@pcarrd.dost.gov.ph
WEBSITE http://www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph

ORGANIC AGRICULTURE

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ORGANIC AGRICULTURE

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PCAARRD Training Module No.

Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural

Los Baños, Laguna

Philippine copyright © 2012 by PCAARRD-DOST

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

Foreword .............................................................................................................. iii

Introduction to the Training Manual........................................................................ 1

Module 1. Overview of Organic Agriculture

Module 2. Soil Management

Module 3. Organic Crop Production

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

Module 5. Organic Livestock and Poultry Production

Module 6. Organic Certification, Markets, Trade,

Module 7: Farm Planning and Record Keeping

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

MR. JOEL L. ADORADA is an Agriculturist II of the Bureau of Plant Industry-

DR. CLARITA P. AGANON was a professor at the Central Luzon State

JACQUELINE HAESSIG ALLEJE, a Swiss, is involved in the

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

MS. LOURDES GARCIA DE VILLA is the head agriculturist of Organic Farming—Production,

DR. NENITA E. DELA CRUZ is Professor V of the Research Extension and

MS. ANALYN G. ESCANES is a BS Agriculture (agronomy) graduate of

MS. JULIE ANN M. GEPIELAGO is BS Agriculture (horticulture

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

DR. RECTORINO P. ESCOBIN, JR. is a pioneer member of “The Integrated

DR. SILVESTRE L. KUDAN started as a laborer at Madaymen, Kibungan,

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

MR. ANDRY K. LIM is a family farm consultant of the New City

MS. LEILANI RAMONA KATIMBANG-LIMPIN is the executive director of

MR. VALENTINO L. MACANES is an associate professor of the

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

DR. RODEL G. MAGHIRANG is a researcher at the Institute of Plant

DR. DIGNA O. MANZANILLA is currently a scientist (social sciences)

DR. MARILYN GAGELONIA-PATRICIO is a professor in plant pathology/

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

DR. MERCEDES P. TARUN is an animal science professor at the Isabela

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

Scope and Structure

This book is a systematic consolidation of selected existing and documented OA practices in

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

The approach in undertaking the training is a combination of lectures, discussions,

How to use the Training Manual

Organizing the Training Course

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

4. Which training methods should be used? Lectures are important means of

For a training to be effective, it must be able to address the participants need to

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

Significance: Clearly defining OA and presenting its

The overall definition of OA, based on International

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

Objectives: After completing this module, the participants

1. define OA, its principles, aims, basic

Learning Approaches: Lecture-discussions, group exercises, video and

Specific Strategies: 1. PowerPoint presentations provide basic inform-

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

Evaluation Plan: Question and answer self-test

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

General definition based The IFOAM definition of OA has been adopted in

“OA dramatically reduces external inputs by

Organic Agriculture in the Philippines: A Training Manual

Need for Systems Perspective

The term “organic” is commonly used to refer