Robert O'Shea_ Wendy McKenzie - Writing for Psychology-Cengage Learning Australia (2021)

Robert P.
O’Shea
Wendy McKenzie
Writing for 7e
PSYCHOLOGY
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300
Writing for 7e
PSYCHOLOGY
i
To Urte Roeber, Cecilia O’Shea, Emilian O’Shea,
and Irmela O’Shea from Robert O’Shea.
To Greg, Clancy, Ted, and Martha from Wendy McKenzie.
ii
Robert P. O’Shea
Wendy McKenzie
Writing for 7e
PSYCHOLOGY
iii
Writing for Psychology © 2021 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
7th Edition
Robert P. O'Shea Copyright Notice
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 25 24 23 22 21
Brief Contents
Chapter 1 Read This First! 1
Chapter 2 Writing Research Reports 21
Chapter 3 Writing Essays 65
Chapter 4 Finding and Using References 83
Chapter 5 Thinking Critically and Developing Ideas 107
Chapter 6 Writing Correctly and With Style 126
Chapter 7 Writing for Other Forms of Assessment 148
v
Contents
To the Student xii
To the Instructor xiii
About the Authors xvi
Acknowledgements xvi
Guide to the text xvii
Guide to the online resources xix
Chapter 1 Read This First! 1

1.1 Writing for Psychology 1
1.2 Excellent Assignments 3
1.2.1 Relevant Literature 3
1.2.2 Original Ideas 3
1.2.3 Logical and Empirical Defence 4
1.2.4 Academic Integrity 4
1.2.5 Acknowledgements and Avoiding Plagiarism 7
1.2.6 Editorial Style 8
1.2.7 Sources of Help 8
1.3 Writing Style 9
1.3.1 Grammar, Spelling, and Punctuation 9
1.3.2 Objectivity, Formality, Impartiality, and Respect 9
1.3.3 Simplicity 12
1.3.4 Precision and Clarity 13
1.3.5 Conciseness 13
1.3.6 Interest 13
1.3.7 Audience 13
1.4 APA Editorial Style 14
1.4.1 Margins, Spacing, Font, Running Heads, and Page Numbers 14
1.4.2 Structure, Headings 15
1.4.3 Citation and References 15
1.4.4 Other Aspects 18
1.5 Writing 18
1.5.1 Plan 18
1.5.2 Rewrite 18
1.5.3 Character Limits, Word Limits, and Page Limits 19
1.6 Submission 19
1.6.1 Online vs Paper? 19
1.6.2 Deadlines 19
1.7 Helpful Sources 20
vi
Contents
Chapter 2 Writing Research Reports 21

2.1 Kinds of Research and Expectations for Research Reports 21
2.1.1 Hypotheses 21
2.1.2 Marking Criteria 23
2.2 Structure 23
2.3 Title Page 24
2.3.1 Independent, Manipulated Variable 24
2.3.2 No Variable was Manipulated 25
2.3.3 Mediation or Moderation 25
2.4 Abstract 25
2.5 Introduction 26
2.5.1 Importance 26
2.5.2 Literature Review 27
2.5.3 Link Past and Present 27
2.5.4 Aim and Outline of Your Study 27
2.5.5 Hypotheses 28
2.6 Method 28
2.6.1 Participants or Subjects 29
2.6.2 Materials 30
2.6.3 Procedure 31
2.6.4 Design 31
2.6.5 Data Diagnoses and Analyses 32
2.6.6 Qualitative Methods 34
2.7 Results 35
2.7.1 Any New Variables 35
2.7.2 Data Summary 35
2.7.3 Figures 36
2.7.4 Tables 39
2.7.5 Hypothesis Tests 40
2.7.6 Units 42
2.7.7 Qualitative Data 42
2.8 Discussion 42
2.8.1 Summary 43
2.8.2 Predicted Significant Findings 43
2.8.3 Non-Significant Findings 44
2.8.4 Unexpected Significant Findings 44
2.8.5 Practical and Theoretical Importance 44
2.8.6 Limitations and Future Research 45
2.8.7 Conclusion 45
2.9 References 45
2.10 Appendices 46
vii
Writing for Psychology
2.11 Finer Points of APA Style 46

2.11.1 Personal Reference 46
2.11.2 Tenses 47
2.11.3 Numbers 48
2.11.4 Abbreviations 48
2.11.5 Footnotes 49
2.11.6 Lists 49
2.11.7 Italics 49
2.12 Example Research Report 50
Chapter 3 Writing Essays 65

3.1 Expectations 65
3.1.1 Argument 65
3.2 Before You Start 66
3.2.1 Analysis 66
3.2.2 Reading 67
3.2.3 Draft Argument 67
3.2.4 Plan 68
3.3 Structure 68
3.4 Title Page 69
3.5 Abstract 70
3.6 Introduction 70
3.6.1 Significance 70
3.6.2 Controversies 70
3.6.3 Final Argument 71
3.6.4 Map of Your Essay 71
3.6.5 Definitions 71
3.7 Body 72
3.7.1 Organisation 72
3.7.2 Conciseness and Precision to Show Rather than to Tell 72
3.8 Conclusion 73
3.9 References 73
3.10 Finer Points of APA Style 74
3.10.1 Personal Reference 74
3.10.2 Tenses 74
3.11 Example Essay 74
viii
Contents
Chapter 4 Finding and Using References 83

4.1 Finding Information 83
4.1.1 Scholarly Sources 83
4.1.2 Search Strategies 84
4.2 From Reading to Writing 85
4.2.1 Active Reading 85
4.2.2 Notes 86
4.3 Citation 87
4.3.1 Citation Types 87
4.3.2 Secondary Sources 88
4.3.3 Personal Communication 89
4.3.4 Learning Resources 89
4.3.5 Format 90
4.3.6 Quotations 92
4.4 References 94
4.4.1 General Principles 94
4.4.2 The Digital Revolution 96
4.4.3 Journal Articles 97
4.4.4 Book Chapters 98
4.4.5 Books 99
4.4.6 Other Sources 99
4.5 Reference List 101
Chapter 5 Thinking Critically and Developing Ideas 107

5.1 Critical Thinking 107
5.2 Your Hypothesis or Argument 107
5.2.1 Theories 108
5.2.2 Support for Theories 109
5.2.3 Critical Thinking About Theories 109
5.2.4 Integration of Theories 110
5.3 Research 111
5.3.1 Experiments vs. Non-Experiments 111
5.3.2 Causality 112
5.3.3 Spurious Variables 113
5.3.4 Confounds 114
5.3.5 Inadequate Measures 115
5.3.6 Generality 116
5.4 Original Thinking 117
5.4.1 Non-Obviousness 117
5.4.2 Alternative Explanations for Significant Findings 117
ix
5.4.3 Alternative Explanations for Non-Significant Findings 118

5.4.4 Unexpected Findings 119
5.4.5 Future Research 120
5.4.6 Practical Implications 121
5.5 Flawed Arguments 121
5.5.1 Vacuous Support for Arguments 122
5.5.2 Vacuous Dismissal of Opposition 122
5.5.3 Misrepresentation of the Opposition 122
5.5.4 False Generalisation 124
Chapter 6 Writing Correctly and With Style 126

6.1 The Reader’s Journey 126
6.2 Parts of Speech, Combinations of Words, and Grammar 126
6.2.1 Verbs 126
6.2.2 Nouns 127
6.2.3 Pronouns 129
6.2.4 Adjectives 131
6.2.5 Adverbs 132
6.2.6 Prepositions 132
6.2.7 Conjunctions 133
6.2.8 Determiners 134
6.2.9 Combinations of Words 135
6.3 Punctuation 135
6.3.1 End Marks (Period, Question Mark, Exclamation Mark) 135
6.3.2 Commas 136
6.3.3 Semicolons 136
6.3.4 Colons 137
6.3.5 Apostrophes 137
6.3.6 Parentheses 137
6.3.7 Em and En Dashes 138
6.3.8 Hyphens 138
6.3.9 Quotation Marks 138
6.4 Style 139
6.4.1 Formal and Dispassionate Writing 139
6.4.2 Simplicity 141
6.4.3 Precision and Clarity 142
6.4.4 Economy 144
6.4.5 Integration 145
6.5 Finer Details 146
6.5.1 Keep Infinitives Intact 146
6.5.2 Keep Prepositions Away from the End of a Sentence 146
x
Contents
6.6 Your Own Style 146

Chapter 7 Writing for Other Forms

of Assessment 148
7.1 Examinations 148
7.1.1 Preparation 148
7.1.2 Planning During an Examination 148
7.1.3 Multiple-Choice Questions 149
7.1.4 Short-Answer Questions 150
7.1.5 Essay Questions 150
7.1.6 Helpful Sources 150
7.2 Posters 151
7.2.1 Content 151
7.2.2 Format 152
7.3 Narrative Literature Reviews 154
7.3.1 Content 154
7.3.2 Format 154
7.4 Systematic Reviews 155
7.4.1 Content 155
7.4.2 Format 156
Appendix A Flawed Research Report 157
Appendix B Flawed Essay 170
Appendix C Statistical Assumptions 182
Appendix D Common Measurement Abbreviations 183
Appendix E More Plurals 185
References 188
Glossary 193
Index 197
xi
To the Student
In your psychology course, your instructor has asked you to write an assignment and to use this
book as a style guide. Why has your instructor recommended this book? It provides an introduction
to the style most writers in psychology use: APA style. It is described in the seventh edition of the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (American Psychological Association,
2020), which we will call the APA Manual, and in the APA-style blog (https://apastyle.apa.org/
blog). Rather than burden you with all the intricacies of APA style, your instructor has opted for
this introductory version. When you proceed to advanced study of psychology or submit to an APA
journal, you will replace this book with the APA Manual. This book is best regarded as a primer for
APA style.
Some conventions of style govern most scientific writing. APA style is more than a collection
of arbitrary rules about such apparently trivial issues such as where to place commas and when
to use an ampersand (&). It embodies most of the features of excellent writing, such as having a
clear message, respecting the reader and others, acknowledging sources, dealing with information
honestly and economically, communicating persuasively, being clear and simple, and adhering to
various conventions that produce a consistent look and feel.
As well, APA style is a guide to the basic structure of a scientific paper. The structure allows
researchers to distinguish sections they need to read carefully from sections they can skim. This, in
turn, allows them to read the articles swiftly and to compare articles.
We have tried to organise the book to be as useful as possible in the situation each of us remembers
well from our own student days: An assignment is due in a week, and I have not started work. What
should I do first? Read Chapter 1, helpfully entitled “Read This First!”. It outlines the hallmarks of
excellent assignments. If you have time and the assignment is a research report or an essay, proceed
to Chapter 2, “Writing Research reports” or to Chapter 3, “Writing Essays” respectively.
Of course, we hope you are a better organised student than we were. Your best approach is to read
everything once, then return to the relevant chapters when you are preparing your next assignment.
Occasionally, however, we have had to depart from APA style, especially for formatting, mainly
because our purposes, to teach, are different from yours, to write a good assignment. For example,
we use numbered sections to allow you to find more information on a topic (see next sentence for an
example of how we do it). You should use standard headings for your assignment (1.4.2).
xii
00_OShea_7e_sb_41124_pre.indd 12 08/09/21 5:09 PM

To the Instructor
We thank all of you who adopted this book for your courses. We were prompted to write our new
edition by the publication of the seventh edition of the APA Manual. But we also took the opportunity
to revise generally, based on the many helpful comments on the previous edition we received from
reviewers, students, and instructors. In this new edition, we have:
• updated the book to include changes in APA style and adhered closely to that style;
• transferred some of the subtle principles or advanced details to the on-line material that
accompanies the book—or to the end of chapters—to ensure that students are not initially
overwhelmed with complex details;
• maintained the formal set of guidelines students can follow, such as procedures to identify
spurious, suppressor, and confounding variables, to enhance the depth of their discussions and
explanations;
• updated the chapter on grammar to incorporate changes in the past 30 years;
• added information about qualitative research to the chapter on research report writing; and
• added systematic reviews to the chapter on writing types of assignments other than essays and
research reports.
As part of reconciling the book with the seventh edition of the APA Manual, here we highlight the
major differences between it and the sixth edition, and some aspects of the sixth that carried over
into the seventh, for which our advice to students may differ. We have classified these into five broad
categories.
Student Writing
The editors of the seventh edition of the APA Manual gave separate formatting instructions for
student papers and for papers to be submitted to academic journals. Student papers provide unit
information (e.g., unit code and name, instructor name, due date) on the title page and can omit the
running head, the author note, and the abstract. We, however, assumed you prefer your students
to master papers to be submitted to academic journals because that is what we have always done,
because online lodgment of assignments is now common (obviating the necessity of a different title
page), and because it is easier for you to tell your students to omit the running head, the Author Note,
or the Abstract than vice versa.
Bias-Free Language
The editors also:
• Included one whole chapter on bias-free language. We distilled this into one table showing the
eight categories of bias and how to avoid them (Usage Example 1.6), and a few paragraphs on
sex, gender, and sexual orientation.
• Approved using the singular “they” as a way to avoid bias. We adhered to this, but emphasised
the editors’ suggestion to use other means, such as pluralisation, to avoid offending those not
comfortable with committing what some may regard as a grammatical error.
• Continued to allow participants to be called “subjects” or “sample”. We agreed with the editors’s
recommendation by encouraging students to distinguish participants—those who gave
informed consent to participate in research—from subjects—those who could not give informed
consent. We did not mention calling individuals the “sample”.
xiii
Structure of a Paper and Formatting

The editors also:
• Integrated the APA’s Journal Reporting Standards (American Psychological Association, 2018)
into the manual. This has no relevance for students, except for how the standards affect APA
style.
• Reiterated character limits for some components of manuscripts (e.g., the running heads).
We gave character limits for every component of an assignment (along with word limits
in parentheses) because the number of characters in a file cannot be deceived whereas the
number of words can be underestimated by some unscrupulous students.
• Reiterated that the Abstract’s format should be governed by the journal to which a manuscript
is submitted, but added that the word limit is typically fewer than 250. To encourage
conciseness, and because student assignments are usually briefer than professional papers, we
opted for a limit of 975 characters (150 words).
• Moved some of data analysis, such as how authors of research reports deal with missing data,
out of the Results and into the Method. We added this to our chapter on research report writing.
• Reiterated the necessity to report effect sizes and confidence intervals in the Results, including
confidence intervals for effect sizes. We omitted confidence intervals for effect sizes, having
never seen these in any published paper and because it is not illustrated in the APA Manual’s
sample papers.
• Simplified the running head; it now appears the same on every page of a paper.
• Allowed tables and figures to be in the main text rather than on separate pages after the
references. We opted for the former, for ease of marking.
• Gave five levels of headings, formatted differently from the sixth edition. We gave only the top
three: 1. Centred, bold, “title case” (i.e., with the first letter of major words capitalised); 2. Flush
left, bold, title case; 3. Flush left, bold italic, title case. This is because students are unlikely to
need more.
• Harmonised the formatting of numbers in all parts of a paper (i.e., same in the Abstract and
main text).
• Enclosed linguistic examples in quotation marks instead of setting them in italics.
• Required all margins of 2.54 cm (implicitly with letter-sized paper). In the sixth edition, its
editors said “Leave uniform margins of at least [emphasis added] … 2.54 cm” (p. 229). We
recommended 3.54 cm margins and required A4 paper. This brings the number of characters
per line closer to the optimal of about 60 (Bringhurst, 1996), making students’ assignments
easier for markers to read.
• Allowed sans-serif and serif fonts and sizes from 10 to 12 points for the main text. In the sixth
edition, its editors required Times New Roman 12 point for all text except that in figures. For
simplicity and readability, we opted for Times New Roman 12 point for the main text and
Calibri for tables, figures, and footnotes.
• Reiterated the restrictive conditions under which footnotes can be used in the main text.
Rather than go into these, we opted to tell students not to use them at all.
• Reiterated the acceptability of numbered or bulleted lists in the main text. With the rise of
PowerPoint, we accepted that students would inevitably use these. We use them ourselves.
• Reiterated the necessity to define abbreviations of statistical terms and tests the first time they
are used, such as “standard error of the mean (SEM)” and “analysis of variance (ANOVA)”.
• Reiterated that tables and figures in appendices are called with the appendix’s letter and an
ordinal number without a hyphen (e.g. Table A2, Figure B3, Figure B4).
xiv
To the Instructor
• Changed every instance of “on-line” to “online” and every instance of “e-mail” to “email”.
• Minimised the use of “electronic”, instead referring to “ebooks” and “eLocators”.
• Eliminated the extra space after some punctuation. Hallelujah!
Structure and Formatting of Figures and Tables

The editors also:
• Structured tables and figures in the same way, with, from top to bottom: the number (boldface),
title (italics), the table or figure, and any notes.
• Recommended that text in figures be in a sans-serif font and that the tables and figures
be separated from the main text by one blank line above and one below. For simplicity, we
suggested students use a sans-serif font for tables too.
• Allowed colour in figures.
• Reiterated the desirability of placing a graph’s legend on the body of the graph. For increased
comprehensibility, we added that the legend should be segregated from the graph by being
enclosed in a box, that the axes be duplicated at the top and the right of the figure, and that the
ticks be inside the axes.
Citation and Referencing

The editors also:
• Simplified formatting of in-text citations, with “et al.” for all author surnames after the first when
there are three or more authors, unless this would be ambiguous.
• Gave more than 100 examples of formats for references. We simplified these into four major
types: books, book chapters, journal articles, and others (including theses, web pages, and
websites), because students will be unlikely to read any references other than these.
• Accepted Wikipedia articles (book-chapter format) as references in papers submitted to APA
journals. We told students to be cautious about using Wikipedia.
• Required issue numbers in journal-article references.
• Omitted the place of publication for references to books.
• In references to books, omitted the name of the publisher when it is the same as the author.
• Simplified DOIs and URLs so they all serve as clickable links in online papers. Restricted
“Retrieved from” to references for which the retrieval date is important.
• Required that classical works (e.g., religious works such as the Bible, works of ancient Greek
philosophers, Shakespeare’s works) now appear in the reference list.
• Reiterated that quotations of classical works with canonical line numbers be accompanied by
those numbers (e.g., “[Act] 3.[Scene]1.[lines]56–64 for Hamlet’s famous soliloquy, “To be, or not
to be …”).
• Added the title of a website to the information in its reference.
• Omitted to illustrate the reference format for an Abstract (apparently it is now unthinkable to
cite a work that is only an abstract). We retained this to emphasise to students that they need to
be truthful about what they actually read.
• Illustrated how to cite learning resources obtained via learning management systems.
We hope you like our scrutiny of the changes to APA style and agree with our choices for students.
Please let us know.
xv
About the Authors
Dr Robert P. O’Shea
Robert P. O’Shea is Guest Scientist at Leipzig University where he also wrote and taught courses
on scientific writing. He has conducted research and taught at Murdoch University, Southern Cross
University, University of Otago, Dalhousie University, Northwestern University, Queen’s University
(Canada), and the University of Queensland.
He has published extensively in major psychology and neuroscience journals. His research is
mainly in cognitive neuroscience, visual perception, and history of psychology and science. He has
taken study leaves at Leipzig University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, and the University
of Rochester. Dr O’Shea has been an editor of Scholarpedia and an associate editor of Perception &
Psychophysics.
Dr Wendy McKenzie
Wendy McKenzie has many years of experience as an educator and researcher in psychology,
teaching across undergraduate and postgraduate courses in psychology at Monash University. Her
main areas of interest are human memory, teaching and learning in higher education (in particular
the use of educational technology), and geropsychology.
Acknowledgements
We thank Fiona Hammond who patiently supported us through the effects the coronavirus
pandemic had on our writing, the reviewers who highlighted the sections that needed upgrading,
and Julie Wicks who copyedited. Please let us know of any improvements we can introduce to this
edition; we will be delighted to thank you if there is a next edition.
Robert O’Shea is particularly grateful to Urte Roeber for her support in making his contributions
to this edition possible, to Erich Schröger for general support, and to the German Federal Ministry of
Education and Research (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, BMBF) and the Max Planck
Society (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft) for support.
The authors and Cengage would like to thank Elizabeth Coady for her early editorial support in
implementing APA style.
Cengage and the authors are especially grateful to the following reviewers for their incisive and
helpful feedback:
• Robyn Brunton—Australian Catholic University
• Madeleine Ferrari—Australian Catholic University
• Trevor Hine—Griffith University
• Mervyn Jackson—RMIT
• Michael Platow—Australian National University
xvi
read further. Because of the clarity and brevity required, each word in the Abstract should
be meaningful. Follow this order:
Guide to the text

• Introduce the topic by demonstrating its importance, either theoretical or practical.
Include a citation only if the study is a replication or extension of that work.
• Specify the aim of the study, which can include a statement of the hypotheses.
• Specify the number of participants and include any of their characteristics (e.g.,
As you read this text
gender, age,you will find
or ethnicity) a number
critical ofoffeatures
to the design the study. in every
chapter designed to enhance

• Summarise yourparticipants
the procedures understanding
completed.of the APA style,
and what makes

• Outline thegood writing,
conditions to whichand help you
participants were apply these
assigned, if applicable.
• Briefly describe
conventions andtheprinciples
measures or apparatus
to yourused,ownif work.
applicable.
• Specify the principal findings. Give effect sizes, confidence intervals, or statistical
significance.
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS
2.6.2 Materials
• Specify the conclusions of the study.
APA Example boxes show theIntext
APAexactly as it should
Example appear
2.4, notice howinone
an APA styled
or two assignment,
sentences providing
are devoted to aeach of the
thorough demonstration of the the Materials
In application of section,
APA styledescribe
guide inthe equipment, measures, and objects you used to
practice.
previous points.
collect your data, making clear how the variables were operationalised. Although we give
some general guidelines, you might also read journal articles reporting similar research to
APA Example 2.4
yours to help you decide which details toAbstract
include.
Abstract The prevalence of violent videos has continued to soar over the last decade.
Psychological Tests. If you used or constructed a questionnaire or psychological test,
To investigate whether exposure to violent videos increases mistrust of strangers,
specify
24 psychology students rated the extent to which a stranger in a photograph seemed
hostile
• theand untrustworthy.
purpose Before
of the measure orthey rated this person, half the participants watched
scale;
a•violent video; the remaining
the task of participants; participants watched a quiz show. Participants who
watched the violent program were more likely to perceive the stranger as hostile
(d• = the definition
2.26) of each untrustworthy
and somewhat subscale, if the(d
measure
= 0.06) included
than weremore than one;
participants who
watched the quiz
• a sample show.for
question These
eachfindings
subscale;suggest that depiction of violence could
promote perception of strangers as hostile and untrustworthy, ultimately provoking
• the response options; and
aggression.
• if possible, some evidence the measure or scale is reliable and valid, such as
Cronbach’s α (APA Example 2.9).
APA Example 2.9

Materials 2.5 Introduction Materials
Participants completed a 24-item questionnaire designed to measure perceptions
ofThe introduction
trust, comprisingbegins on a newhostility
two subscales: page, following the abstract.AIts
and trustworthiness. Level question
sample 1 heading is
thefortitle of the research report (1.4.2). The introduction usually contains
hostility is, “This person might attempt to harm me”. A sample question for about one-third of
thetrustworthiness
characters of your is, “Ireport.
might trust this person to keep a secret”. Participants responded
toIneach
the question on a you
introduction 5-point scale,why
explain fromthestrongly disagree
study was (1) to strongly
conducted, present agree (5). for
your case
The scale exhibits excellent internal consistency based on previous research,
why the topic requires investigation, and outline what the researchers understood to be
Cronbach’s
true α = .90
at the outset. (J. Smith,
It can be the personal communication,
most difficult July 12,
section to write 2020).you must provide
because
a brief but comprehensive review of the relevant literature and develop a convincing
justification for the aims and hypotheses
Experimenter-Constructed of your
Materials. If youstudy.
constructed the experimental materials
yourself, include enough detail to ensure that your stimuli could be duplicated by another
Annotated reports and essay 2.5.1 Importance
examples,
researcher (APAfeaturing
Exampleconcise 2.10), such and as
engaging annotations and explanations,
that are set out in clear APA format, so you can easily see how to do it yourself.
Highlight
• description the importance
of stimuli; of your study in the first paragraph of the introduction. Begin
Chapter 2: Writing Research Reports
that paragraph with a sentence that encourages the reader to read further. In it, write in
• number of stimuli per condition; All text in the
SELF-ESTEEM AND ABILITY 1
simple words something1 about your topic that relates to people
ARE EXAMINATIONS UNFAIR? essay is doubleor to animals. One2 useful
• method of presentation;
spaced (1.4.1).
strategy is to pose a question (e.g., “Does viewing violent videos make people aggressive?”).
•on Creative
any control procedures studythat to awere used or in theoretical
the construction of the is materials, such
The Abstract
Another
The Effect of a Boost to Self-Esteem isandtoAnalytic
relate your
Ability
Begin running practical issue that
Abstract topical or vital, is not
indented
such
Andrea Student as randomising the order
head and page
as depression, aggression, racism, intelligence,
numbers (1.4.1). of presentation or construction
Examinations mightsuccess,
be unfair to someor of multiple
consciousness.
students study
either because anxiety interferes lists
(3.5).
for
counterbalancing; and
The research with their performance or because attempts to control this anxiety impair their These
report is Discipline of Psychology, School of Natural Sciences, University of sentences
double spaced concentration. I evaluate the assumption that examinations are fair because demonstrate
(1.4.1). Higher Education the issue is
• how you scored the test. they partly assess the capacity of students to manage their anxiety—an ability complex and
highlight the
Author Note that is vital to work settings. I show, however, that ability to manage anxiety in argument
examinations does not predict ability to manage anxiety in the workplace. Teachers (3.5).
26
I thank my fellow students in PSY101 for providing the data for this study and
APA M.Example 2.10
Y. Tutor for coordinating data collection and for collating the results. I also thank
Materials
and administrators need to reduce anxiety to ensure that examinations are fair.
Experimenter-
M. Y. Mother and M. Y. Flatmate who read earlier drafts of my report.
Participants responded to 20 adjectives that are used to describe people, selected
This
sentence
Please address correspondence about this report to Andrea Student, 2/14 Short Street,
Constructed specifies an
from a list of low to medium frequency words (Corpus of Contemporary American

Big City, 4011. Email: Andrea.student@psy.uhe.edu.au implication
of this
Materials conclusion
Legitimate use
of personal
reference
English [COCA], n.d). Words were between 4 and 10 letters in length (Appendix A). (3.5).
(2.11.1).
BK-CLA-OSHEA_7E-200568-Chp02.indd 26 There were two lists, containing the same 20 adjectives in the same random order This sentence
presents the
4/10/21 11:01 AM
except that in one list the adjective “humorous” appeared first and in the other it conclusion
(3.5).
appeared last. Each list was presented on a single sheet of A4 paper, one word per
line, using double-line spacing, Times Roman, 12-point font. A five-point rating scale
from not at all (1) to very much (5) was printed next to each word.
xvii
Guide to the Text
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS
A flawed report and flawed essay are included in the appendices. Footnotes in them identify errors and
frequent points of difficulty, helping you to avoid common mistakes.
Appendix A: Flawed Research Report Appendix B: Flawed Essay
Self-Esteem and Ability 2 Running head: Are examinations unfair? 1
Abstract Other work 50 has shown that anxiety can compromise exam performance. Ciarocco,
Summer, and Baumeisters 51, 52 (2001) study showed that suppression of emotions, such as
5
Many individuals erroneously assume that intelligence is fixed and hence they do not
anxiety, compromises performance on a variety of tasks. Martjin, Tenbult, Merckebach,
engage in activities which 6 might refine their mental capacity.
Dreezens, & de Vries (2002) also revealed that SOE 53, 54 compromises performance. 55
7, 8
153 9, 10 participants completed tasks that assess their capacity to propose creative
In a study conducted by Schmeichel, Vohs, and Baumeister (2003), individuals watched
suggestions as well as their ability to apply principles and algorithms to solve problems.
a disturbing 56 distressing movie. The participants who were asked to pretend they were
Before they completed these tasks, to boost their self-esteem, half 11 the participants
unperturbed performed less effectively than other individuals on a later set of activities that
transcribed a series of favourable adjectives and preceded each term with the letter I.12
assessed their mental acuity. These observations suggest that individuals who feel anxious
Participants in the control group completed the same task, but preceded each term with the
before an exam might occasionally strive to conceal their emotions, and this inclination
letter X. The hypotheses were only partly supported. 13 The implications and limitations of
might then impair their subsequent performance.
these findings are discussed. 14
The S.O.E. 57 does not impair performance on all activities, however. It is indisputable
58
that suppression of emotions would disrupt the capacity of individuals to walk. 59
Accordingly, suppression could not compromise performance on all tasks; in other words,60
attempts to conceal emotions do not impair performance. 61
Therefore, 62 the thoughts and concerns that coincide with anxiety, and not merely
the suppression of this emotion, might also use working memory (Baddeley, 1976). 63, 64
Consistent with this suggestion, Beilock and Carr (2005) found the capacity of individuals
to recall a sequence of digits 65 purportedly a reflection of working memory (Baddeley,
1976) 66, 67 tended to deteriorate when their levels of state anxiety were elevated.
The findings of this study imply that working memory, and thus performance, is often
compromised2.5.5 Hypotheses
in individuals who experience considerable anxiety, although this finding does
not necessarily imply thatyou
Finally, examinations are unfair,
should specify because, toorsome
the hypothesis, extent, whether
hypotheses, orand
as clear not unambiguous
examinations statements
are equitablethat predict
depends thecriteria
on the resultsthatofare
your
usedstudy. Hypotheses
to appraise fairness.should
68, 69, 70, 71be presented
in normal prose as complete sentences. Hypotheses do not need to be presented

Examinations could be fair even if anxiety significantly 72 compromises performance.
last, but should appear somewhere within the last paragraph of the introduction
Individual’s 73(Usage
who experience undueQualitative
Example 2.1). anxiety, and cannotmethods
research regulate tend
thesetoemotions
be more exploratory and may
Usage pose not
effectively, might research questions
only perform and aims
modestly inrather
examsthan hypotheses
but might (Levitt
also fail et al.,in2018).
to thrive a
Example 2.1
work context. ie, 74, 75 the capacity to temper anxiety might be pertinent to work settings,
Specify Hypotheses
Avoid Best practice
Usage examples lead you through the process which are often stressful. Exam performance, while 76 confounded with the ability to curb
Each conceptual hypothesis Exposure to violent videos As predicted from active-self
anxiety, might predict work success accurately (e.g., Judge, Heller, & Mount, 2002).
of understanding what makes superior writing. should follow logically from a
theory or an argument.
should promote mistrust towards theory, exposure to violent
strangers. videos should promote mistrust
towards strangers.
You can quickly compare examples side-by-side Each hypothesis should According to active-self theory According Chapter 4: to active-self
Finding and Using References
with explanations of what makes better writing indicate the direction of a

relationship.
exposure to violent videos
should affect mistrust towards
theory, exposure to violent
videos should increase mistrust
Wikipedia article. It can be useful fortowards
Internet searches will usually yield astrangers. strangers.
work, enabling you to identify how to improve your overview of a topic and
Each hypothesis mightuse
should contain key referencesto(4.1.1).
According
getting an
active-self theory, According to active-self
own writing. words
variables
yourself
that match
5. Evaluate. how
Evaluate thethe
will be measured
the questions
exposure
suitability and
in Exhibit in
to violence
credibility shouldyou havetheory,
of each source
4.1. promote adverse attitudes.
exposure to violent
found. Ask
videos should promote mistrust
159 your study. towards strangers. 173
6. Refine. Continue to refine your search by using relevant sources to search for other
Eachreferences:
useful hypothesis should be According to active-self theory, According to active-self theory,
testable—research cannot
• Look for key words listed for journal exposure to identify
articles to violent new
video games
search terms.exposure to violent videos
prove the absence of an effect. should not affect mistrust should be more likely than
BK-CLA-OSHEA_7E-200568-App_A.indd 159 12/04/21
• If you find a key
4:50 BK-CLA-OSHEA_7E-200568-App_B.indd
PM 173
article, go backwards
towardsinstrangers.
time by looking in its reference list forto violent video games
exposure 12/04/21 5:32 PM
relevant prior research. to promote mistrust towards
• Go forwards in time, using citation indices such as Google Scholar, Webstrangers. of Science, Citation index: An online
or Scopus, from a key article to find sources whose authors have cited it. If those resource allowing one to
search for later sources
authors cited your key article, it is likely their papers will be important for you too.
2.6 Method
that cite an earlier source.
Relevance Exhibit 4.1

Evaluate Sources
• How closely does the information The method
relate tosection follows immediately after the Introduction on the same page, with
your topic?
of Information
the Level 1 heading:
• Is the depth of coverage adequate for your purpose? Method. Divide the method section into its appropriate subsections
with Level 2 headings. We describe the most common subdivisions below. Subdivide these
Currency subsections when necessary, such as to describe specific measures, using Level 3 headings
• Is the source sufficiently(1.4.2).recent for your purpose? Check online sources for a date when first
published or last updated.
Exhibits contain useful information, advice and Replication: A key element
Credibility
of the scientific method
The purpose of the method section is to provide only enough detail to enable an
experienced researcher to replicate your study—to repeat the study with exactly the same
suggestions to support your learning. • Has the information beenmethod. Omit details that could not possibly affect the results (e.g., whether
peer reviewed? Chapter 3: you recorded
with two meanings: First,
Writing Essays
any researcher should be
• What
able are
to repeat thethe
the responses
authors’ professional
method
with an
affiliations or HB or a 2B pencil). In some reports, further details (such as verbatim
credentials?
of any past study. Second, instructions)
• Has the work been cited by others? can be provided in an appendix (2.10), but this can be done only if there is
Chapter 3
having conducted the new enough information in the Method (in this case, a concise description of the instructions).
• Are
study, thethere
researchsigns
shouldof author bias or conflict of interest?
obtain the same results as
Beware using an appendix to cut down the character count of your report. You will lose
• For internet sources, what
those of the past study.
are the
marks forlast letters of
omitting the URL?
crucial If they arefrom
information com,thethemethod.
source is
published by a commercial organisation; if edu, by an educational institution; if gov, by a
government, and if org, by aAll sentencesorganisation.
not-for-profit within sections must from
Information be complete
edu and gov, andand intelligible. Do not assume
possibly from org sites isthe reader willthan
read the heading as part of the section. For example, follow the heading
Writing Essays
more reliable com sources.
“Participants” with “The participants were 20 students” to ensure the sentence is complete
Note. Adapted from two sources: 1. andDoingintelligible. EachA section
a literature search: of the
comprehensive method
guide should
for the social be (p.
sciences written
26) in normal prose.
by C. Hart, 2001, Sage Publications. Copyright 2001 by Sage Publications. Adapted with permission. 2. Writing research
papers: A complete guide (15th ed. Global ed.) (pp. 63–66) by J. D. Lester and J. D. Lester, Jr., 2015, Pearson Education.
Key terms for Writing for Psychology are bolded in Copyright 2001 by Pearson Education. Adapted with permission.
28
We define essays to include essays (1.1), literature reviews (7.3), book reviews, and Literature review (also
known as a narrative
commentaries. In all of these, you need to write something useful for a reader. In the most
the text with margin definitions in clear, concise 4.2 From Reading
literature review):
common essay assignment, your instructor will have given you a topic, usually a question A form of essay in which
(e.g., “Does viewing violent videos lead to aggression?”), and a list of references. To write an author makes a more
language for easy identification and understanding.

to Writing
comprehensive review of
an essay, you first need to read the references, to read more widely about the topic, to
the literature surrounding
understand the topic, and
BK-CLA-OSHEA_7E-200568-Chp02.indd 28 then to write something useful on it, usually an answer to the a topic than in an essay
4/10/21 11:01 AM
These definitions also appear in the glossary at the question in the form of an argument: a brief, clear statement of what you will show to be
true about a topic (1.2.2).
to acquaint the reader
with the main issues.
4.2.1 Active Reading

end of the book. This chapter is to help you write an essay. We present a good essay and a flawed version
To uncover valuable information, you need to be a critical, selective, and active reader.
of the same essay in Appendix B.
This requires four steps.
3.1 Expectations
1. Read purposefully. Before you begin, write down the precise questions you are
trying to answer or your purpose. For example, are you searching for factual information,
research evidence, or theoretical explanations? While you read, ensure you can see your
listYour
of keyinstructor and tomarker
search terms will
help you have focused
remain some expectations
on your topic.about your essay. These
include structuring your essay to propose and test an argument, and meeting various
marking criteria.
3.1.1 Argument 85
The hardest part of writing an essay is deciding on an argument (1.2.2). Suppose your
topic was “Does viewing violent videos lead to aggression?” Possible arguments include:
• Viewing violent videos leads to aggression.
BK-CLA-OSHEA_7E-200568-Chp04.indd 85 12/04/21 3:54 PM
• Viewing violent videos does not lead to aggression.
• Viewing violent videos leads to aggression in some people.
• Viewing violent videos leads to tolerance towards aggression.
• Whether viewing violent videos leads to aggression is unknown.
You would opt for one argument after extensive reading on the topic convinced you
that it was best supported by the evidence.
xviii 3.1.2 Marking Criteria

In an essay, in approximate order of priority, your marker will likely assess how
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May notwell
beyou
copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300
• addressed the essay topic;
• put an organised and effective argument with a clear rationale;
Guide to the online resources
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR
Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources

that will help you prepare your lectures and assessments.
These teaching tools are accessible via cengage.com.au/instructors
for Australia or cengage.co.nz/instructors for New Zealand.
INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL
The Instructor’s Manual is packed with content that helps you set up and administer
your class: chapter outlines, adjunct teaching tips and warmup activities, questions for
review and further discussion.
WORD-BASED TEST BANK

A bank of questions has been developed in conjunction with the text for creating
quizzes, tests and exams for your students. Deliver these through your LMS and in
your classroom.
POWERPOINT™ PRESENTATIONS
Use the chapter-by-chapter PowerPoint slides to enhance your lecture presentations
and handouts by reinforcing the key principles of writing for psychology.
ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

Add the digital files of exhibits, examples, figures and tables into your learning
management system, use them in student handouts, or copy them into your lecture
presentations.
STUDENT DOWNLOADS: CHECKLISTS AND WRITING GUIDES

Student checklists and writing guides provide extension material for you to support
your students with their writing and use of APA style.
xix
Chapter 1
Read This First!
In this chapter, we give essential information for doing any writing for psychology.
1.1 Writing for Psychology

In your psychology course, you will need to complete two main types of assignments—
research reports and essays—and other sorts of assignments you can read about in Research report: A type
Chapter 7. of assignment describing
research you conducted,
In a research report, you describe research you conducted to test a hypothesis (2.1.1), usually in a practical class.
usually in a practical class (e.g., “The Effect of Speech Style on Witness Credibility” and “The Essay: A type of assignment
containing a review
Relationship Between Birth Order and Coping Style”). You need to specify why you did the of the literature on a
research, what you did, what you found, what your results mean, and why your results are particular topic, structured
interesting and important. We provide the details for writing research reports in Chapter 2. by an argument.
Hypothesis (plural
In an essay, your instructor usually presents a topic, or choice of topics, often framed hypotheses): A testable
as questions (e.g., “Does viewing violent videos lead to aggression?”). Your task is to review conjecture about a cause
and an effect or about
the literature on this topic and to present your answer in the form of an argument or
a relationship between
thesis statement (3.1.1). We provide the details for writing essays in Chapter 3. at least two variables.
Both sorts of assignments must have a clear structure, marked by headings (1.4.2). Argument: An argument
is a proposition you try to
In most assignments, you need to use formal writing. It is scholarly, respectful, convince readers is true
about a particular topic.
humane, simple, precise, concise, clear, and scrupulously grammatical—qualities that
Thesis statement: An
help make your work credible. Formal writing differs from informal writing found in such
alternative (mainly
works as novels, newspapers, magazines, letters, emails, blogs, tweets, text messages, and American) term for
some websites. We give further advice about writing formally in 1.3 and in the remaining an argument.
chapters. Formal writing: The

language of most psychology
We illustrate some differences between informal and formal writing in Usage Example 1.1. assignments. It is scholarly,
If you included the first example in your assignment, there would be at least two problems. respectful, humane, simple,
precise, concise, clear, and
First, the words belong to their author, Shakespeare (ca. 1600); to use them you would scrupulously grammatical.
have to show they are quoted and give the source using citation. Citation is how you let Citation: A noun describing
a reader know the source of information for something you wrote. A citation contains the how you let a reader know
the source of information
surname(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication. Citations point to references in
for something you wrote.
a reference list. A reference gives the details a reader needs to find the source, which is The verb is “cite”. A citation
also called a reference. Second, the words are in the language of literature and do not fit contains the surname(s) of
the author(s) and the year of
into any psychology assignment. The good example rectifies these problems and gives a
publication. A citation points
reference. the reader to its reference.
If you included the second example in Usage Example 1.1, from a blog by Grohol Reference: 1. The
bibliographic information
(2011), problems include that it is copied, it is written in a casual style, the citation style a reader needs to find
is not APA, and it is too long and chatty. The good example comprehensively paraphrases the same information.
2. A source of written
Grohol’s words while making it quite clear that the ideas are his. It is formal, it gives
information about a topic.
APA-style citations, it is concise, and it provides references.
1
Usage
Example 1.1
Use Formal Writing
Avoid Best practice
Write in the language of To be, or not to be, that is the According to Lake (2006), Hamlet’s
psychology, rather than in question: famous soliloquy, “To be, or not to
some other language (e.g., Whether 'tis nobler in the mind be…” (Shakespeare, ca. 1600/1970,
of literature, of some other to suffer 3.1.56–64a), shows that Hamlet
discipline, of the press, or of was depressed and suffering from
The slings and arrows of
a blog). migraine headaches.
outrageous fortune,
References
Or to take arms against a sea of Lake, A. E., III. (2006). Medication
troubles, overuse headache: Biobehavioral
And by opposing end them? issues and solutions. Headache:
To die, to sleep, The Journal of Head and Face
No more; and by a sleep to say we Pain, 46 (Suppl. 3), S88–S97.
end https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-
4610.2006.00560.x
The heart-ache, and the thousand Shakespeare, W. (ca. 1600/1970).
natural shocks Hamlet
That flesh is heir to: 'tis a (A. W. Verity, Ed.). Cambridge
consummation University Press. https://archive.
Devoutly to be wished. org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201634
Thank goodness the Wall Grohol (2011) criticised a study
Street Journal isn’t known for its reported by Silverman (2011)
outstanding health reporting. claiming to show that surfing the web
In a story written by Rachel improves employees’ productivity.
Emma Silverman, she reports Grohol pointed out that the employees
on some preliminary research were really undergraduate students,
recently presented at a management that the task (to highlight certain
conference. Like a lot of research letters in text) did not resemble what
that gives us “surprising” results, it most people do at work, and that there
was done on a single group of 96 was no control condition in which
undergraduate students at a single students took a non-web-surfing break
college campus. from work.
And the task designed for the References
college laboratory setting by the Grohol, J. M. (2011, August
researchers would be difficult to 22). Web surfing at work helps
characterise as analogous to most you be more productive?
people’s work environment or jobs— PsychCentral. https://web.archive.
it was highlighting every single letter org/web/20111021012031/
“e” or, in the second part, “a,” while http://psychcentral.com/blog/
reading. archives/2011/08/22/web-surfing-at-
work-helps-you-be-more-productive/
The question the researchers Silverman, R. E. (2011, August 22).
asked—Can surfing the internet help Web surfing helps at work, study says.
you to become a more productive Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.
employee? com/articles/SB10001424053111904
The answer, according to the 070604576518261775512294
researchers, is an overwhelming,
“Yes!” And it’s no wonder …
a
Give the pages of a quotation (1.2.4) unless it is a religious or classical work (4.3.5), in which case
give the book, chapter, and verses for religious works, and the act, scene, and lines for plays, and the
section numbers for ancient Greek and Roman works.
2
Chapter 1: Read This First!
1.2 Excellent Assignments

Below, we suggest some qualities your instructor may assess in any assignment.
It is possible, however, that your instructor will assess other qualities or will omit some
we mention. This means you should carefully read your instructor’s requirements to
understand which parts of an assignment to provide. We list all the parts in this book, but
your instructor might not want them all (e.g., some instructors do not want raw data in an
appendix of your research report; other instructors do not want an abstract—a summary— Abstract: A brief summary
for your essay). The advice of your instructor always supersedes ours. If your instructor of a research report or essay.
insists that you write an assignment with a pink font on yellow paper, follow that advice!
1.2.1 Relevant Literature

To write an excellent psychology assignment, you need to be well informed by reading
current, relevant, and scholarly literature on your topic. As a bare minimum, you need
to read one new source for every 650 characters (100 words) of your assignment. Your
instructor might give you some readings to get you started. In Chapter 4, we present
strategies to help you find others. You should aim to read mostly primary research articles
in psychology journals. A journal is a collection of articles, each written by different Journal: A collection of
authors and each with its own reference list, that have been approved for publication by articles, each written by
different authors and each
the journal’s editor and have been published by a commercial, professional, or scholarly with its own reference list,
publisher. Useful journals include Psychological Review and Psychological Science. that have been approved
for publication by the
You should also read some review articles in psychology journals (such as Annual journal’s editor and have
Review of Psychology and Psychological Bulletin), a few book chapters in books devoted to been published by a
commercial, professional,
your topic, and one or two textbooks. or scholarly publisher.
1.2.2 Original Ideas

In a psychology assignment, you must establish a clear and rational position on a
topic rather than merely regurgitating the information you have read. Research reports
require you to develop and test one or more hypotheses. Essays require you to present and
develop an argument. Usually, the hypothesis or argument will not be provided for you;
you need to derive it from your own reading and thinking.
Usage
The best assignments demonstrate original thought. We give advice on this in Chapter 5; Example 1.2
it is one of the hardest things to do. Usage Example 1.2 gives some techniques. Be Original
Avoid Best practice

Classify previous research in Many findings suggest that Many findings indicate that
an original manner. viewing violent videos provokes viewing violent videos provokes
aggression. aggression. These findings can
be divided into three categories.
Whether children who exhibit
behavioural difficulties are more
likely than are peers to watch
violent videos.
…
Refer to research into new Anderson et al. (2010) Anderson et al. (2010) concluded
avenues. concluded that playing violent that playing violent video games
video games leads to aggression. leads to aggression. However,
Kasumovic et al. (2015) noted the
lack of research into why people
like to play such games.
3
1.2.3 Logical and Empirical Defence

You need to defend every statement you make in your assignment. Only two kinds are
Deduction: A form of
logical reasoning in which
acceptable: logical and empirical. To show that a particular statement is true using logic,
a conclusion follows from you need to use deduction. In deductive logic, a statement follows logically from previous
two or more premises. premises (Usage Example 1.3).
Usage Avoid Best practice

Example 1.3
Use Deductive If all violent videos promote If all violent videos promote
Logic aggression and if “The Wiggles” aggression and if “The Wiggles” is
promotes aggression then “The a violent video then “The Wiggles”
Wiggles” is a violent video. must promote violence.
To ensure your arguments are logical, you can apply formal rules (Chalmers, 2013).
Another method is simply to ask yourself whether or not an alternative to your argument
could be correct. To illustrate, after you read the poor example in Usage Example 1.3,
ask yourself whether “The Wiggles” could be a sound recording. The answer could be yes,
because the first sentence does not imply that only violent videos promote aggression.
To show that a particular statement is true empirically, you need to cite a study in which
someone has collected some relevant data (4.3). For example, you might write: “Coogan
et al. (2012) collated data from the U.S. Census and other sources to show that children
from low socioeconomic strata watch more TV than children from high socioeconomic
strata”. You then need to give a reference so that a reader could find that study (4.4).
1.2.4 Academic Integrity

Being a student requires you to act according to ethical standards, demonstrating
your academic integrity. The principles of academic integrity include that individuals
are honest in their ideas, words, work, and actions, that individuals credit the ideas,
words, work, and actions of others, and that individuals respect the rights of others (e.g.,
Princeton University, 2019). Breaches of any of these principles can leave you liable to
serious penalties including expulsion. The principles translate into at least four rules:
1. Data are Sacred. Data must be reported honestly and exactly. To breach this
Falsification of data: An rule, to falsify data, by altering or inventing data, is fraud. Instructors and university
extremely serious breach
administrators take an extremely dim view of fraud or of any dishonest practice.
of academic integrity in
which someone makes 2. Your Contributions are Sacred. Your contribution to anything you write must be
up data or alters data
clear. This rule can be broken by collusion. It happens when a student collaborates too
for a research report.
Collusion: A serious breach
closely with one or more other students. It is evident when two or more students submit
of academic integrity in assignments that are identical or similar. Many universities now use text-matching
which Student A copied software (e.g., Turnitin) to help instructors decide if a student has copied the words of
the work of Student B,
either with or without
someone else. If such software finds a string of words in an assignment that match another
permission. If Student B gave student’s, this could be evidence of collusion. If Student A were to copy Student B’s
permission, then Student work without permission, this is a more serious offence for Student A than copying with
B committed a breach of
academic integrity too. permission. If the Student B gave permission, Student B becomes an accomplice to the
offence.
Although your instructor might encourage students to work with one another, each
student’s final assignment should usually be that student’s own work. If you are working
on a group assignment, ensure you know your instructor’s expectations about the amount
Plagiarism: A serious breach of collaboration allowed in the final work.
of academic integrity in
which an author fails to 3. Others’ Contributions are Sacred. The ideas words, work, and actions of others
cite or attribute the words, must be credited. Plagiarism happens when a student presents the words, work, or ideas
work, or ideas of others.
of someone else without that credit. That is, plagiarism is theft; instructors and university
4
administrators take a very dim view of it. Text-matching software will almost certainly find
any text in an assignment that matches that of another author. If the suspect text is not in
quotation marks or if no author is cited, then this could be evidence of plagiarism.
To avoid plagiarism of words and ideas, you must cite the author and either place any
original words in quotation marks and give information, such as a page number, to allow
Paraphrase: Authors
a reader to find them in their source, or you must paraphrase—put the author’s words into paraphrase when they
your own (4.3). We show an original source (Exhibit 1.1; James, 1890) and various forms restate another author’s
words in their own.
of plagiarism and how to avoid it (Usage Example 1.4).
Desire, wish, will, are states of mind which everyone knows, and which no definition Exhibit 1.1
can make plainer. We desire to feel, to have, to do, all sorts of things which at the Some Text from
moment are not felt, had, or done. If with the desire there goes a sense that attainment Which to Illustrate
Plagiarism
is not possible, we simply wish; but if we believe that the end is in our power, we will
that the desired feeling, having, or doing shall be real; and real it presently becomes,
either immediately upon the willing or after certain preliminaries have been fulfilled.
(James, 1890, Vol. 2, p. 330)
Usage
Reference Example 1.4
James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology (Vol. 2). Henry Holt. https://archive.org/ Avoid Plagiarism
details/PrinciplesOfPsychologyVol2/page/n3 and Overuse
of Quotation
Avoid Best practice

Use citation and quotation Everyone knows what desires, James (1890) said:
when you use the original wishes, and will are, that they Desire, wish, will, are states of
words of an author. are states of mind. We desire mind which everyone knows,
to feel things we are missing, to and which no definition can
have things we do not have, to do make plainer [give the rest of
things we have not done. If with this block quotation (4.3.6) here]
desire we sense that attainment (Vol 2, p. 330).
is not possible, our desires are
wishes; if with desire we feel that
attainment is possible we can fulfil
our desires by exercising our will
(James, 1890).
Paraphrase an author’s words James (1890) said that everyone James (1890) said that there
comprehensively, rather than knows what desires, wishes, and is no need to define “desire,
overusing quotation. will are, that they “are states of wishes, [and] will” (Vol 2.,
mind” (p. 330). He added that p. 330), because everyone
“we desire to feel [the thing we knows these mental states. He
are missing]” (p. 330), to have explained that desires arise when
the thing we do not have, to do we want what we do not have,
things we have not done and that that desires become wishes
“if with desire [we] … sense that when we cannot get what we
attainment is not possible” (p. want, and that desires turn into
330), our desires are wishes; if will when we realise we can get
with desire we feel that attainment what we want.
is possible we can fulfil our
desires by exercising our will.
(Continued)
5
(Continued)
Avoid Best practice
Cite an author’s ideas There is no need to define James (1890) said there is no
carefully and completely. mental states such as desire, need to define mental states
wishes, and will, because such as desire, wishes, and will,
everyone knows what they are because everyone knows them.
(James, 1890). Desires arise He explained that desires arise
when we want what we do not when we want what we do not
have, desires become wishes have, desires become wishes
when we cannot get what we when we cannot get what we
want, and desires turn into want, and desires turn into will
will when we realise we can get when we realise we can get what
what we want. we want.
A student who handed in the first example in Usage Example 1.4 would have
committed plagiarism of the words in boldface on the left: they are identical with James’s
(1890) words and they are consecutive. Moreover, the ideas belong to James. Although
the student has cited James at the end of the last sentence, it still contains plagiarism; the
other sentences are the graver crime because there is no citation for them.
A student who handed in the second example in Usage Example 1.4 would have
honoured the letter of the law, because all James’s words and the student’s identical words
are enclosed in quotation marks. But in this case, the student has too much quotation.
Your instructor wants you to put the words of other authors into your own, to paraphrase
or to summarise (4.2.2). The corrected example, of paraphrasing, is well cited with James’s
Summarise: Authors
summarise when they name in the first sentence and with the pronoun “he” in the second. It shows James’s
use their own words to important words in quotation marks and gives the page number.
give only the relevant
ideas of another author. A student who handed in the third example in Usage Example 1.4 would have
paraphrased and cited the first sentence correctly, but committed plagiarism of ideas
in the second sentence. This is because the parenthetical citation at the end of the first
sentence does not apply to the second. Moreover, the two sentences together represent
plagiarism of ideas because the structure of (the order of) this information is the same as
that of James’s original. The corrected example is well paraphrased and well cited, with
James’s name in the first sentence and with the pronoun “he” in the second.
It might seem instructors are lying in wait for an unwary student to blunder into the
plagiarism trap, whereupon they pounce and impose a terrible punishment. But this is exactly
the opposite of our intentions and those of other instructors we know. It breaks our hearts when
we discover evidence of plagiarism in a student’s assignment. Instructors are keen to teach
students how to communicate their own words and ideas and the words and ideas of others.
If your instructor allows, we recommend you use text-matching software to review
your assignment before submission. That way, you can see what the instructor would see
if you had submitted that version, and you can do something about it. The best approach
if text-matching software shows that some of your words match those in its database
is to go back to the paragraph containing those words in your assignment and rewrite
it completely in your own words. Then you can put the assignment through the text-
matching software again to see if you were successful.
A much worse approach would be to (use software to) rearrange the words until the
text-matching software no longer yields a match. Originally you might have plagiarised
unintentionally, but taking this approach means you are trying to fool the marker. This is a
dishonest practice—a form of fraud.
6
The worst approach would be to see the match and to do nothing about it before
submitting—to hope that the marker will not notice or will not care. Your markers will
notice and they do care.
We should mention that getting a clean report from text-matching software does
not mean your assignment is free from plagiarism. You might have copied words from a
source not in the text-matching software’s database, you might have paraphrased well but
omitted the citation, or you might have rearranged original words sufficiently to avoid the
software’s criteria.
4. Scholarship is Sacred. A pervasive form of deception some students (and admittedly
some researchers) practise is citing studies they have not read in full, to increase the length
of their reference lists and to give their assignments spurious credibility. Such students
may have read only a few sentences another author wrote about a study or have read
only its abstract. The rule is: “You must sight whatever you cite”.
Of course, it is not necessary to read a whole book to cite it, but you must read enough
of it to meet the rule, such as reading all of a chapter or section about a particular topic.
In that case, you cite the chapter or section you did read; in all other cases, use secondary
citation, in which you cite the authors you did read (4.3.2).
Text-matching software will likely fail to detect citations that have not been read in full.
But markers might know by various means, such as seeing a citation from a source the
library does not hold or from a source in a foreign language.
1.2.5 Acknowledgements and Avoiding

Plagiarism
You should acknowledge anyone who helped you with your assignment for no
particular reward, for example, by discussing it with you or by commenting on drafts. You
do not need to thank your tutor or instructor, but you might need to thank your study
partner with whom you shared literature for your assignment. You include these people in
the Author Note section on the title page of your assignment.
Some instructors require students, when submitting an assignment, to sign a statement
along these lines: “I understand what plagiarism is and I state that my assignment
contains no examples of plagiarism”. In any case, that sort of statement is implicit when
you submit. Here are some tips on how to have a clear conscience on signing such a
statement and how to avoid plagiarism:
• Make sure that if you copy the words of others, you always enclose all of the copy in
quotation marks, record the page number, and record the full reference. This is true
whether you copy by hand or copy from an electronic source.
• Try to get the topic and what you have read into your own head, to think about it.
Before you begin writing a particular section of your assignment, consider putting
all your written notes and electronic notes away and writing down what you want
to tell your reader in your own words. Imagine your reader to be a well-meaning,
interested, high-school student wanting to study psychology (1.3.7)—this will
force you to use your own words because most of what you have read will be for
professional psychology researchers.
• As far as possible, avoid paraphrasing. Although this might seem to contradict what we
have said earlier, instructors rarely want paraphrasing in an assignment. They want you
to summarise and integrate information (6.4.5), to take your own perspective.
• Be humble and realistic. The authors you read have spent the best part of their
lifetimes honing their abilities to write. Your instructors do not expect you to have
attained this standard, although they do expect you to aspire to it over the years of
7
your psychology course. If you are realistic about your own abilities, you might not
try to exceed them by copying the styles, ideas, or words of the people you read.
• Being humble and realistic also includes realising that if you come up with an
idea in the few days or weeks you might spend on an assignment, it is quite
likely that someone among all the psychologists who have contributed to that
topic during its history has also come up with the idea. For example, your
instructor is not going to be impressed if you concluded your research report’s
introduction with the hypothesis that there is a magic number seven that
affects human memory if you did not credit Miller (1956) with originating this
hypothesis. For another example, your instructor is not going to be impressed
if you argued in your essay that how one identifies with various social groups
affects attitudes to people in and out of those groups if you did not credit Tajfel
and Turner (1979) with originating this argument. That is, you should make a
reasonable search for whoever originated any idea you come up with and cite
that person in your assignment if your search is successful.
• A poor approach to avoiding plagiarism would be to submit an assignment
containing mainly long quotations. Markers will often regard assignments that
include more than 325 characters (50 words) of quotes for every 6,500 characters
(1,000 words) as unoriginal. Nevertheless, the penalties for plagiarism are usually
much more severe than the marks you would lose for having too much quotation.
We give further guidelines on summarising, paraphrasing, and quoting sources
in 4.3.5.
1.2.6 Editorial Style

Part of studying psychology is learning its writing conventions. Indeed, part of studying
at university is to learn about various conventions in different disciplines and professions.
We, as academic psychologists, follow many conventions including the National Health
and Medical Research Council’s (2009) precepts for treating human research participants,
the code of ethics of the American Psychological Association (2017), our own universities’
codes of ethics, and this book’s publisher’s style guide. Other professionals have their own
conventions to follow.
Psychologists use a writing style called APA style, from the American Psychological
Association. It is a set of conventions for written communication of complex scientific ideas
and findings in psychology, using a standard structure (1.4.2). APA style is also widely used
in related disciplines. These conventions are described in detail in the seventh edition of
the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2020) (APA Manual).
Some of the requirements of APA style apply to most forms of writing in psychology (1.4).
Other requirements are more specific to certain types of writing, such as research reports
(Chapter 2) and essays (Chapter 3). Unless your instructors tell you otherwise, they will
assess your use of APA style.
1.2.7 Sources of Help

If you are starting out in psychology, you may need help with your first or later
assignments. Your instructors will recognise this and will help you in various ways. For
example, your first assignments might be relatively short, focusing on just one or two
aspects of writing, such as finding literature or citing and paraphrasing. Your instructors
may also give you classroom or online writing instruction—make sure you take these
opportunities. You may have access to tutors who can answer your questions, to librarians
who can help you with finding material, to dedicated teaching-and-learning staff members
8
who can help with grammar and writing style, and to counsellors who can help if you get
stuck with issues such as procrastination or writer’s block. Make sure you get help from all
these people if you need it; you will find them only too happy to provide it.
There are some things the people we have mentioned are unlikely to do. For example,
your instructors or tutors will not read a draft of your assignment, especially if they will
also mark it (this is an issue of equity). Your librarian will probably be unlikely to download
papers for you. But you can get help with such things by setting up your own support
networks. Consider forming a study group so you can share resources and recruiting a
trusted person to read your drafts.
Above all, read, read, read! Read articles in good psychology journals, books in the
library, and your textbooks. Read great novels too. The more you read the better your
writing will become through a psychological process called incidental learning. Exploit it.
1.3 Writing Style

1.3.1 Grammar, Spelling, and Punctuation
In your assignments, your grammar, spelling, and punctuation must be correct. These
goals are not as easy to accomplish as they are to say (Usage Example 1.5). We give the
principles of grammar and punctuation in Chapter 6.
Avoid Best practice Usage

Example 1.5
Either lollies or smiling promote Either lollies or smiling promotes Use Correct
happiness. happiness. Grammar and
Punctuation
The man who Smith examined felt The man whom Smith examined felt
happy after smiling. happy after smiling.
A child will feel happier if they are Children will feel happier if they are
asked to smile. asked to smile.
Smiling promotes happiness, and also Smiling promotes happiness and also
fosters hope. fosters hope.
Use the recognised arbiter of spelling for your area. In the United States use Webster,
for Canada use Gage, for Australia use Macquarie, and elsewhere use the Oxford English
Dictionary. Use an electronic dictionary (e.g., OneLook dictionary search, n.d.) for internet-
and web-specific words.
If your word processor includes spelling and grammar checkers, use them once
immediately before you submit your assignment. However, be aware that even the best
spelling checkers will sometimes overlook errors (e.g., “there” for “their”, “right” for “write”)
and report false errors (e.g., names, technical terms, and local spellings such as “colour”
for “color”). Grammar checkers are also fallible—missing errors and identifying correct
grammar as incorrect. Be sure you understand why your grammar checker has identified
an error before changing your text.
1.3.2 Objectivity, Formality, Impartiality, and

Respect
In your assignments, you must write objectively, formally, impartially, and respectfully. Avoid
clichés and colloquialisms as well as casual, pretentious, and emotional words. For example, a
9
student might write, “At the end of the day [cliché] the research is up the creek [colloquialism]
and only an idiot [emotional word] would get [casual word] caught by the theory’s proselytising
[pretentious word]”. That student would be better to write, “The methodological errors in the
research prevent the results from supporting the theory” (6.4.1).
Formal writing means communicating your intentions and feelings with words, and not
with typography, such as using boldface, all uppercase, or italics to emphasise particular
words or phrases. Emojis, of course, are also never part of formal writing.
Treat all people you write about with respect and inclusivity. Use the terms they
themselves prefer. Describe different people using the same sorts of words (if possible) and
give specific information about them. The editors of the APA Manual give eight personal
attributes that writers need to respect (Usage Example 1.6).
Usage
Example 1.6
Be Respectful
Avoid Best practice
Age Participants were 100 young Participants were
people and 100 elderly. 100 younger people (ages
[“Elderly” implies a stereotype, 20–35 years) and 100 older
is not specific, and is not people (ages 65–80 years).
preferred by the people
described.]
Disability Autistic people have the People with autism [use
following characteristics ... person-first language] have the
[Giving the label first, or, worse, following characteristics ...
only the label (“Autistics”),
implies that such people are
defined by their label.]
Gender He [the participant] was required Participants used the right index
to use his right index finger to finger to press the response
press the response button … [If button … [Active voice also
gender is irrelevant, either avoid makes the participants the
personal pronouns or use plurals agents of their actions.]
or both.]
Abrams (2017) described what it Abrams (2017) described
is like to be gender non-binary, what it is like to be gender
drawing on her experiences … non-binary, drawing on their
[“Her” is not among Abrams’s experiences …
preferred personal pronouns;
they are the singular “they”,
“them”, and “their”.]
Intersectionality (how different There were 48 immigrants and Participants were
contexts can interact to 52 citizens; 56 were women and 23 immigrant women,
produce inequality) 44 were men. [This disguises 25 immigrant men,
intersectionality of gender and 33 citizen women, and
status in a country.] 19 citizen men.
(Continued)
10
(Continued)
Avoid Best practice
Participation in Research Subjects were ... [Although the Participants were …
editors of the APA Manual allow Subjects were 16 pet dogs
“Subjects” because this term (Canis familiaris)
was used for about 100 years
prior to 1994, we and they prefer Subjects were
“Participants” to record that 63 babies aged from
people participate in research, 6 to 9 months….
giving their informed consent.
We and they prefer “Subjects”
for non-human animals. We
prefer “Subjects” for individuals
who cannot give informed
consent, such as children.]
We studied 12 patients and 12 We studied 12 people diagnosed
people matched for age. [Use with schizophrenia and
“patients” only in health contexts 12 age-matched people with no
to describe people with a such diagnosis.
diagnosed disorder and receiving
treatment by a health-care
provider. In any case, describe
them equitably and specifically.]
Race and ethnicity Participants included 100 New Participants included 100 New
Zealanders and 100 Maori. Zealanders of European descent
[This implies incorrectly that and 100 New Zealanders of
Māori people are neither New Māori descent.
Zealanders nor have a preference
for how their race is spelled.]
Afro-American people… [“Afro- African American [or Black
American” is American, with a capital “B”]
non-preferred.] people …
Sexual orientation and gender Homosexuals can be Sexual minorities including
identity distinguished from lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans,
heterosexuals. [“Homosexual” queer, and others can be
is not a preferred term; the distinguished from the majority
description incorrectly implies of heterosexuals.
that sexual orientation is binary.]
Socioeconomic status Participants were 10 homeless Participants were
people and 10 middle-income 10 people experiencing
people. [Use person-first homelessness and on low
language, make equitable terms, incomes and 10 people living in
and give specific information their own homes and on middle
about relevant aspects of incomes.
socioeconomic status.]
11
Sex: The biological aspects

The personal attributes of individuals that cause the most confusion we see in student
that differ among males, writing are sex, gender, and sexual orientation.
females, and various
forms of intersexuality. Sex refers to the biological aspects that differ among males, females, and various forms
Gender: The social aspects of intersexuality and transsexuality. In most cases, it is determined by genetic makeup
that differ among men, and how genes are expressed in individuals to produce various aspects, including sex
women, and various
chromosomes (i.e., XY for males, XX for females, and some mixture for intersex), primary
other genders.
Sexual orientation: The
sex characteristics (i.e., present at birth, such as penis and testicles for males, vagina
attraction individuals and ovaries for females, and some mixture of both for intersex), and secondary sex
have for others based on characteristics (i.e., present at sexual maturity, such as deep voice and facial hair for males,
their sex or gender.
breasts and wide hips for females, and some mixture of both for intersex). Transsexuality
is when an individual uses surgery and hormones to change some sex characteristics to
a sex that matches his, her, or their gender. If, in a survey, there was a question asking
participants to state their sex, then, depending on the criterion, some people could not be
sure, because very few people have had their genetic makeup and sex hormones tested. If
the subjects in an experiment were human babies, then it is legitimate to describe them as
males (or boys) or females (or girls), based on their primary sex characteristics. Likewise, if
the subjects in an experiment were animals, then it is legitimate to describe them as males
and females, based on their secondary sex characteristics.
Gender refers to the social aspects that differ among men, trans men, women,
trans women, and various other genders, including non-binary and genderqueer. It is
determined by sex and by societal influences. If, in a survey, there was a question asking
participants to state their gender, then everyone knows his, her, or their gender identity.
Sexual orientation refers to the attraction individuals have for others based on their sex
or gender. It is unknown exactly how it is determined, but social influence, sex, and gender
are presumably involved. Men attracted to same-sexed or same-gendered people are gay.
Women attracted to same-sexed or same-gendered people are lesbian. Those attracted
to different-sex or different-gendered people are heterosexual. Others have various
attractions such as bisexual, asexual, and pansexual.
1.3.3 Simplicity
Your writing should be simple rather than complicated, or worse, pretentious.
Simplicity includes ensuring that each sentence you write contains one thought, that each
Topic sentence: A sentence
paragraph contains one major idea, and that each paragraph contains a topic sentence
that summarises the major that gives its major idea (6.2.9). It also includes:
idea of a paragraph.
• using the active voice in which the subject acts on the verb (e.g., “The participant
Voice: A property of a verb.
There are two possibilities: [subject] pressed [active-voice verb] the key [object]”; 6.2.1),
active voice (we recommend
• avoiding all but essential technical terms, and
it), in which the subject
acts on the verb (e.g., “The • avoiding jargon from outside of psychology (6.4.2).
participant [subject] pressed
[active-voice verb] the key Some psychology works, especially articles published before about 1994, contain
[object]”), and passive voice,
prose with no personal reference and written in the passive (6.2.1) voice (e.g., “It will be
in which the subject is acted
on by the verb, (i.e., “The argued by the present author that …”). Then, such writing was considered to confer an
key [object] was pressed objective style. Now, guidelines first given in the APA Manual (1994), and re-emphasised in
[passive-voice verb] by the
subsequent editions, are that you use personal reference for your own contributions to the
participant [subject]”).
work for your assignment and the active voice to simplify and humanise your writing (e.g.,
“I will argue that …”; 1.3.7). Many instructors, however, consider this advice too confusing
for students in the first three years of their study (misleading them, for example, to write “I
think …”, which you should never, never, never write in any psychology assignment). Check
with your instructor and look at Chapters 2 and 3 for how to deal with this issue.
12
1.3.4 Precision and Clarity

In informal writing, ambiguities can be amusing, such as the newspaper headlines
“Iraqi head seeks arms” or “Red tape holds up new bridge”. However, scientists are not
renowned for their sense of humour and prefer writing that is precise and clear (Usage
Example 1.7). We provide further advice in 6.4.3.

Example 1.7
Harris and Prouvost (2014) concluded Harris and Prouvost (2014) concluded Write Clearly
that dogs can experience jealousy, that dogs can experience jealousy,
but others do not agree. but other scholars do not agree.
Many teachers wear flat shoes Many teachers wear flat shoes to
to ensure they do not stumble. ensure they do not stumble. Principals
Principals encourage this. encourage teachers to wear flat
shoes.
You need to ensure all the words you use mean what you think they mean; use a
dictionary if you have the slightest doubt. Your marker will not be impressed if you wrote
“suppository of all wisdom” when you meant “repository”, as famously said by a former
Australian Prime Minister.
Some psychology terms have different meanings from the same words in informal
writing. That is, psychology has its own jargon you must learn and use correctly. The most
common mistake we see from students is “prove”. Only in mathematics can someone prove
anything, such as a theorem. In science, the best anyone can do is to provide evidence
consistent with a hypothesis or theory.
Another reserved word is “significant” and its variants (e.g., “significance” and
“significantly”). Researchers use them to refer to statistical significance—whether a
particular finding can be taken seriously or dismissed as due to chance factors. It is best
to use words such as “important” or “considerable” instead of “significant” for other uses.
Lilienfeld et al. (2015) give other examples of misused psychology terms (1.7).
1.3.5 Conciseness
Write as concisely as possible. You need to eliminate unnecessary paragraphs,
sentences, phrases, and words. For example, this: “At the present time [wordy] we need to
conduct future planning [tautology] for events in close proximity [tautology] to our location
[wordy]”, can be reduced to “Now we need to plan for nearby events”. In 6.4.4 we present
more tips on how to shorten your assignments.
1.3.6 Interest
You need to write interesting prose in your assignments. You do this by being original
(1.2.2) and by organising your writing so your sentences and paragraphs flow seamlessly,
from one to the next (6.4.5).
1.3.7 Audience
You need to have a clear image of the audience, the reader, of your assignment. Imagine
one person you know, care about, and respect, but who knows less about your topic
than you. If you are an introductory student, imagine writing for a final-year high-school
student. If you are an advanced student, imagine writing for an introductory student.
13
Nevertheless, you need to keep your distance from your reader (1.3.3). You can use the
first-person singular (6.2.3) only when referring to your contributions to an assignment
(e.g., “I used a t-test to analyse the results”) and the first-person plural only if you are
writing a group assignment (e.g., “We tested five participants each for a total of 25”).
You use the third person when referring to others (e.g., “He [Chalmers, 2013] gave the
principles of deductive logic”, “They [participants] used a key pad to give responses”).
Unlike our approach in this book, you must avoid the second person (i.e., “you”).
For example, rather than writing “You can see in Figure 1 …”, write “Figure 1 shows …”.
And, unless you are writing a group assignment, you must avoid the first-person plural
(e.g., “we”). Mark Twain is reputed to have said, “Only kings, editors, and people with
tapeworms have the right to use the editorial ‘we’” (O’Toole, n.d.). For example, rather than
writing “We [you and the reader] will reach the conclusion …”, write “I will show … …”.
1.4 APA Editorial Style

The ability to develop and defend original ideas, as well as to write appropriately, might
require several weeks, months, or even years to develop. You might be alarmed if you first
opened this book today and need to submit an assignment tomorrow. Fortunately, you
can quickly learn the basic aspects of APA style. To help, we provide Word templates for
research reports and essays in the online resources for the book.
1.4.1 Margins, Spacing, Font, Running Heads,

and Page Numbers
APA style for presentation of your assignment is to:
• Use white, A4-sized pages and leave a 2.54 cm margin on all sides. We recommend
1 cm larger (i.e., 3.54 cm) left and right margins, which make your writing easier to
read.
• Use double line spacing (24 point) throughout with no extra spacing or lines after
headings or paragraphs, except for figures and tables which have one extra line
above and one below (2.7.3, 2.7.4).
• Insert one space at the end of a sentence, and after all punctuation.
• Use black 12-point serif font, such as Times New Roman, or 11-point sans-serif font
such as Calibri or Arial, throughout. We recommend 12-point Times New Roman,
also for readability, except for figures and tables, for which we recommend at least
10-point Calibri (2.7.3, 2.7.4).
• Justify text on the left margin; leave the right margin ragged.
• Indent each paragraph by 1.27 cm on the first line (use your word processor’s
paragraph tools to do this).
• Make exceptions to the above requirement for the abstract, figure titles and notes,
and table titles and notes, which are not indented, and for references, which are
formatted as hanging paragraphs (4.5).
• Provide a running head in the top left corner of each page, beginning on the title
Running head: A short,
informative version of the page. The running head is an abbreviated title of fewer than 50 characters including
title of an assignment printed spaces, presented in all-capital letters, such as “VIOLENT VIDEO CONTENT AND
at the top left of every page.
AGGRESSION”.
• Number pages in their top right corners, on the same line as the running head.
14
1.4.2 Structure, Headings

APA style has a clear structure for all writing, including research reports and essays,
requiring various sections in order. Each section is marked with its own heading (APA
Example 1.1). In research reports, headings are used for:
• The main sections, which have Level 1 headings: on the first page, the Title and
Author Note; after a page break, the Abstract; after another page break, the
Introduction with the Title as its heading, the Method, Results, and Discussion;
and then after page breaks, the list of References, and any Appendices. Level 1
headings are centred, with boldface font, and with each major word capitalised.
Major words: All words of
Major words comprise four or more letters or are nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, four or more letters or that
and pronouns (even if fewer than four letters, such as “Is” and “He”). are nouns, adjectives, verbs,
adverbs, and pronouns (even
• Subsections within the main sections have Level 2 headings. Commonly the Method if fewer than four letters,
has subsections; in order they include Participants, Materials, Procedure, and such as “Is” and “He”).
Design). Within the Introduction you might use subsections (e.g., Theory A, Theory B).
Within the Results you might use subsections (e.g., Measure 1, Measure 2).
Within the Discussion you might use subsections (e.g., Implications for Theory A,
Implications for Theory B). Level 2 headings are left-justified, with boldface font,
and with each major word capitalised.
• Sub-subsections within Level 2 subsections have Level 3 headings. These are rare
in introductory student research reports, but you might use them later if you have
a complicated Level 2 subsection (e.g., a Participants section might have Sample 1,
Sample 2). Level 3 headings are left-justified, with boldface, italicised font, and with
each major word capitalised.
In essays, Level 1 headings are used for the main sections: on the first page, the
Title and Author Note; after a page break, the Abstract; after another page break, the
Introduction (with Title as its heading), then the Body and Conclusion; and, after a page
break, the list of References. Level 2 headings can be used to distinguish subsections of
the main text. Level 3 headings are rare in essays of fewer than about 13,000 characters
(2,000 words).
A Level 1 Heading Is Centred, in Boldface, with the First Letter of Each Major APA Example 1.1
Word Capitalised Three Levels
of Headings
A Level 2 Heading Is Left-Justified, in Boldface, with the First Letter of Each
Major Word Capitalised
A Level 3 Heading Is Left-Justified, in Boldface and Italics, with the First Letter of
Each Major Word Capitalised
With all three headings, text then continues as a new paragraph.
1.4.3 Citation and References Narrative citation: A

citation comprising the
Citations and references must comply with APA editorial style. We give the basics here; surname(s) of the author(s)
Chapter 4 gives detailed advice about finding, reading, citing, and referencing. Citations followed by its year of
publication in parentheses.
appear in the text of your assignment; references appear in the section at the end of your
Parenthetical citation:
assignment.
A citation comprising the
There are two forms of citation: narrative citations and parenthetical citations. Before surname(s) of the author(s)
and the year of publication
we go on, we need to clarify some APA terminology. Parentheses are round brackets used separated by a comma
for punctuation and to enclose text not needed for understanding the surrounding text. and all in parentheses.
15
Parentheses (the They always come in pairs; the left parenthesis is “(” and the right parenthesis is “)”. In this
singular is parenthesis): book we call them parentheses, although they are sometimes referred to as round brackets
1. Punctuation marks,
or brackets. We distinguish them from square brackets [thus], also confusingly known as
also known as round
brackets or brackets, used brackets, and braces {thus}, also known as curly brackets.
to enclose text that is not
vital for understanding
Parenthesis also means a part of a sentence—like this—that is not essential to the
the surrounding text or meaning of the sentence. It is set off from the rest of the sentence by paired punctuation,
to enclose the year in a such as commas, dashes, or parentheses. Parenthetical is the adjective; in a parenthetical
narrative citation.
2. Parenthesis: A singular
citation, the citation, although vital for a reader, is unnecessary for the meaning of the
noun referring to a part of a sentence containing it.
sentence that is not essential
to its meaning or to one of • Narrative citations include the surname(s) of the author(s) of a reference followed
the punctuation marks. by its year of publication in parentheses. An example is, “Breuer and Freud (1895)
Square brackets: suggested that …”. Note that in a narrative citation, “and” between two authors’
Punctuation marks, also
names is spelled out fully.
known as brackets, used to
enclose parenthetical text • Parenthetical citations include the surname(s) of the author(s) of a reference and
for various purposes [thus].
its year of publication separated by a comma and all in parentheses. An example
Braces: Punctuation
marks, also known as curly is, “there is some doubt about whether males have poorer verbal skills than females
brackets, used to enclose (e.g., Hyde & Linn, 1988)”. Note that in a parenthetical citation, “and” between two
parenthetical text for
authors’ names is abbreviated to an ampersand (&).
various purposes {thus}.
In both types of citation, if there are three or more authors, give the first author’s
surname followed by “et al.,” (Latin abbreviation for “and others”) unless such a citation
would refer to more than one reference. In that case, give enough names to identify which
reference a particular citation corresponds to.
In the list of references, you give the details of each source so a reader could find it in
the library or on the internet.
There are four basic types of references: journal articles, book chapters, books, and others
(e.g., government reports, theses, conference papers, web pages). APA Example 1.2 gives
basic templates and some examples. We have printed components of each reference in
different colours to show the components (e.g., author names in orange, (year) in very dark
blue, and title in light blue; 4.4.2–4.4.5). You should print your references all in black text.
APA Example 1.2 Journal Article

Basic Reference
Templates and
Author1, I. N., Author2, I. N., & Author3, I. N. (year). Title of journal article.
Examples
Journal Title, Volume(Issue), start page–end page. https://doi.org/Digital
Object Identifier (DOI) if available or Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
Alais, D., Cass, J., O’Shea, R. P., & Blake, R. (2010). Visual sensitivity
underlying changes in visual consciousness. Current Biology, 20(15),
1362–1367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2010.06.015
Adams, G. K. (1923). An experimental study of memory color and related

phenomena. American Journal of Psychology, 34(3), 359–407. http://www.
jstor.org/stable/1413955
(Continued)
16
(Continued)
Book Chapter
Author1, I. N., Author2, I. N., & Author3, I. N. (year). Title of book chapter.
In I. N. Editor1 & I. N. Editor2 (Eds.). Title of edited book (pp. start page–
end page). Publisher. DOI or URL
Gross, C. G. (2008). Charles G. Gross. In L. R. Squire (Ed.), The history

of neuroscience in autobiography (Vol. 6, pp. 96–157). The Society
for Neuroscience. http://www.sfn.org/about/history-of-neuroscience/
autobiographical-chapters
Kotler, J., Wright, J., & Huston, A. (2001). Television use in families with
children. In J. Bryant & J. A. Bryant (Eds.). Television and the American
family (2nd ed., pp. 33–48). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. https://doi.
org/10.4324/9781410600172
Tetris effect (2020 April 26). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.

php?title=Tetris_effect&oldid=953287222
Book
Author1, I. N., Author2, I. N., & Author3, I. N. (year). Title of book. Publisher
or Site Name. DOI or URL
Howe, M. L. (2011). The nature of early memory: An adaptive theory of the

genesis and development of memory. Oxford Scholarship Online. https://
doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195381412.001.0001
Other Works
Author1, I. N., Author2, I. N., & Author3, I. N. (year). Title of other work.
Any publication details. DOI or URL
Lingelbach, B., & Ehrenstein, W. H., Jr. (ca. 2000). Das Hermann-Gitter
und die Folgen [The Hermann grid and its implications]. Institut für
Augenoptik. https://web.archive.org/web/20031030182518/http://www.
leinroden.de/304herfold.htm
Miller, A. (1943). Investigation of the apparent shape of the sky. Unpublished

B.A. thesis, Pennsylvania State University.
Riak, J. (Ed.). (2010). Project NoSpank. Parents and Teachers Against Violence
in Education. http://www.nospank.net/
17
You will notice some complications. The citation and reference for “Tetris effect” (2020)
shows what to do when authors are unknown. The citation and reference for Lingelbach
and Ehrenstein (ca. 2000) shows what to do when a reference’s date is uncertain, when an
author’s name has a title, and when the title is in a foreign language. We give details about
complications in Chapter 4.
List references in alphabetical order. List only references you cited in the text of your
research report or essay.
1.4.4 Other Aspects

What we have given in 1.4.1–1.4.3 are the most important aspects of APA style if you are
starting your assignment 48 hours before the deadline. You should now read the remainder of
this chapter, close the book, start reading some references, and then start writing.
If you have more time, APA style governs numerous other aspects, including use
of tenses, numbers, abbreviations, figures, and tables. We cover these in the following
chapters.
1.5 Writing
1.5.1 Plan
Organisation is basic to effective writing. As early as possible, establish what the research
report or essay requires you to think about; develop broad arguments and questions—subject
to regular modification—that direct your reading and your search for specific material.
Record notes as you read using various systems, such as in tables or shorthand. Prepare a
flow diagram or outline to structure your ideas. Chapter 4 provides more information on
strategies to help you find and use references efficiently and effectively.
1.5.2 Rewrite
Be prepared to write at least two drafts of your research report or essay. As Stanley Roscoe
said: “Good writing isn’t written, it’s rewritten” (as quoted in O’Hare, 2015, p. 10). Writing
involves two separate jobs you perform alternately: writing and editing. When you are
writing, you should be concerned with recording your ideas rather than with perfecting your
expression. As Thurber (1939/1990) said: “Don’t get it right, just get it written” (p. 37).
When you are editing, you should pretend that someone else has written the draft
and your task is to improve it. Allow a few days between completing a draft and editing
so you can see it with fresh eyes. Ensure what you have written really relates to the
assignment topic. Prune any unnecessary words or paragraphs. Correct errors of spelling,
punctuation, and grammar. Reorganise the material to ensure a clear, logical flow of ideas.
If you need to rewrite substantial parts of your assignment, return to being an uncritical
writer, then re-edit. The more times you can go through writing and editing, the better
your assignment will be.
The best people to edit a close-to-final draft are other people, trustworthy yet unfamiliar
with the topic. We use the plural on purpose here—the more people who are prepared to
comment on your draft, the better. Your editors’ completely fresh eyes will readily see
writing errors and glitches in your logic or flow.
Treat your editors’ comments like gold, even if their suggestions about how to fix
problems are contradictory. If any editor could not follow something in your writing, resist
the temptation to explain it to your editor. Swallow your pride, thank your editor, and then
rewrite to explain the material more clearly. Edit your work again before preparing the
final version for submission.
18
1.5.3 Character Limits, Word Limits,

and Page Limits
Your instructor will usually set a character limit, a word limit, or a page limit and will
apply a penalty for exceeding it. Make sure you keep within the limit. A character limit
includes all characters, including spaces and punctuation, in the main text including
the Abstract, citations, dates, parenthetical comments, abbreviations, figures, and
tables. The reference list is, however, usually excluded. As a rough guide, there are about
6.5 characters per word. A word limit is similar and would include every word in the
assignment, including words of three letters or fewer, such as “is”, “the”, and “a”. There
are about 1,600 characters (150 words) per page. If a page limit is imposed, ensure you
understand the requirements. For example, is the title page included or not? Are the pages
of the references included? Are there instructions on margins, line spacing, and font size?
Instructors enforce character, word, or page limits for two reasons. First, in the real
world, your writing needs to be concise. Your colleagues, clients, managers, and editors do
not have the time to read lengthy pieces of work. Second, your marker needs to be fair to
students who conform to the limit.
1.6 Submission
1.6.1 Online vs Paper?
Make sure you keep a copy of your assignment!
Most likely, you will submit your assignment online, via your institution’s learning
management system (e.g., Blackboard, Moodle). This system will also likely put your
assignment through software to detect plagiarism. The system will automatically
record your name, student ID number, the time and date you submitted, the name of
the assignment, and the unit information. It may also show the marker the number of
characters, words, and pages, and a score of how closely your text matches that of others.
If you do not know how to submit your assignment online, check the instructions in the
online resources for your unit, search the web, or ask fellow students.
If you submit your assignment on paper, precede your assignment with a cover page
with your name, student number, assignment topic, subject or unit code, due date,
instructor’s name, and a count of characters and words. This cover page is separate from
the title page of your assignment and would not normally contribute to the character/
word/page count.
1.6.2 Deadlines
The deadline is the date and time before which you must submit your assignment. If
you submit after the deadline, even by one minute, you will most likely lose some marks for
the assignment. Make sure you understand your instructor’s penalties for submitting late
and use these to optimise your submission. For example, if you will lose 10% of potential
marks per 24-hour period after the deadline, submit late only if in each such period you
can improve your marks by more than 10%. If the worst happens and you know you are
already late by five minutes, spend some more time improving your assignment in the
next 23 hours, and then submit.
At the beginning of the semester, understand the deadlines of all your assignments from
all your units. Use them to manage your time. Construct a schedule for each assignment.
You need to give yourself time to read, to write, to revise, and to submit.
19
Start work on any assignment at least three weeks before the due date. A schedule
might be days 1 to 4 for reading, days 5 to 7 for producing a first draft, days 8 to 11
for showing the assignment to others, days 12 to 15 for producing the final draft and
submitting, and days 16 to 19 for emergencies. Stick to your schedule.
If unforeseen circumstances beyond your control delay your submission, ensure you
are familiar with your instructor’s policy on late work. Some instructors allow students to
apply for extensions if they do so before the due date. You will probably not be penalised
if you become ill around the deadline, provided you have the necessary documentation
to support your case. Your instructor may consider other circumstances, such as
difficult family or personal issues. Most instructors will not accept excuses such as work
commitments, other assignments due at the same time, or computer problems.
Keep in mind Murphy’s Laws when planning your work schedule for an assignment:
• Anything that can possibly go wrong will.
• It will go wrong at the worst possible time.
• Anything that goes wrong will have the worst possible outcome.
• When adding on two days for unexpected delays, add on two weeks for unexpected
delays.
• Your vital piece of equipment, such as your computer, typewriter, pen, photocopier,
car, or bicycle will break down irreparably for 48 hours before the due date.
• Any people vital to the assignment, such as your typist, study companion, person
commenting on your drafts, instructor, head of department, vice-chancellor, or
head of state will disappear 48 hours before the due date.
• Anything about you vital to the assignment will cease functioning 48 hours before
the due date: your hand will become paralysed, your memory will go blank, and
your motivation will evaporate.
• All material vital to the assignment, including your notes, photocopies, rough drafts,
internet connection, or the library itself will disappear 48 hours before the due date.
Good luck!
1.7 Helpful Sources

American Psychological Association. (2020). APA style. https://apastyle.apa.org
This site provides instructions and examples of how to apply APA style.
Lilienfeld, S. O., Sauvigné, K. C., Lynn, S. J., Cautin, R. L., Latzman, R. D., & Waldman,
I. D. (2015). Fifty psychological and psychiatric terms to avoid: A list of inaccurate,
misleading, misused, ambiguous, and logically confused words and phrases.
Frontiers in Psychology, 6, Article 1100. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01100
The title of this paper says it all.
Sternberg, R. J., & Sternberg, K. (2010). The psychologist’s companion: A guide to writing
scientific papers for students and researchers (5th rev. ed.). Cambridge University
Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511762024
This provides general advice on writing research reports, including the basics of
editorial and writing style.
20
Chapter 2
Writing Research
Reports
We describe research reports (1.1) next. Other research reports include systematic
Systematic review:
reviews (7.4) and meta-analyses (7.4). Research reports do not include reports that A literature review that is
registered psychologists write about their clients (if necessary, you will receive training for structured like a report, with
an Introduction, Method,
such reports during postgraduate study).
Results, and Discussion. The
Method gives explicit details
2.1 Kinds of Research and

of how the author searched
the literature; the Results
give the details of that search.
Expectations for Research

The Introduction and the
Discussion give the author’s
hypotheses or arguments.
Reports
Meta-analysis:
A particular type of report,
in which the data are
effect sizes from primary
For a research report, your instructor may have involved you in a study, such as in a research reports following
laboratory or practical class, in which you and your classmates collected some data. To a systematic review.
write a report of your research, you describe and interpret it, based on a set of readings,
to test one or more hypotheses (1.2.2). In this chapter, we help you prepare for and write
such a report. We provide a good example research report (2.12) and a flawed version of it
(Appendix A).
Research can be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods. Quantitative research Quantitative research:
involves numerical measurement of variables (e.g., response times, numbers of correct Research using numerical
responses, rating scales) followed by statistical analysis. Most undergraduate reports measurement of
variables followed by
are quantitative research. Qualitative research includes participants talking about their statistical analysis.
experiences (e.g., in interviews, focus groups, surveys) followed by content or discourse Qualitative research:
analyses (2.6.6, 2.7.7). Mixed-methods research combines quantitative and qualitative Research using participants’
methods. talking about their
experiences (e.g., in
Your instructor and marker will have some expectations about your report. They interviews, focus groups,
surveys), followed by content
include that you have a research question from which you have drawn a hypothesis and
or discourse analyses.
that you meet various marking criteria. Mixed-methods research:
Research combining
2.1.1 Hypotheses quantitative and

qualitative methods.
A hypothesis is a simple statement predicting a relationship between a cause and an
effect or a relationship between at least two variables (1.2.2). There are two broad classes: Conceptual hypothesis: A
conceptual hypotheses, in which the variables are framed conceptually (e.g., praise and simple statement predicting
self-esteem respectively) and operational hypotheses, in which the variables are framed a relationship between at
least two variables framed
between what has been manipulated or measured (e.g., reward tokens and scores on a test broadly as concepts.
of self-esteem, respectively). Operational hypothesis: A
simple statement predicting
a relationship between at
least two variables framed
narrowly as what was
manipulated or measured.
21
Theory: A well-substantiated, Ideally, your hypothesis comes from theory. A theory is a well-substantiated, organised,
organised, general general explanation of a set of phenomena and facts from which predictions, hypotheses,
explanation of a set of
can be made (5.2.1).
phenomena and facts
from which predictions For example, you might participate in a class activity in which your instructor asks
can be made.
you to rate the extent to which you perceive a stranger in a photograph as hostile and
untrustworthy. Some of your classmates watch a violent video before they rate this
Experiment: A procedure photograph. Other classmates watch a non-violent video before they rate the photograph.
designed to test a hypothesis
about cause and effect. In
Your operational hypothesis might be “Exposure to a violent video increases measures
psychology, an experiment is of perceived hostility and mistrust”. Your conceptual hypothesis might be “Exposure to
a study in which individuals violent videos increases perceived hostility and mistrust”. Your hypothesis might derive
are randomly assigned to
conditions, in which each
from more general theories, such as Bandura and Walters’s (1977) social learning theory—
individual performs in all that we tend to imitate behaviours—and from Wheeler et al.’s (2007) active-self theory—
conditions, or in which there that we expect others to share our view of our own behaviours.
is some mixture of these two
experimental designs. In This instructor has run what we define as an experiment, a procedure designed to test
the first case, the procedure
a hypothesis about cause and effect (5.3.1). The procedure differs between individuals only
differs between individuals in
one aspect—the independent in one aspect—the independent variable; it is manipulated by the researcher. Everything
variable. Everything else in else in the procedure is identical for all individuals, including the dependent variable; it
the procedure, including
is what the researcher measures. If the measures differ in the different conditions of the
the dependent variable, is
identical for all individuals. independent variable, then those differences must have been caused by the independent
In the second case, the variable.
procedure differs among
the conditions creating In our example the independent variable is whether participants watched a violent or
the independent variable; non-violent video. The dependent variable is how much participants perceive the stranger
the dependent variable is
identical for all conditions.
as hostile and untrustworthy.
Independent variable: Less frequently, an instructor might run a quantitative non-experiment, designed to
The variable that is
test a relationship between two or more dependent variables (5.3.1). For example, the
assumed to cause a
change in the dependent instructor might read to the class lists of digits, each list longer than the preceding one,
variable. In experiments, and after a fixed delay for each list ask the students to write down its digits. The longest
the independent variable
list correctly recalled by each student is the dependent variable of memory span. Then
is manipulated by
the researcher. the instructor asks the students to write down the number of hours slept the previous
Dependent variable: The night, another dependent variable of sleep duration. The instructor might call this second
variable that is measured dependent variable an independent variable, because of a hypothesis that sufficient sleep
by the researcher.
improves memory. But, of course, all that can be shown from the study is the extent of the
relationship between the two variables—not about whether one causes the other.
Non-experiment: Any other
psychology study that does After running the class exercise, your instructor may then provide you with a summary
not have the characteristics of the class results and ask you to write a research report on it. To do so, follow the four
of an experiment.
main steps researchers take in conducting any quantitative research:
1. Read the scientific literature to identify the arguments, theories, or issues you
Introduction: The section of
a research report in which want to assess, and to develop your hypotheses. You review the literature in the
you review the literature and Introduction of your research report, which concludes with a statement of your
conclude with a statement of
aims and hypotheses.
your aims and hypotheses.
Method: The section 2. Collect data to test these hypotheses. You describe how you collected the data in the
of a research report in Method section.
which you describe how
you collected the data. 3. Analyse these data using various statistical procedures. You report the outcomes of
Results: The section of a these analyses in the Results section.
research report in which
you give summaries of the 4. Interpret and explain the results, and discuss how they contribute to existing
data (in text, in figures, or in knowledge. You do so in the Discussion section.
tables) and of statistical tests.
Discussion: The section of
a research report in which
you explain your results and
consider their implications.
22
2.1.2 Marking Criteria

In a research report, in approximate order of priority, your marker will likely assess how
well you
• interpreted and explained your findings convincingly, with a thoughtful discussion
of the theoretical and practical implications of the results and careful consideration
of the limitations of your research;
• provided an introduction in which the hypotheses evolved logically and clearly from
the literature you cited;
• analysed the data appropriately, specified the results precisely, gave details of any
statistical procedures employed, and used tables or figures correctly;
• communicated the details of the experimental method concisely and precisely so
that someone else could replicate the study;
• read sufficiently and cited that reading effectively and precisely to support your
hypotheses and discussion;
• used clear and accurate expression, including grammar, spelling, and punctuation; and
• adhered to APA style.
The best research reports have some similarities to, and at least one key difference
from, a good mystery story. They are similar in that a good research report writer begins
with something that interests the reader (first paragraph), draws the reader into a mystery
(remainder of the Introduction), shows the reader how the researchers went about solving
the mystery (Method), shows the key pieces of evidence for solving the mystery (Results),
and ensures that there is a happy ending and that all loose ends are tied (Discussion).
Reports differ from mystery stories in that research-report writers want their readers
to know the solution to the mystery from the outset, and to be one step ahead of how
the mystery was solved. In fact, readers know the solution from the Abstract. In the
Introduction, a good research-report writer outlines the issues and theories so clearly that
the reader will be jumping up and down, crying, “I know what the conceptual hypothesis
will be, and I know how to test an operational hypothesis” before the writer has to state
them. A good research-report writer confirms these expectations in the Method, in the
Results, and in the Discussion, yielding the happy ending.
2.2 Structure
Most research reports consist of eight main components: Title (page), Abstract (1.2),
Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, References, and optional Appendices
(Figure 2.1).
Bem (1987) gave a useful analogy for the organisation of a report: like an hourglass.
At the top, the Introduction starts broadly, with some general statement about how the
area of psychology contains your topic. It narrows to describe theories within that area.
It narrows further to examine your topic, how it relates to theory and to evidence, and to
give your hypotheses.
The Method and Results are the narrowest parts of the hourglass: you give the details
of what you did and what you found. It broadens in the Discussion, beginning with
summaries of your hypotheses and results, then with considering what the results mean
and whether there are any alternative explanations for them, then with considering the
implications for theory of your findings. At the broadest part it contains the implications of
your findings for the general area of psychology, for real-world implications, and for future
research.
23
The references and appendices form the base of the hourglass.
Figure 2.1 Main

1
Components of a
(Title page) 2
Research Report
Abstract 3
Title
Title 4
Author name 5
Author affiliation Method Procedure

Author Note Participants
Results
Materials
6
7
8
References 9
Appendix
Discussion
The sections are presented in the order they appear in a report—which is not necessarily
the best order in which to write them. You may find it helps to begin writing the Method,
followed by Results, before tackling the Introduction and Discussion sections. Write the
Abstract and Title after all other sections, and finish with the References and Appendices.
2.3 Title Page

The first page of your research report should be the title page. Unless your instructor
has opted for the APA Style Manual style for student papers, start the running heads
(1.4.1) and page numbers. Use a Level 1 heading (1.4.2) for the Title, centred, boldface
with the first letter of each major word capitalised. Then, in ordinary text, give your name
in one line, then your department and institution in the next, also centred. Then give
the centred heading Author Note, followed by, in two separate, ordinary paragraphs,
acknowledgements to any people who helped you with the research report (1.2.5) and the
addresses for correspondence about the report, including your postal and email addresses.
The title of your research report also appears on the second page as a Level 1 heading
for your Introduction. The title should contain fewer than 100 characters (15 words) and
must be concise and informative. Eliminate any redundant phrases—such as “a study
of”, “results of”, “an experiment into”, “research into”. A title can have a question mark or,
Period: A punctuation rarely, an exclamation mark, but omits a period (full stop; 6.3.1). The title should either
mark consisting of a
outline the relationship between the principal variables or highlight the main issue.
single dot, usually at the
end of a sentence.
2.3.1 Independent, Manipulated Variable

Most titles, particularly in undergraduate courses, describe the association between
pairs of variables, such as exposure to violent videos and perceived hostility. The italicised
words in APA Example 2.1 highlight phrases that are often used in titles if one variable is
an independent, manipulated variable (5.3.1). These words specify that the independent
variable is a cause and the other variable is the effect. (Note: we use italics here as an
example; you should use them in your titles only in the unlikely event it includes a genus
and species name, such as Mus musculus.)
24
The Effect of Exposure to a Violent Video on Perceived Hostility and APA Example 2.1
Trustworthiness Independent,
Manipulated
Does Exposure to a Violent Video Influence Perceived Hostility and Variable Containing
Trustworthiness? Words Stating a
Cause and an Effect
All the Rage: The Effect of Exposure to a Violent Video on Perceived Hostility
and Trustworthiness
2.3.2 No Variable was Manipulated

Some variables cannot be manipulated (e.g., sex and age). Other variables that can
be manipulated may sometimes not be. For example, although it might be possible to
assign participants randomly to high-stress and low-stress jobs, a researcher might simply
measure each participant’s level of job stress, along with other measured variables, such
as anxiety level, to determine the associations between job stress and the other variables.
If no variable was manipulated, you cannot be certain of which variable is the cause and
which variable is the effect (2.1.1, 5.3.2). For example, stress could cause anxiety or anxiety
cause stress. Phrases such as “The effect of” are, therefore, incorrect.
The italicised words in APA Example 2.2 highlight phrases that are often used if no
variable was specifically manipulated by the researcher.
The Association Between Exposure to Violent Videos and Perceived Hostility and APA Example 2.2
Trustworthiness No Manipulated
Variables
The Relationship Between Exposure to Violent Videos and Perceived Hostility
and Trustworthiness
2.3.3 Mediation or Moderation

More sophisticated studies either examine how pairs of variables are related—
called mediation—or the factors that influence a relationship—called moderation. APA
Example 2.3 gives an example of mediation and of moderation.
Mediation APA Example 2.3

The Effect of Exposure to Violent Videos on Perceived Hostility and Mediation or
Moderation
Trustworthiness: The Role of Negative Emotions
Moderation Mediation: Mediation
Does the Association Between Exposure to Violent Videos and Perceived studies are undertaken
to show whether an
Hostility and Trustworthiness Vary with Age? independent variable
causes changes in another
variable, which in turn
2.4 Abstract
causes changes in the
dependent variable.
Moderation: The study of
The abstract should be on the second page. Begin with a Level 1 heading—Abstract— individual characteristics,
conditions, or other factors
and follow with a single, unindented paragraph. The abstract should provide a complete that modify the relationship
summary of the research report in fewer than 900 characters (150 words). Its purpose is between two variables.
to summarise the topic and outcomes of the study, enabling readers to decide whether to
25
read further. Because of the clarity and brevity required, each word in the Abstract should
be meaningful. Follow this order:
• Introduce the topic by demonstrating its importance, either theoretical or practical.
Include a citation only if the study is a replication or extension of that work.
• Specify the aim of the study, which can include a statement of the hypotheses.
• Specify the number of participants and include any of their characteristics (e.g.,
gender, age, or ethnicity) critical to the design of the study.
• Summarise the procedures participants completed.
• Outline the conditions to which participants were assigned, if applicable.
• Briefly describe the measures or apparatus used, if applicable.
• Specify the principal findings. Give effect sizes, confidence intervals, or statistical
significance.
• Specify the conclusions of the study.
In APA Example 2.4, notice how one or two sentences are devoted to each of the
previous points.
APA Example 2.4 Abstract

Abstract The prevalence of violent videos has continued to soar over the last decade.
To investigate whether exposure to violent videos increases mistrust of strangers,
24 psychology students rated the extent to which a stranger in a photograph seemed
hostile and untrustworthy. Before they rated this person, half the participants watched
a violent video; the remaining participants watched a quiz show. Participants who
watched the violent program were more likely to perceive the stranger as hostile
(d = 2.26) and somewhat untrustworthy (d = 0.06) than were participants who
watched the quiz show. These findings suggest that depiction of violence could
promote perception of strangers as hostile and untrustworthy, ultimately provoking
aggression.
2.5 Introduction
The introduction begins on a new page, following the abstract. Its Level 1 heading is
the title of the research report (1.4.2). The introduction usually contains about one-third of
the characters of your report.
In the introduction you explain why the study was conducted, present your case for
why the topic requires investigation, and outline what the researchers understood to be
true at the outset. It can be the most difficult section to write because you must provide
a brief but comprehensive review of the relevant literature and develop a convincing
justification for the aims and hypotheses of your study.
2.5.1 Importance
Highlight the importance of your study in the first paragraph of the introduction. Begin
that paragraph with a sentence that encourages the reader to read further. In it, write in
simple words something about your topic that relates to people or to animals. One useful
strategy is to pose a question (e.g., “Does viewing violent videos make people aggressive?”).
Another is to relate your study to a practical or theoretical issue that is topical or vital,
such as depression, aggression, racism, intelligence, success, or consciousness.
26
In the rest of the first paragraph, you could present information—such as statistics,
theories, or conclusions from previous research—demonstrating the problems that would
arise if the main issue were not addressed. Alternatively, you can refer to controversies in
the literature (APA Example 2.5).
Violence associated with gang conflict has been the subject of research since the APA Example 2.5
1970s (e.g., Miller, 1975). Since then, many studies have focused on the increasing First sentences
depiction of violence teenagers are exposed to by playing violent video games
(Anderson et al., 2010). Could the latter have caused the former?
2.5.2 Literature Review

During most of your introduction, you should summarise both past studies that have
explored your issue as well as theories that explain these findings (5.2). This section should
include a clear and logical progression of ideas from past theory and research findings to
the aims of your study. You need to
• introduce theories from which you derived hypotheses;
• outline findings of previous studies that verify or contradict these theories; and
• identify problems or shortcomings of past research addressed by your study.
When you describe past research, provide only enough detail to show how the study
was conducted (3.7.2) and to give its principal results. When you describe previous
theories and arguments, include only the details necessary to explain the relevant
research data.
2.5.3 Link Past and Present

Towards the end of the introduction’s literature review, some writers like to summarise
the principal theories and studies. This short summary, although not obligatory, highlights
unresolved issues. Emphasising the deficiencies in the literature can demonstrate the link
between the current study and previous research as well as justify the aim of your study
(APA Example 2.6).
In short, exposure to violent videos seems to promote agitation and anxiety, and APA Example 2.6
these emotions have been demonstrated to provoke aggression. Nevertheless, any Last Sentences
of the Literature
agitation and anger might dissipate as soon as individuals shift their attention to
Review
another activity—a possibility requiring further research.
2.5.4 Aim and Outline of Your Study

Next, introduce the aim of your research. Provide a succinct statement of the purpose
of your study as well as a brief summary of the research design and method. This
description of the method ensures the hypotheses are easy for readers to understand
(APA Example 2.7).
To test the hypothesis that exposure to violent videos promotes mistrust and APA Example 2.7
suspicion towards strangers, university students watched either a violent video or a Preparation for
the Hypotheses
quiz show for half an hour. To distract their attention, they then completed crossword
puzzles for 15 minutes. Finally, the students evaluated the extent to which a stranger,
in a photograph, seemed untrustworthy and hostile.
27
2.5.5 Hypotheses
Finally, you should specify the hypothesis, or hypotheses, as clear and unambiguous
statements that predict the results of your study. Hypotheses should be presented
in normal prose as complete sentences. Hypotheses do not need to be presented
last, but should appear somewhere within the last paragraph of the introduction
(Usage Example 2.1). Qualitative research methods tend to be more exploratory and may
Usage pose research questions and aims rather than hypotheses (Levitt et al., 2018).
Example 2.1
Specify Hypotheses
Avoid Best practice
Each conceptual hypothesis Exposure to violent videos As predicted from active-self
should follow logically from a should promote mistrust towards theory, exposure to violent
theory or an argument. strangers. videos should promote mistrust
towards strangers.
Each hypothesis should According to active-self theory According to active-self
indicate the direction of a exposure to violent videos theory, exposure to violent
relationship. should affect mistrust towards videos should increase mistrust
strangers. towards strangers.
Each hypothesis should use According to active-self theory, According to active-self
words that match how the exposure to violence should theory, exposure to violent
variables will be measured in promote adverse attitudes. videos should promote mistrust
your study. towards strangers.
Each hypothesis should be According to active-self theory, According to active-self theory,
testable—research cannot exposure to violent video games exposure to violent videos
prove the absence of an effect. should not affect mistrust should be more likely than
towards strangers. exposure to violent video games
to promote mistrust towards
strangers.
2.6 Method
The method section follows immediately after the Introduction on the same page, with
the Level 1 heading: Method. Divide the method section into its appropriate subsections
with Level 2 headings. We describe the most common subdivisions below. Subdivide these
subsections when necessary, such as to describe specific measures, using Level 3 headings
(1.4.2).
Replication: A key element

The purpose of the method section is to provide only enough detail to enable an
of the scientific method experienced researcher to replicate your study—to repeat the study with exactly the same
with two meanings: First, method. Omit details that could not possibly affect the results (e.g., whether you recorded
any researcher should be
able to repeat the method
the responses with an HB or a 2B pencil). In some reports, further details (such as verbatim
of any past study. Second, instructions) can be provided in an appendix (2.10), but this can be done only if there is
having conducted the new enough information in the Method (in this case, a concise description of the instructions).
study, the research should
obtain the same results as
Beware using an appendix to cut down the character count of your report. You will lose
those of the past study. marks for omitting crucial information from the method.
All sentences within sections must be complete and intelligible. Do not assume
the reader will read the heading as part of the section. For example, follow the heading
“Participants” with “The participants were 20 students” to ensure the sentence is complete
and intelligible. Each section of the method should be written in normal prose.
28
Often, in undergraduate years, you might act both as a participant and as a researcher
of the study. In this case, when writing the method section, adopt the researcher’s
perspective.
2.6.1 Participants or Subjects

According to the APA Manual (2020) you can use either “participants” or “subjects” to Participant: An adult
describe the individuals that yielded the data of your study. We, however, prefer to make who participates in a
study after giving his or
the distinction drawn in earlier editions: “participants” for individuals who gave informed her informed consent to
consent to participate in a study, “subjects” for other individuals, such as animals or contribute his or her data.
children. Subject: An individual
who yields data for a study
For humans, describe the individuals you recruited to partake in your study, including: without giving informed
consent (such as a child or
1. the number of men, women, and other genders (1.3.2); an animal); a participant.
2. the mean and standard deviation of their ages, or the range of ages;
3. their occupation or category, such as “university students”, “children at primary
school”, or “family pet dogs”;
4. other demographics (e.g., ethnicity, education, socioeconomic status, or visual
acuity) but only if they are relevant to the study and could influence the results;
5. how the participants were recruited, such as using email or verbal request;
6. any payment or reward participants received, such as course credit;
7. criteria that determined eligibility to participate, such as English as a first language
or no hearing difficulties (APA Example 2.8);
8. information about how the study was approved by some committee assessing
whether it is ethical;
9. who gave informed consent to participate (usually the participants themselves or
the parents of babies and children); and
10. whether the number of participants or subjects yields sufficient power—a statistical Power: A statistical
measure of the ability of a study to give a good test of its hypothesis. measure of the ability of
a study to give a good
You may not need to give points 8–10 if your study was done in a practical class. Your test of its hypothesis.
instructor would have ensured the study is ethical, given classmates the opportunity to
withdraw without penalty (usually by doing some other assignment), and conducted a
study with high power.
Method APA Example 2.8

Participants
Participants
The participants were 24 members of an introductory psychology class at
University of Higher Education, including 9 males and 15 females. The mean age was
19.25 years (SD = 2.5). Students volunteered by attending their regular tutorial class.
Only students who spoke English as their first language were eligible to participate.
For animals, call this subsection Subjects and specify

• the name, strains, and supplier of the species;
• the number of males and females;
• the mean and standard deviation of their ages and weights;
• the lighting, temperature, and feeding schedules; and
• other information that could influence the results.
29
2.6.2 Materials
In the Materials section, describe the equipment, measures, and objects you used to
collect your data, making clear how the variables were operationalised. Although we give
some general guidelines, you might also read journal articles reporting similar research to
yours to help you decide which details to include.
Psychological Tests. If you used or constructed a questionnaire or psychological test,
specify
• the purpose of the measure or scale;
• the task of participants;
• the definition of each subscale, if the measure included more than one;
• a sample question for each subscale;
• the response options; and
• if possible, some evidence the measure or scale is reliable and valid, such as
Cronbach’s α (APA Example 2.9).
APA Example 2.9 Materials

Materials Participants completed a 24-item questionnaire designed to measure perceptions
of trust, comprising two subscales: hostility and trustworthiness. A sample question
for hostility is, “This person might attempt to harm me”. A sample question for
trustworthiness is, “I might trust this person to keep a secret”. Participants responded
to each question on a 5-point scale, from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).
The scale exhibits excellent internal consistency based on previous research,
Cronbach’s α = .90 (J. Smith, personal communication, July 12, 2020).
Experimenter-Constructed Materials. If you constructed the experimental materials

yourself, include enough detail to ensure that your stimuli could be duplicated by another
researcher (APA Example 2.10), such as
• description of stimuli;
• number of stimuli per condition;
• method of presentation;
• any control procedures that were used in the construction of the materials, such
as randomising the order of presentation or construction of multiple study lists for
counterbalancing; and
• how you scored the test.
APA Example 2.10 Materials

Experimenter- Participants responded to 20 adjectives that are used to describe people, selected
Constructed
from a list of low to medium frequency words (Corpus of Contemporary American
Materials
English [COCA], n.d). Words were between 4 and 10 letters in length (Appendix A).
There were two lists, containing the same 20 adjectives in the same random order
except that in one list the adjective “humorous” appeared first and in the other it
appeared last. Each list was presented on a single sheet of A4 paper, one word per
line, using double-line spacing, Times Roman, 12-point font. A five-point rating scale
from not at all (1) to very much (5) was printed next to each word.
30
Specialised Technical Equipment. If you used specialised equipment, such as for

measuring physiological responses, or computer programs, you can label this section—
or include a separate subsection—Apparatus. Give brand names and numbers for
complicated equipment (e.g., computers, skin-fold callipers, heart rate monitor). Do not
mention everyday materials, such as rulers or pencils (APA Example 2.11).
Apparatus APA Example 2.11

Participants viewed stimuli on a ViewSound, 19-in., colour, cathode-ray-tube Apparatus
monitor (model: VS123) controlled by a Macix computer. An EyeChain 2000 (model
EC321) recorded their eye movements.
2.6.3 Procedure
The Procedure is a chronological account of every important event that participants
experienced during the study. Sometimes, you might not be certain whether to include
information in the Materials or Procedure. As a rough guide, in the Materials section,
include a description of what you prepared before data collection began. In the Procedure,
include everything that happened during the time your participant or subject was
involved in the study. In a typical Procedure section, you should:
• Summarise the instructions and feedback participants received. Give verbatim
instructions if they are one or two sentences; otherwise give them in an Appendix.
• Describe how participants were assigned to conditions (e.g., “Participants were
randomly and equally assigned to the four experimental conditions.”).
• Specify participants’ tasks, their order, and the time required.
• Unless implied, indicate whether individuals completed the tasks alone or in groups.
• If participants were deceived, state how they were informed of this after the
experiment was finished.
• Unless implicit, give the design of the study. If this would take more than a few
sentences, give it in a separate Design section of the Method (2.6.4).
Use the active, rather than passive, voice when describing the procedure. For example,
write “the participants watched the video” rather than “the participants were shown the
video” (APA Example 2.12).
Procedure APA Example 2.12

Participants read instructions that the study was to establish preferences for Procedure
various videos and characters (Appendix A). Half the participants, chosen randomly,
then watched the violent video for 30 minutes. The remaining participants watched
the quiz show for 30 minutes. Next, all participants received the photograph of the
stranger and completed the Smith-Brown scale, rating the perceived hostility and the
perceived trustworthiness of the stranger. Participants were tested in groups of eight.
All participants completed the scale within 10 minutes.
2.6.4 Design
Although rare in published papers, your instructor might require a clear statement
of the design of the study, clarifying the independent variables and how they were
manipulated, the dependent variables, and the analyses. If the design and analyses
are simple, this information can be given in the last paragraph of the Procedure
(APA Example 2.13).
31
APA Example 2.13 The design of the experiment involved one independent variable, type of video,
Simple, In-Text with two between-subject levels: violent and non-violent. There were two dependent
Design and
variables: the perceived hostility of the stranger and the perceived trustworthiness of
Analyses
the stranger. We tested the statistical significance of any differences between the data
from the two conditions with two independent-sample t-tests, one for each dependent
Factorial design: An
experimental design in variable.
which there are more than
one independent variable,
or factors, each with two If the design is complex, requiring more than a few sentences to describe, present the
or more levels, that are
information in a separate subsection called Design. In APA Example 2.14 we give the
combined to produce
conditions equal to the design for a follow-up experiment on the effect of exposure to violent videos on perceived
product of the number hostility and trustworthiness. In the new experiment, we add a second independent
of levels of the various
(although non-manipulated) variable—age. In describing the new experiment’s design, we
independent variables.
Analysis of variance
use some technical terms: A “2 × 3 … design” means there were two independent variables,
(ANOVA): A statistical comprising two levels (violent and non-violent video) and three levels (12 years, 14 years,
test for factorial designs and 16 years) respectively. The × means the design is factorial, that is, every possible
assessing differences among
the various levels of the
combination of the levels of the two factors is tested, giving a total of six conditions.
independent variables and
Factorial designs are usually analysed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) that allows the
any interactions among
all the conditions in the statistical significance of differences among the various levels of the independent variables
experimental design. to be assessed, as well as any interactions among all the conditions.
Between-subject design:
An experimental design in
A “between-subjects design” means each participant belongs to only one of the six
which some participants possible conditions. Other possible designs are within-subjects, in which all participants
or subjects are assigned to complete all the conditions, and mixed, in which some factors are between-subjects and
one condition, and others
are assigned to other
the rest are within-subjects (5.3.4).
conditions, but none to
more than one condition.
APA Example 2.14 Design

Design The experiment had a 2 x 3 between-subjects design. Half the participants in each
of three age groups (12 years, 14 years, and 16 years), chosen randomly, watched
either a violent or non-violent video. There were two dependent variables: the
Within-subject design: perceived hostility of the stranger and the perceived trustworthiness of the stranger.
An experimental design in We tested the statistical significance of any differences with two 2 x 3 analyses of
which all participants or
variance, one for each dependent variable.
subjects are assigned all
conditions. It is also called a
repeated-measures design.
Mixed design: An
experimental design
2.6.5 Data Diagnoses and Analyses
in which at least one After you collect the data, you need to examine them to ensure aspects such as their
independent variable is being reasonable, being complete (none missing), and having distributions that meet
between-subject and at
least one independent
the assumptions of the statistical tests you performed. This examination is called data
variable is within-subject. diagnoses.
Data diagnoses:
For an example of unreasonable data, imagine your instructor gave you a computer
Examination of collected
data to ensure they are file containing the data from 24 participants on perceived hostility and trustworthiness.
all reasonable, they are If all the data were numbers 1 to 5 (these are the values of the rating scales) except for
complete, and they meet
one of perceived trustworthiness that was 50, then this one is unreasonable, probably
the assumptions of the
statistical tests used. from a coding error. The best approach would be to check with your instructor about this
discrepant value and to correct it. If this is not possible, the safest thing to do is to exclude
it from further analysis.
32
In larger datasets, it might not be feasible to look at every datum for unreasonable
values. In this case you can use statistical techniques to search for unreasonable values,
outliers. One method is to calculate the mean and standard deviation of the data, and Outliers: Any data that are
examine, and then exclude, any that are more than a criterion number of standard unreasonably different from
deviations away from the mean (e.g., more than 3). the majority of the data.
In the original example, excluding a trustworthiness datum creates a missing value.

You would normally omit this participant from your analyses. Imagine you then see that
one participant has no hostility datum recorded. This is another missing value, so that
participant should normally be omitted from the analyses too. You need to tell the reader
about these missing values, either in the Participants section or in the Design section (APA
Example 2.15).
Design APA Example 2.15

…. Omission of Some
Participants
Because of a coding error and a missing value, one participant was omitted from
from Analyses
the violent video condition’s measure of perceived hostility and another from the
non-violent video condition’s measure of perceived trustworthiness respectively. This
left 22 participants’ data to analyse.
In some datasets, it might not be feasible to correct or omit every outlier or to omit
missing values. Researchers use various techniques—we do not go into them here—to
diagnose outliers and to deal with missing data. If your research used these techniques,
then you need to tell the reader about them in the Design section (APA Example 2.16).
Design APA Example 2.16

…. Missing Data
Because the research was longitudinal, to avoid loss of statistical power from
discarding participants, I replaced outliers (data more than 3 standard deviations from
the mean) and missing values with the means of all the remaining data. That required
reducing the degrees of freedom in the statistical analyses by the numbers of these
replaced values.
You also need to consider whether your data meet the assumptions of your statistical
tests, such as that the data have a normal distribution. An example of a normal Normal distribution:
distribution is the famous bell curve (e.g., IQ): its graph of the frequency of IQ scores for A distribution of data
various IQs is symmetrical about the mean and the plots of frequencies of values less and that is symmetrical
around the mean and
greater than the mean look like the sides of a bell. has the shape of a bell.
Imagine you collected response times to perform a task. It is well known that such Positive skew: A property
of a distribution of data
distributions are not normal, but have positive skew. Positive skew means the distribution that means the values
has values greater than the mean that have a larger range than those less than the above the mean are more
mean. It is also well known that the way to transform such skewed data into a normal distant from the mean than
values below the mean.
distribution is to take logarithms of the data. If you did this, you must tell the reader in the
design: “Because the data had positive skew, I log-transformed them before conducting
the statistical tests”.
Other measures, such as scores on tests, can have other distributions, such as negative
skew. It would take us too far from our purposes to give every one; you will learn in your
statistics classes about these non-normal data, their transforms, and ways to analyse the
33
data using statistical tests that do not assume the data are normally distributed. Our point
is that you need to tell the reader what you have done, and the design is where you do so.
In Design sections you also need to tell the reader about how you chose your analyses
and how those analyses test your hypotheses. Our original example is so simple that one
sentence is enough (APA Example 2.13), but even it could have a wrinkle. That is, because
there were two dependent variables, you might have decided to test whether the scores on
one dependent variable are correlated with scores on the other. You would need to have
prepared the reader in the introduction for this secondary hypothesis (e.g., that the scores
would be positively correlated). Then in the design part of your report, you might write:
“A correlational analysis tested the relationship between participants’ ratings on the two
dependent variables”.
2.6.6 Qualitative Methods

Reporting the methods used in qualitative research follows the same principles as for
quantitative research. Qualitative approaches usually rely on fewer participants, who
provide detailed information that is highly contextualised. Qualitative researchers value
transparency in the reporting of data, and therefore include information about how the
researchers’ prior knowledge and assumptions may have influenced the way the study
was conducted. Levitt et al. (2018) gave guidelines for reporting qualitative methods
including:
• Describe the relevant attributes of the participants (e.g., demographic
characteristics, location, and culture) and of the researchers (e.g., relationship to
participants, experience with the topic being studied, and particular approach, such
as postmodern or pragmatic).
• Include information about how data were recorded (e.g., audio/visual, notes).
• Include detailed information about the approach to data analysis. Describe what
data were analysed (e.g., transcripts), how data were analysed (e.g., coding, themes),
who analysed the data, how the coding or themes were derived (e.g., a priori
or emerging from the data), whether software was used (e.g., NVivo), and what
procedures ensured integrity of the analysis (e.g., consensus between coders, inter-
rater reliability, triangulation of data from multiple-sources).
APA Example 2.17 Design

Method of a For an in-depth exploration of university students’ views about the effects of
Qualitative Study
online gaming on psychological wellbeing, we used a qualitative approach via
interviews.
Participants
Students responded to advertisements placed around the campus University of
Higher Education in the city of Metropolis. To be eligible for the study, participants
needed to be over 18 years of age and to self-identify as spending more than
15 hours per week playing online video games. Ten male students and 2 female
students between 18 and 22 years of age volunteered for the study (M = 19.45,
SD = 1.52 years). The study was approved by the Higher Education University
Committee on the Ethics of Human Research (approval number 2020-63).
Materials and Procedure
Data collection involved one-to-one interviews conducted face-to-face in a
small study room in a library on campus. The length of the interviews ranged
(Continued)
34
from 40 to 55 minutes. The semi-structured interviews followed a series of open- APA Example 2.17
ended questions exploring the frequency of gaming, preferences, and subjective (Continued)
perceptions of the effect of their online gaming activities on aspects of their social,
emotional, and physical wellbeing (Appendix A). The interviews were conducted by
one of us (WMcK) who has several years’ experience conducting interviews with
adolescents about mental health issues, and who is also an experienced online gamer.
Data Analysis
The audio recordings of the interviews were transcribed by a professional agency.
We independently analysed the transcripts using content analysis and created codes
to describe the themes identified. We discussed the outcomes to agree about the
final categories and codes. The transcripts were reanalysed by ROS using the agreed
codes, then reviewed by WMcK to resolve any inconsistencies.
2.7 Results
The results section immediately follows the method section on the same page and is
identified by the Level 1 heading: Results. You need to describe:
1 any new variables you derived from the data, other than those already described in
the Method (2.6.5);
2 the descriptive statistics you calculated to summarise the data;
3 the inferential statistics tests you conducted to test your hypotheses.
The second and third components are ideally treated together. (We treat them
separately here for clarity.) Results sections usually do not contain subheadings unless the
data analysis is complex (1.4.2).
2.7.1 Any New Variables

Describe how you derived any new variables from the data you collected. For example,
you might have re-categorised or re-calculated the data (APA Example 2.18).
Results APA Example 2.18

To generate a measure of relative hostility, I divided each participant’s perceived- New Variable
hostility score by that participant’s average response to the other adjectives.
2.7.2 Data Summary

You need to summarise your data with descriptive statistics, including central Central tendency: A value
tendency and variability. These will usually be the mean and standard deviation for each in a numerical set of data
around which each datum
of your experimental conditions, but could also include the median, semi-interquartile
is either larger or smaller
range, frequency, or measures of reliability, such as Cronbach’s α. Include confidence by varying amounts, such
intervals when reporting statistics such as means and correlation coefficients. Give the as the mean (average).
value of the confidence interval (CI; i.e., 95% or 99%) and the lower and upper limits in Variability: The extent to
which data differ from the
square brackets. We list common statistical terms, and their abbreviations or symbols, in
central tendency, such as
the book’s online material. the standard deviation.
Simple data, involving only one or two conditions, can be summarised in the text
(APA Example 2.19). The CIs tell the reader whether the mean of one condition is outside
that of the other, that is, whether the difference is statistically significant (which in this
example it is).
35
APA Example 2.19 The mean relative perceived hostility was higher in participants who had
Data in Text watched the violent video (M = 0.80, SD = 0.10, 95% CI [0.61, 0.96]) compared to
participants who had watched the non-violent video (M = 0.40, SD = 0.10, 95% CI
[0.21, 0.59]).
You can choose to summarise more complex summary statistics in either a graph
(preferred) or a table, but not in both, and not if you have already summarised them in
text. In your text, you must refer to, and describe the main points of, each graph and table.
Ideally, a graph, other figure, or table should appear on the same page on which it is
mentioned in the text, and fit on that page. You can use spacing less than double to make
the table or figure fit. Separate figures and tables from the surrounding text by one double-
spaced blank line.
2.7.3 Figures
A figure is any graph, picture, or diagram. Figures can display anything difficult to
Figure: Any graph, picture,
photograph, or diagram. describe, including data, stimuli, apparatus, and the workings of a theory. As the saying
goes, a picture is worth 6,500 characters (1,000 words), but your marker counts only
those in its title and notes, saving you characters.
Your reader should be able to understand figures without reading the accompanying
text. Refer to the figure in your text—such as “Figure 1 shows that …”—and describe the
vital features.
Figures comprise four parts.
1. Figure Number. It comprises an Arabic figure number preceded by “Figure”, all in
boldface (e.g., “Figure 2”). Number figures consecutively, starting with 1.
2. Figure Title. On the next line give a brief but meaningful title. Set it in italics with
capitals for the first letter of major words (1.4.2; e.g., “Mean Reaction Time for Each
Condition”).
3. The Figure Itself. Begin the figure on the next line.
4. Any Necessary Notes. Below the figure, give any necessary notes (e.g., to explain
error bars).
Use Calibri of at least 10 points for all four main parts and for any text within the figure
itself. Text in the main parts is flush left.
The most common figures in Results sections are graphs. Graphs consist of four
components:
1. Axes. Axes are a horizontal scale at the bottom of the graph, the x-axis, and a
vertical scale at the left of the graph, the y-axis. To ensure the graph is pleasing and
interpretable:
• scale the values on each axis to ensure the data are distributed across the white
rectangle bounded by the axes;
• make the vertical size approximately two-thirds of the horizontal size;
• add scales on the top and right of the graph, to form a box;
• place axis tick marks inside the box;
• give a brief but meaningful label of each axis on the bottom and left side, centred
and printed parallel to its axis;
• include units in parentheses in the axis labels if necessary;
• set axis labels in boldface with each major word capitalised; and
• use black lines and black text.
36
2. Legend. A box inside the graph box containing a key showing how the different
conditions are drawn.
3. Error bars. If the data represent means, show their precision. Many researchers
compute the standard error, the standard deviation divided by the square root of n,
the sample size of that condition. They then draw a vertical line one standard error
above and below this mean. This is called an error bar. Error bar: An element of a
graph showing a vertical line,
4. Points, lines, or bars that represent the data. The majority of figures are either
usually above and below a
bar graphs, line graphs, or scattergrams. You may use colour in graphs, but only if point or a bar, showing the
the colours can be distinguished when printed in greyscale. Ensure that colours can variability of that mean.
be distinguished by readers who are colour blind (Baio, 2011).

Bar Graphs. Use bar graphs (APA Example 2.20) when all the important independent
variables are categorical (e.g., Type of Food: Apples or Oranges). For bar graphs:
• Use the x-axis for the most important independent variable or for the one with the
most categories.
• Use the y-axis for the dependent variable.
• Use black or grey (solid), white (open), and stippled (pattern) shadings to distinguish
the conditions of independent variables; show these in the legend.
• Ensure both sides of an error bar can be seen if using dark shaded bars.
Figure 1 shows mean relative ratings of perceived hostility and trustworthiness APA Example 2.20
as a function of type of video watched (violent or non-violent). It shows that type of Bar Graph
video has a greater effect on perceived hostility than on perceived trustworthiness.
Figure 1
Mean Relative Ratings of Perceived Hostility and Trustworthiness as a Function of
Watching a Violent or Non-Violent Video
0.9
0.8 Violent
0.7 Non-Violent
Relative Rating
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Hostility Trustworthiness
Condition
Note. Ratings of the perceived hostility of the stranger were divided by the average
response over all scale items to generate a measure of relative hostility. The same
procedure was used to generate a measure of relative trustworthiness. Error bars
show standard errors.
Line Graphs. Use line graphs (APA Example 2.21) when the most important
independent variable is numerical (e.g., Age):
• Use the x-axis for the independent variable having the most levels.
• Use the y-axis for the dependent variable.
37
• Use different points (e.g., squares, triangles, circles) and lines connecting adjacent
points (e.g., continuous, dashed) for each level of another independent variable.
Give the lines a greater thickness than those of the axes.
APA Example 2.21 Figure 2 shows mean enthusiasm score as a function of age for participants
Line Graph who either resolved or did not resolve to exceed the deadline. For participants who
resolved to exceed the deadline, enthusiasm increased with age. For participants who
resolved not to exceed the deadline, enthusiasm was essentially constant with age.
Figure 2
Mean Enthusiasm as a Function of Age for Participants Who Resolved or Did Not
Resolve to Exceed the Deadline
18
Exceeds Deadline
15 Does Not Exceed
Enthusiasm (Rating)
Deadline
12
0
20 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Age (Years)
Note. Error bars show standard errors.
Scattergram: A graph
Scattergrams. Use a scattergram (APA Example 2.22) when you want to show each
plotting individual data participant’s score on two dependent variables, one on the x-axis and the other on the
points according to their y-axis. Use the same plot symbol for each participant’s data. You can use different plot
values on the x and y
axes. It is also known as a
symbols to show another categorical variable (5.3.3). You can add a best-fitting line
scatterplot and scatter through the swarm of points. If so, give the equation of the best-fitting line on the graph
diagram. It can also show a and the precision of the fit as an R2.
best-fitting line, its equation,
and its goodness of fit. Do not use three-dimensional bar graphs (unprofessional)—unless the third axis is
one of your independent variables, bar graphs with line shading other than 45-degree
diagonals (other orientations will look odd or make the bars appear tilted), or pie charts
(extremely unprofessional).
38
Figure 3 shows a scattergram of each participant’s difference in reaction time APA Example 2.22
(RT) between the two conditions on the N-back task and the raw score on Raven’s Scattergram
Progressive Matrices. The best-fitting line shows that the RT difference decreased
with Raven’s score, as expected, but not significantly (p = .861) and with a very
small effect size.
Figure 3
Scattergram and Best-fitting Line of the Two Measures of Cognitive Ability
800
N-back RT Diﬀerence (ms)
600
400
200
0
–200
–400 y = –3.4505x + 360.71
R2 = .014
–600
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Raven’s Raw Score
2.7.4 Tables
Use tables to clarify and to summarise information, including statistical information
or inventories, such as classification schemes. Your reader should be able to understand
your table without reading the accompanying text. Nevertheless, the text should highlight
the vital features of any table, such as “Table 3 shows that all of the means exceed 3.5”.
APA Example 2.23 presents a table for data used to create the figure in APA Example 2.22.
Tables comprise four parts:
1. Table Number. It comprises an Arabic figure number preceded by “Table”, all in
boldface (e.g., “Table 2”). Number tables consecutively, starting with 1.
2. Table Title. On the next line, give a brief but meaningful title. Set it in italics with
capitals for the first letter of major words. Omit any final period.
3. The Table Itself. Begin the table on the next line.
4. Any Notes. Notes appear below the table as non-indented paragraphs containing
complete sentences that end in a period. Begin with an italicised label Note. Tables
can have three types of notes. Set notes in a smaller font than the rest of the table,
each note on a separate line, and in this order:
• Use a general note to explain information relevant to the whole table, such as
abbreviations (APA Example 2.23).
• Use a specific note to refer to information applying to specific points in the table,
identified using lower-case, superscript letters (APA Example 2.23).
• Use a probability note to indicate with asterisk(s) which outcomes are
statistically significant (e.g., *p < .05. ** p <.01; APA Example 2.25).
Use Calibri of at least 10 points for all four main parts and for all text within the table
itself. Text in the main parts is flush left.
39
APA Example 2.23 Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for perceived relative hostility and
Table trustworthiness. Cronbach’s α exceeds .7 in both instances, demonstrating acceptable
internal consistency. It also shows the mean rating for perceived relative hostility was
higher in the violent video condition than in the non-violent video condition. Mean
ratings for perceived relative trustworthiness were almost identical.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics for Perceived Relative Hostility and Perceived Relative
Trustworthiness (Score / Mean for Each Participant) as a Function of Video Condition
Violent video Non-violent video Cronbach’s α

n M (SD) 95% CI n M (SD) 95% CI
Perceived relative 12 .80 (.10) [.61, .96] 12 .40 (.10) [.21, .59] .78
hostility
Perceived relative 12 .56 (.08) [.43, .72] 12 .52 (.12) [.39, .73] .76a
trustworthiness
Note. CI = confidence interval.

a
1 item was removed.
Tables themselves comprise two main components:

1. The Column and Row Headers. The leftmost column header usually identifies the
major independent variable (APA Example 2.25). Other column headers specify other
independent variables, measures, or statistics (e.g., M, SD, CI, n). The row headers usually
label the levels of the major independent variable. Use sentence case for all headings in
the table (i.e., capitalise the first word only). Centre column headings. Horizontal lines
surround the column headers and also separate the table from the notes underneath. No
vertical—or other horizontal—lines should be included. Do not use shading in a table.
2. The Data in the Table. The decimal points of these numbers should be aligned
vertically.
2.7.5 Hypothesis Tests

You also need to report the inferential statistics—the results of statistical tests, such as
χ2 tests of independence, t-tests, and analyses of variance. You need to:
• specify the test you conducted;
• present the outcome of this test; and
• integrate this information with the descriptive statistics (APA Example 2.24).
APA Example 2.24 t-test

Inferential Statistics The mean perceived relative hostility rating was higher for participants who had
watched the violent video (M = .80, SD = .20) than for participants who had watched
the non-violent video (M = .40, SD = .15), t(22) = 5.54, p < .001, d = 2.26.
(Continued)
40
F-test APA Example 2.24

A 2 x 3 analysis of variance (ANOVA), in which the between-subject factors were (Continued)
type of video and age, revealed that mean perceived hostility ratings were higher
in the violent video condition (M = .80, SD = .20) compared to the non-violent video
condition (M = .40, SD = .15), F(1, 45) = 4.54, p = .024, ηp2 = .09. Mean perceived
hostility ratings did not vary significantly across the three age groups,
F(2, 45) = 1.54, p = .09, ηp2 = .06. The interaction between type of video and age was
not significant, F(2, 45) = 1.23, p = .15, ηp2 = .05.
χ2 Test
Males were 1.54 times more likely than females to sign the petition,
χ2 (1, N = 300) = 3.46, p < .001, φ = .11
Correlation Coefficient
A Pearson’s correlation coefficient showed that age and level of income were
significantly and positively related, r = .20, n = 132, p = .021, R2 = .04, 95% CI
[0.03, 0.36].
When reporting the results of statistical tests, you should

• say whether or not the difference is significant;
• specify the direction of any difference, such as which group had the higher values;
• give the descriptive statistics, such as means and standard deviations, but only if
these values do not appear in a table or in a figure;
• for any parametric inferential statistical test, whether significant or not, give its
name, the degrees of freedom in parentheses, its value, the exact probability value
unless it is < .001 (in which case use < .001), and the effect size: a measure of Effect size: A measure of
the size of a relationship
the size of a relationship between two variables, such as Cohen’s d—for example,
between two variables.
t(22) = 3.46, p = .034, d = .70—or partial eta squared (ηp2)—for example, ηp2 = .17;
• for a χ2 test of independence, use the same format, except include the overall sample
size in parentheses after the degrees of freedom—for example, χ2 (1, N = 84) = 8.90,
p = .003, φ = .11.
• for correlations, specify the sample size rather than degrees of freedom—for
example, r = .20, n = 132, p = .021, R2 = .04, 95% CI [0.03, 0.36];
• separate inferential statistics from the sentence with a comma;
• italicise all statistical symbols that are standard alphabetic letters (e.g., t, p, F,
and df) but not Greek letters (e.g., χ2 and φ);
• omit the zero that comes before the decimal point for any statistic that can take
values only between 1 and –1, such as probabilities and correlation coefficients
(e.g., p < .001, r = .67).
When describing the outcome of a statistically significant statistical test, omit the part
about rejecting the null hypothesis then accepting the alternative hypothesis. That logic,
however, means that a result cannot be “just not significant” or “of marginal significance”.
If the p value is greater than .05, say the difference is “not significant” (“insignificant”
means “unimportant” or “petty”). Reserve “significant” for its statistical meaning in all
psychology assignments; use “compelling” or “important” for its other meanings.
41
It is useful to refer to the hypotheses in the Results, such as, “Consistent with the
hypothesis, mean hostility was higher …”.
Finally, report inferential statistics, if possible, in the text only. Some techniques,
however, such as multiple regression analysis, generate too many statistics to include in
the text. These statistics can appear in a table only (APA Example 2.25). In tables giving
many statistics for which there are probability values, it is conventional to represent levels
of significance (i.e., p < .05, p < .01, and p < .001) either with asterisks (for two-tailed tests)
and daggers (for one-tailed tests) or by setting the values in boldface for some level of
significance.
APA Example 2.25 Table 3 presents the standardised B and t values from a multiple regression
Multiple Regression analysis of the effect of enthusiasm and energy on performance. Enthusiasm but not
energy was positively related to performance.
Table 3
Multiple Regression Weights and t-values Predicting Performance from Enthusiasm
and Energy
B t
Constant 3.41 6.54**
Enthusiasm −2.15 3.04*
Energy 1.43 1.15
Note. R2 = .56**.
* p < .01, ** p < .001
2.7.6 Units
Units of measurement (e.g., kg for kilogram, s for second, and m for metre), should be
from the International System of Units (SI) with some exceptions (e.g., dB for decibels and
° for degrees of angle). All units should be abbreviated, without periods, except to avoid
confusion, such as “in.” for inches. We give a table of commonly used SI and non-SI units
and their abbreviations in the online materials.
2.7.7 Qualitative Data

To report the results of qualitative research, tell the story of the findings from the
themes that emerged from the data analysis. Organise the findings to match the
design of the study. Use examples from the data (e.g., quotations, notes, photographs)
to support—but not replace—the description of the results (APA Example 2.26).
Format quotations by participants in the same way as for other quotations: in-text if
fewer than 40 words, otherwise block quotation (4.3.6). A diagram or table can be used
to summarise the findings. A qualitative results section tends to be longer than for
quantitative research and is often combined with the Discussion section.
2.8 Discussion
The Discussion section follows immediately after the Results with the Level-1 heading,
Discussion. It usually contains about 35% of the characters of the report. This section can
be longer if the Introduction is shorter; together, these two sections should contain about
65% of the characters in your report.
42
In the Discussion, you review your findings and consider their implications. Its structure
is like an inverted funnel: You begin narrowly, giving summaries of your hypotheses and
results. You broaden by discussing what the results mean and whether there are any
alternative explanations for them. You broaden further by considering the implications for
theory of your findings. At the broadest part of the funnel, you consider the implications of
your findings for the general area of psychology, for real-world applications, and for future
research.
Participants reported using a range of strategies to encourage group members APA Example 2.26
who were unable to attend face-to-face meetings to contribute, such as using web- Qualitative Findings
conferencing technology and scheduling meetings to account for different time zones.
I decided it was important to provide opportunities for all group members to interact in
real-time for ensuring equitable distribution of tasks and keeping to project timelines.
It was really great how the group managed to find
ways for everyone to get together at the same time.
I found it really easy to phone into group meetings
and [I] used group chat. This was so important to
avoid misunderstandings and make sure everyone was
on the same page with who was doing what. It kept
us all on track. (First-year Biology student)
2.8.1 Summary
Begin the Discussion by reiterating the aim, and perhaps the method, of your study.
Next, summarise all the important findings and state whether they supported the
hypotheses. Ensure this paragraph could be understood by a reader who is unfamiliar
with the earlier parts of your study (APA Example 2.27).
The aim of the study was to investigate whether exposure to a violent video APA Example 2.27
increases perceived hostility and untrustworthiness of strangers. Participants watched Aim, Method,
Hypotheses, and
either a violent video or a quiz show for 30 minutes, then rated the hostility and
Results
trustworthiness of a stranger shown in a photograph. The results supported the
hypothesis that exposure to violence increases perceived hostility, but not perceived
untrustworthiness, of strangers.
2.8.2 Predicted Significant Findings

Next, you should discuss each of the principal findings that supported your hypotheses.
In this section, interpret the meaning of your findings and discuss how they contribute to
the existing body of knowledge about your research topic. When you discuss each of these
findings, include:
• The major similarities and differences between your findings and previous research.
If your findings contradict previous research, identify differences in the method that
could explain this discrepancy.
• Summaries of the theories your findings support—that is, the theories from which
you derived your hypotheses. Explain explicitly how these results support the theory.
• Possible alternative explanations for your findings (APA Example 2.28, 5.3, 5.4.2).
43
APA Example 2.28 The finding that exposure to a violent video increases perceived hostility is
Supported consistent with previous research linking media violence to aggression (e.g.,
Hypotheses
Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Such effects decline with time for adults, but increase
with time for children (Bushman & Huesmann, 2006).
2.8.3 Non-Significant Findings

You should then discuss any important non-significant findings. Again, you can
summarise the major similarities and differences between your findings and that of
previous research (APA Example 2.29). You should also consider possible explanations of
these findings (5.4.3), such as:
• Amendments to the study that could have increased its power.
• The suitability of any theory you used to develop the hypotheses.
• Possible suppressor variables obscuring anticipated relationships.
• Theories that are consistent with the non-significant findings.
APA Example 2.29 Contrary to the hypotheses, after participants watched a violent video, they were
Non-Significant not more likely to mistrust the stranger. Limited power could have obscured this
Findings
association. To overcome this limitation, future studies could ensure the violence
is more brutal. Alternatively, after the violent video was presented, some of the
participants might have experienced a sense of relief, possibly obscuring the
anticipated effect.
2.8.4 Unexpected Significant Findings

Next, you should also explain any significant findings that contradict your hypotheses.
You can summarise the major similarities and differences between these findings and
Suppressor variable: A
previous research. You should also consider the possibility of a suppressor variable—one
variable that, if not that, if not controlled, can obscure the relationship between two other variables (5.4.3).
controlled, can obscure Alternatively, you can propose an alternative theory—or a modification to an existing
the relationship between
two other variables. theory—that would accommodate any unexpected findings. You may need to cite research
and arguments that were not mentioned in the introduction to support this alternative
explanation of the findings.
2.8.5 Practical and Theoretical Importance

Next, you need to consider the theoretical and practical implications of your findings.
Although you may have already discussed theory in your explanation of various findings,
you could also attempt to integrate these theoretical arguments into a broader framework.
You could also consider whether your findings support or contradict other broad theories
and frameworks—theories that are related to your study but not central to the hypotheses.
You might briefly mention some practical applications of your study (5.4.6). Confine
any recommendations to those closely related to your findings (APA Example 2.30).
APA Example 2.30 This finding may inform media-regulation policies to ensure violent videos do not
Practical provoke undue agitation and anxiety.
Implications
44
2.8.6 Limitations and Future Research

The best scientists discuss the limitations of their studies. You might have done so when
you considered alternative explanations of your findings. Nevertheless, limitations of
more than one finding should appear towards the bottom of your discussion. Limitations
include direction of causality, spurious variables, confounds, measurement errors, and Spurious variable: A
generality (5.3, 5.4). variable that is correlated
with both the dependent and
Although you should mention limitations, try to remain positive (APA Example 2.31), independent variables. If not
otherwise readers will feel they have wasted time reading your report. You could cite controlled, the dependent
and independent variables
past research suggesting this limitation is unlikely to have influenced your findings. You
that are not actually related
could offer suggestions that future researchers could follow to overcome these limitations. seem to be related.
Include concrete suggestions that are clearly linked to the outcomes of your study rather
than merely a statement such as “Future research is necessary” (5.4.5).
Several limitations challenge the utility of this study. First, the measure of APA Example 2.31
mistrust—which involved rating photographic images of strangers—might not be Limitations and
Future Research
valid. Participants might trust a stranger in a photograph but not in person. Future
researchers should ensure the stranger appears in person instead of in a photograph.
2.8.7 Conclusion
The final paragraph of your Discussion should provide a clear conclusion that
addresses your research question. To conclude, summarise
• the aim and principal findings in one or two sentences;
• the theories these findings support in one or two sentences;
• some of the complications or limitations of the study; and
• the potential benefits that would be experienced if the issue that was introduced in
the first paragraph of the report was resolved (APA Example 2.32).
In conclusion, this study revealed that exposure to a violent video increases APA Example 2.32
perceived hostility but not perceived untrustworthiness of strangers presented in Conclusion
photographs. This finding is opposite to predictions from active-self theory but
supports the hypothesis that individuals feel agitated and anxious after they watch
violent acts, affecting perception of others. Nevertheless, future research is needed
to ascertain whether or not these effects persist over many hours, days, and months.
This research could assist media regulators to identify which forms of violence
should be prohibited at particular times.
2.9 References
Any article, book, or other source of information that is cited in your report must
appear in an alphabetical list after your discussion. The reference list begins on a new page
after the Discussion, with the Level 1 heading References. The format of the reference list
must follow the guidelines we give in Section 4.5. Include only sources you cited.
45
2.10 Appendices
In published articles, appendices are uncommon but are sometimes used to present
important material that would have interrupted the flow of a paper. When deciding what
goes in the body of the report, remember that a reader must be able to understand the
report without needing to refer to appendices. Examples include mathematical proofs,
unpublished test materials, and details of hardware or software that was specifically
constructed for the study.
In student reports, however, your instructor might ask you to include questionnaires,
raw data, or calculations of statistical analyses in the appendices. For more advanced
reports, you might have to present a version of the information sheet the participants read
and of the informed-consent form they signed.
Each appendix needs to be referred to in the report. For example, in the Materials
section you might write “The scale comprised 10 questions (Appendix A)”. Likewise, in the
Results section, you might write “Summary data tables are in Appendix B”. Each appendix
begins on a new page, starting after the references.
An appendix comprises:
• A Level 1 heading “Appendix”. If there is only one appendix, then that is all. If there
are more than one, follow Appendix with an uppercase letter, in alphabetical order
of the order you mention them in the research report (Appendix A, Appendix B,
and so on).
• A brief, meaningful appendix title (e.g., “Summary data”).
• The contents of the appendix, which could be text, tables, and figures. Any table or
figure has a number consisting of the letter of the appendix and an Arabic number,
in numerical order. For example, Figure A3 refers to the third figure in Appendix A.
Table B1 refers to the first table in Appendix B. If you refer to these items individually
in your report, use those numbers (e.g., “ERPs from other regions of interest are
shown in Figure B2”). Format tables and figures in the same way as for those in the
report.
2.11 Finer Points of

APA Style
APA style contains some finer points you should know.
2.11.1 Personal Reference

Personal reference is when you refer to yourself (e.g., I, my) or to yourself and others
(e.g., we, our). We recommend you use personal reference appropriately, consistent with
the APA Manual (1.3.3). But you really need to check with your instructor, who may be
against it. Appropriate use is for anything you have done (Usage Example 2.2, left
column). Too much personal reference can, however, be distracting. The right column
gives alternatives, especially if your instructor tells you not to use personal reference.
Some are better than others.
46
Usage
Example 2.2
Personal Reference
and Alternatives
Avoid Best practice

(Personal reference) (Alternative)
If you want to thank someone I am grateful to M. Y. Studymate M. Y. Studymate helped.
for help.
If you made your own review I reviewed the literature to show A review of the literature
of the literature … showed …
If you came up with your own My hypothesis is … Theory X predicts [your
hypothesis hypothesis]
If you decided on the design I [or we] randomly and equally Participants were* randomly
of the study (this is unlikely assigned participants to an and equally assigned to an
if it was a class exercise, but experimental or to a control experimental or to a control
possible for an independent group. group.
study)
If you analysed the results I used a t-test to compare the Although participants in the
means, t(22) = 1.92, experimental group scored
p = .067, d = 0.79. Although higher (M = 10.37, SD = 2.50)
participants in the experimental than those in the control group
group scored higher (M = 10.37, (M = 8.56, SD = 2.09), this was
SD = 2.50) than those in the not significant, t(22) = 1.92,
control group (M = 8.56, SD = p = .067, d = 0.79.
2.09), this was not significant.
If you reached your own I conclude that … In conclusion, …
conclusion
* Avoiding personal reference sometimes means using the passive voice, which is also against APA style (1.3.3). We are sorry
about this dilemma.
2.11.2 Tenses
Because the research report mainly describes the activities you have already
Tense: A grammatical
undertaken, you should primarily use past tense (6.2.1; e.g., “I examined the effect of term referring to when an
viewing a violent video”). You may also use the present perfect tense (e.g., “Anderson et al. action takes place. There
(2010) have argued that…”). Tense is a grammatical term referring to when an action takes are four main tenses used
in assignments (in order
place. There are four main tenses in reports (in order of how common they are): past tense, of how common they
present tense, future tense, and present perfect tense. are): past tense, present
tense, future tense, and
Use present tense only when you refer to other parts of your report, such as “As Figure 3 present perfect tense.
shows, a violent video…”; enduring qualities, such as “Russell (1851) was one of the first
to link hostility with aggression”; and conclusions, such as “Therefore, a violent video
increases perceived hostility”.
Use future tense for hypotheses, such as “According to this theory, violent videos will
increase aggression”. Use it also when referring to future research, such as “Future research
is needed to investigate whether the same effects will occur when playing violent video
games”.
47
2.11.3 Numbers
In a report, or in any other assignment, you give data in the form of numbers. The rules
are:
• Use digits if the number is a measurement (e.g., “3 cm apart”).
• Express any number in words if it begins a sentence (e.g., Ninety-four participants
completed the online survey).
• Minimise decimal places and never give more than three (two is usual). Use a
different measure if more precision is required (e.g., mean threshold for detecting
a raised stimulus was 0.05 mm [rather than 0.0005 m]). Use three decimal places
only for probability values (e.g., p = .034). For values less than .001 use “p < .001”.
• Precede digits less than 1 with a zero before the decimal point, unless the number
cannot be greater than ± 1 (e.g., probability values and correlation coefficients).
• Prefer percentages with no decimal places (e.g., 86% [rather than 85.5%]).
• For other numbers, write the whole numbers zero to nine as words, otherwise give
them as digits.
• For digits greater than 999, insert commas to show thousands (e.g., Australia’s 2019
population is estimated to be 25,403,900).
2.11.4 Abbreviations
Abbreviations make your prose hard to read. Avoid them in your report, except
• in citations, but only in parentheses (e.g., “p.” for a quotation’s page, “&” between two
authors’ names, and standard Latin abbreviations, such as “cf.”, “e.g.”, “i.e.”, and “vs.”);
• in references (e.g., “Eds.” for Editors, “ed.” for edition, “Vol.” for Volume);
• for units of measurement (e.g., “s” for seconds and “m” for metres);
• for statistical symbols (e.g., “M” for mean, “SD” for standard deviation, and “df for
degrees of freedom);
• for abbreviations and acronyms that are more common than the unabbreviated
phrase (e.g., “IQ”, “ESP”, “fMRI”);
• for abbreviations and initialisms that you defined explicitly, such as “We conducted
a randomised control trial (RCT) ... Our RCT showed …”; and
• for statistical terms and tests, providing you spell them out fully the first time, such
as “standard error of the mean (SEM)” and “analysis of variance (ANOVA)”.
Define abbreviations sparingly. Define one only if:
• Your prose would otherwise be boringly repetitive.
• It is in your main text—not in the title or abstract.
• Once defined, you use the abbreviation consistently and at least three times.
A self-defined abbreviation must:
• Be all in uppercase letters.
• Omit periods (e.g., RCT, rather than R.C.T.).
• Be pluralised and made possessive as if spelled out fully (e.g., “several RCTs have
shown”, “our RCT’s duration”). Plural abbreviations must make sense (e.g., RPM, for
revolutions per minute, is already plural).
• Fit into its sentence depending on usage. If the abbreviation is normally spoken
letter by letter, the sound of the first letter determines whether to use “a” or “an”
(e.g., “a TSD measure”, “an MMPI protocol”).
48
2.11.5 Footnotes
Do not use footnotes in the main text of any psychology assignment. If relevant,
integrate any footnote text into the main text; otherwise delete it. Use them only for notes
in tables (2.7.4).
2.11.6 Lists
Sometimes it is useful to give information about three or more related items in a list.
All items in any list should be semantically and grammatically similar (i.e., parallel, 6.4.2).
The simplest list separates items with commas, except for the last item; it is preceded by
a comma and “and” (e.g., “Stimuli had identical colour, shape, and brightness”). If one
item requires its own comma, then separate items with semicolons (e.g., “Freud proposed:
the Id, a mechanism to satisfy one’s basic drives; the Ego, a mechanism to ensure the
Id’s drives yield positive outcomes; and the Super-ego, a mechanism to rationalise one’s
behaviours with societal norms”).
To make a list clearer to a reader, you can make a lettered list. To do so, precede
each list item with a lower-case letter, in parentheses. For example, you might write, “I
performed (a) an independent-components analysis to filter the data, (b) artefact rejection,
(c) segmentation of the data into epochs, (d) baseline correction, (e) averaging, and (f) a
principal-components analysis”. Do not use letters if the items are complete sentences; use
a bulleted or numbered list.
To make lists even clearer, you can use a bulleted list or a numbered list. Use a bulleted
list if
• the preceding words are a sentence fragment (as in this case),
• items grammatically follow the preceding words and each other to make a complete
sentence,
• there is no implicit order among the items, and
• the items are fragments of sentences.
This bulleted list conforms to APA style. Punctuate such a list as if it were a complete
sentence, using commas or semicolons. You can also use a bulleted list if the preceding
words and the list items are all complete sentences, in which case begin each item with a
capital letter and end with an end mark such as a period or question mark.
Use a numbered list if the items are complete sentences or paragraphs and if the order
of the items is meaningful, such as from most to least important, or when items are steps
in a process that must occur in a particular order.
2.11.7 Italics
Use italics only for the following purposes:
• technical terms you define and will use again (e.g., “In signal detection theory,
sensitivity refers to an observer’s ability to distinguish signal from noise”); thereafter,
do not use italics for that term;
• titles of publications you use in text (e.g., “the classic work Signal Detection Theory
and Psychophysics”);
• anchors of a scale you describe (e.g., “Participants responded by typing the numbers
1 to 5 for strongly disagree to strongly agree”);
• foreign words that do not appear in the dictionary for your variety of English (e.g.,
“Alea iacta est”), and
49
• various formatting purposes that are part of APA style such as titles of books and
journals in references (Chapter 4), level-3 headings (1.4.2), figure and table titles
(2.7.3, 2.7.4), statistical symbols (2.7.5), and genus and species names (2.3.1).
Do not use italics for emphasis (1.3.2).
2.12 Example Research

Report
Imagine that you are sitting quietly in a class one day, waiting for the lecture to begin.
Printed innocuously in your unread unit guide is the news that students will be conducting
a study today. You have to attend the class and write a research report on this study, worth
20% of the marks, using references listed in the unit guide. Your instructor enters, face
aglow with purpose, distributes a test booklet to each student, and informs everyone that
the aim of the experiment is to examine the relationship between self-esteem and mental
ability. On the first page the instructions tell you (as they tell all participants) to transcribe
a set of adjectives. On the next pages, the instructions tell you to specify as many uses for a
brick as possible and to complete a test of analogies. Finally, the instructor scores the tests,
collates the class data, and performs some statistical tests. How can you use these meagre
ingredients and build a feast?
Note, the example report adheres to a limit of 13,000 characters (2,000 words).
The limits of your first research report are likely to be less. Your study may be simpler—
involving only one dependent variable and one hypothesis. You may not be expected to
conduct any inferential statistics, and instead may be required to present only a summary
of descriptive statistics, such as the mean and standard deviation. For a learning exercise,
consult Appendix A, a flawed version of the research report that contains numerous errors
for you to identify.
50
SELF-ESTEEM AND ABILITY 1 1
The Effect of a Boost to Self-Esteem on Creative and Analytic Ability

Begin running
head and page
numbers (1.4.1).
The research
report is
double spaced
(1.4.1).
Andrea Student
Discipline of Psychology, School of Natural Sciences, University of

Higher Education
Author Note
I thank my fellow students in PSY101 for providing the data for this study and
M. Y. Tutor for coordinating data collection and for collating the results. I also thank
M. Y. Mother and M. Y. Flatmate who read earlier drafts of my report.
Please address correspondence about this report to Andrea Student, 2/14 Short Street,
Big City, 4011. Email: Andrea.student@psy.uhe.edu.au
Legitimate use
of personal
reference
(2.11.1).
51
This is a Level 1 heading

(1.4.2). Note that the text
SELF-ESTEEM AND ABILITY of the abstract is a non- 2
indented paragraph (2.4).
The first This clause

sentence indicates the
introduces the Abstract aim (2.4).
topic (2.4).
Many individuals incorrectly assume that their mental ability is fixed. To determine
whether boosting self-esteem improves creativity and impairs analytic ability, 50 students
boosted their self-esteem by transcribing a series of favourable adjectives, preceding each
term with the letter “I”. A control group of 50 students completed the same task preceding
each term with the letter “X”. Each participant then completed tests of creativity and
analytic ability. As hypothesised, creativity scores were higher for the self-esteem group
than for the control group (d = 0.90). However, contrary to the hypotheses, the same
pattern was observed for tests of analytic ability (d = 0.82). Arguably, self-esteem might
promote resilience to criticism and, therefore, enhance performance on a broad range of
cognitive tasks.
This sentence
gives a
This gives the theoretical
effect size. or practical
(2.4, 2.7.5). implication
(2.4, 2.8.7). This part
These two summarises
sentences the procedure
explicitly state and task (2.4).
the results
(2.4, 2.7.3).
52
The main text

begins on a
SELF-ESTEEM AND ABILITY new page with 3
the title (2.5).
The Effect of a Boost to Self-esteem on Creative and Analytic Ability

Judge et al. (2004) suggested that intelligence and mental ability are vital determinants The first
sentence
of career success. They found that intelligent individuals are more likely to be admired, engages the
reader’s interest
confident, and satisfied with life than other employees. However, few individuals strive (2.5.1).
to boost their mental ability, possibly due to their believing intelligence is fixed (Neel & The remaining
sentences of the
Lassetter, 2015). first paragraph
highlight the
importance of
Yet LeBouf and Estes (2004) and Mussweiler (2001) have demonstrated that boosting the topic (2.5.1).
This and all the self-esteem of individuals can improve mental abilities such as intelligence, spatial
subsequent
paragraphs reasoning, and general knowledge. Haddock et al. (2002) showed participants a photograph
have their
first lines of a famous supermodel. Afterwards, the confidence of these participants before they These
indented sentences
by 1.27 cm received a test of general knowledge, as well as their performance on this task, was higher provide just
(1.4.1). enough details
than those of individuals who had not seen the photograph. Haddock et al. suggested that
to show the
participants judged themselves to be more intelligent than the supermodel, improving their reader what
the cited
performance. authors did,
what they
found, and
Several mechanisms could explain the association between confidence and mental what they
concluded
ability. Aspinwall and Richter (1999) suggested that confident individuals might persevere (2.5.2).
with challenging but soluble problems rather than yield prematurely to obstacles or devote
undue time to questions they cannot solve. Zhang (2003) argued that confident individuals
are more likely than are their unconfident counterparts to be free from doubts or anxieties
and, therefore, can devote their concentration to the problems they receive.
This sentence
Seibt and Forster (2004), however, questioned whether confidence boosts all mental challenges the
validity of the
abilities. They proposed that confident individuals might become less cautious, thereby earlier studies.
expressing, rather than suppressing, unusual and original suggestions, promoting creativity.
They noted that such diminished caution, however, could interfere with applying a
comprehensive set of principles and algorithms, impairing analytic ability.
This sentence
introduces
some
theoretical
arguments
(2.5.2).
53
Seibt and Forster (2004) asked a sample of psychology students to complete tests
of creative and analytic ability. They told half the participants that psychology students
complete these tasks more proficiently than other students; they told the other participants
that psychology students complete these tasks less proficiently that other students. Seibt
and Forster found that students whose confidence had been boosted demonstrated better
creativity ability, but worse analytic ability, than the other participants.
Conceivably, Seibt and Forster’s (2004) manipulation might have also influenced the
extent to which participants feel they were expected to perform proficiently. Expectations
of other individuals can affect the performance of participants on some activities (e.g.,
Kierein & Gold, 2000). Further research, therefore, needs to be conducted to establish that
confidence, and not merely the expectations of other individuals, influences mental ability.
If confidence rather than expectations affects mental ability, increases in self-esteem should
foster creativity but inhibit analytic ability.
This sentence I examined whether exercises that boost self-esteem affect creativity and analytic
summarises
the aim of the ability. To manipulate self-esteem, my instructor chose a task from a review of the
study (2.5.4).
effectiveness of various approaches (Buhrmester et al., 2011). That was a task invented by
Hypothesis Dijksterhuis (2004): participants transcribed a list of desirable adjectives while preceding
specifies each with the letter “I”. He showed that participants who completed this task reacted more
direction and
emerges from constructively to criticism than participants in a control group who transcribed the same
the theory
described in list but preceded each word with the letter “X”. If a boost of self-esteem makes participants
the previous
paragraph feel they are expected to perform proficiently, then my hypothesis is that they will score
(2.5.5).
more highly on a test of creativity and lower on a test of analytic ability than those in a
control group.
54
Method,
Method Results, and
Discussion do
Participants not begin on a
new page (2.2).
Participants included 30 men, 66 women, and 4 other-gendered people from an
introductory psychology class at the University of Higher Education. An analysis
showed than 100 participants yielded a power of at least .80 for testing both hypotheses.
Participants performed the experiment as a laboratory exercise. Ages ranged from 18 to
65 years (M = 25.84; SD = 3.45). Participants gave their informed consent. The study was
approved by the Higher Education University Committee on the Ethics of Human Research
(approval number 2019-1892). The Materials
section gives
specific details
Materials because subtle
features of this
manipulation
The self-esteem task, test of creativity, and test of analytic ability were bound into a could affect the
booklet. results (2.6.2).
Self-Esteem Task
The 20 desirable adjectives used by Dijksterhuis (2004), such as clever, kind, and
fun, were printed in capital letters, in one column, on the left side of a piece of A4 paper.
Instructions printed on the top of the page directed participants to copy each word to the
right, either preceding each word with the letter “I” (boost self-esteem) or with the letter
“X” (control group).
55
Creativity Test
Friedman and Förster (2001) developed the creativity task and showed it has good validity
and reliability. On the top of a single A4 sheet was the instruction to specify as many uses of
a brick as possible. Underneath were 20 blank lines. Scoring requires two independent judges
to evaluate each suggestion on a scale from 1, very uncreative to 10, very creative. For each
participant, the creativity score was the average of all the creativity ratings awarded by the two
judges (who were psychology tutors not involved in data collection).
Analytic Ability Test
To evaluate analytic ability, participants completed a short test of 20 analogies, such

as “Shore is to sand as sea is to ___?” and “Pen is to write as book is to___?”. Items were
from Learning Express’s (2002) 501 Word Analogy Questions. All items of the test are
shown in Appendix A. According to Meagher (2006), the number of correctly completed
analogies validly and reliably reflects analytic ability.
Procedure
I tested participants together in a large classroom. There were four sorts of test booklet
formed by the factorial crossing of type of esteem task (boost vs. control) and order of test
(creativity test first vs. analytic test first). Booklets were randomly distributed. Participants
had 5 minutes to complete each of the tests. Finally, I explained the genuine purpose of the
research to the participants.
There were two independent variables (boost-esteem vs. control and order of testing)
in a 2 x 2 between-subject factorial design. There were two dependent variables (creativity
task and analytic task). I analysed the data with 2 x 2 between-subject analyses of variance,
one for each dependent variable.
Results
Within each group, creativity and analytic ability scores were normally distributed.
Levene’s tests showed the variability of creativity and analytic ability were similar in the
two self-esteem groups, F(1, 68) = 1.43, p = .76 and F(1, 68) = 1.04, p = .93, satisfying the
assumption of homogeneity of variance. Creativity scores were not significantly correlated
with number of analogies solved, r = .04, n = 96, p = .11, R2 = .002.
Summary data from the four conditions of the experiment are in Table B1. Order of testing
had no significant effect for creativity, F(1, 96) = 0.35, p = .55, d = .11, or for analytic ability,
F(1, 96) = 0.18, p = .68, d = .08. Order of testing did not significantly interact with either
creativity or analytic ability, F(1, 96) = 0.31, 0.34, p = .58, .56, ηp2 = .003, .004 respectively.
56
Figure 1
Figure 1 shows mean creativity ratings and scores on the test of analytic ability. illustrates
the principal
Creativity ratings were significantly higher for participants in the boosted self-esteem findings of the
report. Note
group than for participants in the control group, F(1, 96) = 20.08, p < .001, d = 0.90. that to show
Analytic ability was also significantly higher for the boosted self-esteem group than for the similar data in
a table would
control group, F(1, 96) = 16.60, p < . 001, d = 0.82. be completely
superfluous. We
Figure 1 illustrate a table
in the Appendix
Creativity and Analytical Ability for When Self-Esteem was Either Boosted or Not (2.7.2).
10 20
This sentence
(number of problems solved) specifies
15 whether the
difference is
Creativity (rating)
Anlaytical Ability
significant and
the direction of
the difference.
5 10
We show
5 standard errors,
rather than
confidence
intervals,
0 0 because the
Boost Control Boost Control
former are more
Self-esteem Treatment Self-esteem Treatment common (2.7.3).
Note. Error bars are 1 standard error of the mean.
Discussion
I explored how variations in self-esteem affect cognitive performance. Participants
These sentences
either had their self-esteem boosted by their transcribing a series of favourable adjectives briefly reiterate
and preceded each term with the letter “I”, or did not have their self-esteem boosted by the aim and
method (2.8.1).
completing the same task but preceding each term with the letter “X”. As hypothesised,
participants with boosted self-esteem generated more creative suggestions than did
These sentences
participants in the control group. Contrary to expectations, receiving a boost to self-esteem summarise
the main
also enhanced performance on a test of analytic ability. results (2.8.1).
The figure appears with its title

and any notes on the same page
as it is referred to in the text (2.7.2).
These statistical tests yield

unlikely high effect sizes
because the data are made
up for this example report.
57
This sentence SELF-ESTEEM AND ABILITY 8

relates the
results to
previous
findings and
relates the
results to the The finding that self-esteem improved creativity extended Seibt and Forster’s (2004)
proposed results, supporting the proposition that improvements in confidence, and not changes in
theoretical
argument the perceived expectations of other individuals, enhance creativity. Alternative arguments,
(2.8.2).
however, could explain the finding that self-esteem improved creativity. Perhaps the
letter “I” prompted many autobiographical memories. These memories could have helped
The paragraph
gives alternative participants remember other uses of a brick, improving observed creativity.
explanations
(2.8.2). The finding that a boost to self-esteem also enhanced performance on the analytic
ability task does not support the proposition that confidence compromises analytic
This paragraph
gives discussion ability. This result, however, is consistent with Dijksterhuis’s (2004) contention that self-
of results that
do not support esteem promotes resilience to criticism and feedback. Consequently, when self-esteem
the hypotheses
(2.8.4).
was increased, the prospect of criticism was perhaps less likely to distract or concern
participants; their concentration and thus performance might have improved accordingly.
This sentence Future research, therefore, should be undertaken to assess whether self-esteem diminishes
gives a
suggestion for anxiety and improves concentration.
future research This sentence
to overcome gives possible
the limitations limitations
(2.8.6). of the study
(2.8.6).
58
The observed effect of self-esteem on creativity could be relevant to organisations that

strive to boost innovation. Perhaps, each week, employees could be instructed to describe
three of their qualities and strengths to managers. This exercise not only promotes self-
esteem (Haddock, 2002), but also enables managers to assign roles for the unique attributes
of their employees.
In conclusion, we showed that creativity and analytic ability improve after people
transcribe desirable words preceded by “I”. These findings indicate that boosting self- This paragraph
gives the
esteem enhances mental ability, which in turn could promote career success, attract conclusion of
the research
admiration, and foster satisfaction (Judge et al., 2004). report (2.8.7).
This paragraph
gives practical
implications
of the results
(2.8.5).
59
References
SELF-ESTEEM AND ABILITY begin on a new 10
page (2.2, 2.9).
References
Aspinwall, L. G., & Richter, L. (1999). Optimism and self-mastery predict more
rapid disengagement from unsolvable tasks in the presence of alternatives.
Motivation and Emotion, 23(3), 221–245. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:
1021367331817
Buhrmester, M. D., Blanton, H., & Swann, W. B. (2011). Implicit self-esteem:
Nature, measurement, and a new way forward. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 100(2), 365–385. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021341
Dijksterhuis, A. (2004). I like myself but I don’t know why: Enhancing implicit
self-esteem by subliminal evaluative conditioning. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 86(2), 345–355. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.345
Friedman, R. S., & Förster, J. (2001). The effects of promotion and prevention cues
on creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(6), 1001–1013.
doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.6.1001
Haddock, G. (2002). It’s easy to like or dislike Tony Blair: Accessibility
experiences and the favourability of attitude judgments. British Journal of
Psychology, 93(2), 257–267. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712602162571
Haddock, G., Macrae, C. N., & Fleck, S. (2002). Syrian science and smart
supermodels: On the when and how of perception-behaviour effects. Social
Cognition, 20(6), 461–481. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.20.6.461.22976
Judge, T. A., Colbert, A. E., & Remus, I. (2004). Intelligence and leadership: A
quantitative review and test of theoretical propositions. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 89(3), 542–552. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.542
Kierein, N. M., & Gold, M. A. (2000). Pygmalion in work organizations: A meta-
analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(8), 913–928. https://doi.org/
10.1002/1099-1379 (200012)21:8<913::AID-JOB62>3.0.CO;2-#
Learning Express. (2002). 501 Word Analogy Questions. https://elearning.shisu.
edu.cn/pluginfile.php/36509/mod_resource/content/1/ANALOGIES.pdf
LeBouf, R. A., & Estes, Z. (2004). “Fortunately, I’m no Einstein”: Comparison
relevance as a determinant of behavioural assimilation and contrast. Social
Cognition, 22(6), 607–636. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.22.6.607.54817
Meagher, D. (2006). Introduction to the Miller Analogies Test. Harcourt
Assessment.
60
Mussweiler, T. (2001). “Seek and ye shall find”: Antecedents of assimilation and

contrast in social comparison. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31(5),
499–509. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.75
Neel, R. & Lassetter, B. (2015). Growing fixed with age: Lay theories of
malleability that are target-specific. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
4(11), 1505–1522. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167215600259
Seibt, B., & Forster, J. (2004). Stereotype threat and performance: How self-
stereotypes influence processing by inducing regulatory foci. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 87(1), 38–56. http://psycnet.apa.org/
doi/10.1037/0022-3514.87.1.38
Zhang, L. (2003). Does the big five predict learning approaches? Personality and
Individual Differences, 34(8), 1431–1446. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00125-3
61
Appendix A
Word Analogy Test Items and Answers

1 Rein is to horse, as control panel is to ? Plane
2 Cushion is to sofa, as shelf is to ? Bookcase
3 Sing is to anthem, as act is to ? Play
4 Doze is to sleep, as tiptoe is to ? Walk
5 Icing is to cake, as ribbon is to ? Present
6 Soldier is to army, as kitten is to ? Litter
7 Cub is to bear, as joey is to ? Kangaroo
8 Drive is to golf, as serve is to ? Tennis
9 Lion is to courage, as dove is to ? Peace
10 Tooth is to comb, as tine is to ? Fork
11 Nursery is to plant, as stable is to ? Horse
12 Throne is to king, as bench is to ? Judge
13 Dictionary is to definition, as atlas is to ? Map
14 Decoy is to duck, as lure is to ? Fish
15 Crown is to head, as attic is to ? House
16 Glasses is to monocle, as bicycle is to ? Unicycle
17 Hostile is to friendly, as real is to ? Imaginary
18 Pilgrim is to journey, as recluse is to ? Home
19 Quick is to slow, as youthful is to ? Aged
20 Parsley is to garnish, as salt is to ? Seasoning
The main text of the research report should stand on its

own without an appendix, much like a human can live
without an appendix. This appendix gives unpublished test
items for which two examples are in the main text (2.10).
62
Appendix B
Summary Data Table

Table B1
Numbers of Participants, Test Score Means, and Standard Deviations for the Four
Experimental Conditions
Self-esteem Order of Creativity Analytic ability

testing
n M SD na M SD
Boost Analytic first 25 5.66 1.98 25 3.28 3.28
Boost Creativity first 25 6.11 1.89 25 3.50 3.50
Control Analytic first 25 4.13 1.70 25 3.31 3.31
Control Creativity first 25 4.14 2.19 25 3.05 3.05
a
The ns in this column are the same as in the first n column because all participants
completed both tests.
This information is too

detailed for the main
text; it belongs here.
It also illustrates the
formatting of a table.
63
2.13 Helpful Sources

American Psychological Association. (2020). APA Style: Journal Article Reporting
Standards. https://apastyle.apa.org/jars
Provides up-to-date information about the latest reporting standards for
quantitative, qualitative and mixed-methods research.
Baio, A. (2011, January 27). Colorblind leading the blind. Waxy. http://waxy.
org/2011/01/colorblind_leading_the_blind/
Colours to use for the nearly 5% of people who are colour-blind.
Bem, D. J. (1987). Writing the empirical journal article. In M. P. Zanna & J. M. Darley
(Eds.), The compleat academic: A practical guide for the beginning social scientist.
Random House.
This chapter is advanced for introductory students, but contains good advice about
writing and is itself beautifully written. Bem seemed to recommend HARKing,
a questionable research practice of hypothesising after the results are known
(“HARKing”, 2020, May 18)—beware that—but is worth reading for its other many
virtues.
Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. B. (2012). Research methods for the behavioral sciences.
(4th ed.). Wadsworth.
A useful beginner’s guide to the basics of research design and methodology.
Harlow, H. F. (1962). Fundamental principles for preparing psychology journal articles.
Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55(6), 893–896. https://doi.
org/10.1037/h0043204
Harlow wrote a funny, cynical article on writing reports (for publication) based on
his experiences as an APA journal editor. This article is worth reading not only for its
humour, but also because it hints at some eternal verities.
Huff, D. (1962). How to lie with statistics. Gollancz.
If you have trouble deciding when to use a graph, or with choosing the scales, this is
a valuable source. While pleading for objective graphical use, Huff describes all the
tricks that ensure your graphs are powerful rhetorical devices.
Levitt, H. M. (2020). Reporting qualitative research in psychology: How to meet
APA style journal article reporting standards (Rev. ed.). American Psychological
Association.
Robinson, A. (1988). Thinking straight and writing that way: Publishing in
Gifted Child Quarterly. Gifted Child Quarterly, 32(4), 367–369. https://doi.
org/10.1177/001698628803200408
Like Bem and Harlow, this editor reflected helpfully on the characteristics of
excellent submissions to an academic journal.
Wike, E. L. (1973). Water beds and sexual satisfaction: Wike’s law of low odd primes
(WLLOP). Psychological Reports, 33(1), 192–194 https://doi.org/10.2466/
pr0.1973.33.1.192
This article describes a fictitious experiment. As well as giving good advice on
experimental design, the article is filled with humorous gems about abbreviations,
footnotes, and references.
64
Chapter 3
Writing Essays
We define essays to include essays (1.1), literature reviews (7.3), book reviews, and Literature review (also
known as a narrative
commentaries. In all of these, you need to write something useful for a reader. In the most
literature review):
common essay assignment, your instructor will have given you a topic, usually a question A form of essay in which
(e.g., “Does viewing violent videos lead to aggression?”), and a list of references. To write an author makes a more
comprehensive review of
an essay, you first need to read the references, to read more widely about the topic, to
the literature surrounding
understand the topic, and then to write something useful on it, usually an answer to the a topic than in an essay
question in the form of an argument: a brief, clear statement of what you will show to be to acquaint the reader
with the main issues.
true about a topic (1.2.2).
This chapter is to help you write an essay. We present a good essay (3.11) and a flawed
version of the same essay in Appendix B.
3.1 Expectations
Your instructor and marker will have some expectations about your essay. These
include structuring your essay to propose and test an argument, and meeting various
marking criteria.
3.1.1 Argument
The hardest part of writing an essay is deciding on an argument (1.2.2). Suppose your
topic was “Does viewing violent videos lead to aggression?” Possible arguments include:
• Viewing violent videos leads to aggression.
• Viewing violent videos does not lead to aggression.
• Viewing violent videos leads to aggression in some people.
• Viewing violent videos leads to tolerance towards aggression.
• Whether viewing violent videos leads to aggression is unknown.
You would opt for one argument after extensive reading on the topic convinced you
that it was best supported by the evidence.

In an essay, in approximate order of priority, your marker will likely assess how
well you
• addressed the essay topic;
• put an organised and effective argument with a clear rationale;
• substantiated, organised, and integrated the evidence for your argument;
• considered, and disposed of, counterarguments;
• showed originality and insight by demonstrating novel, careful, and critical thought
about the topic;
• used citation and references, demonstrating the depth and breadth of your reading
to provide sound evidence for your arguments;
65
• used clear and accurate expression;

• showed you understand, and used, relevant psychology terms;
• wrote simple, clear, concise, and organised prose, with correct grammar, spelling,
and punctuation; and
3.2 Before You Start

3.2.1 Analysis
If your instructor has given you the essay topic, analyse it:
• Find the operational words—the main verb or verbs in the topic, such as describe,
evaluate, analyse—that show the approach to adopt (Table 3.1).
• Identify key words that show what the essay should be about. If these terms are not already
familiar to you, refer to a psychology dictionary or general textbook in the topic area.
• Seek clues on the topic’s boundaries. For example, the topic may ask for a particular
theoretical perspective, methodological approach, or time frame.
Table 3.1 Operational Words Expectations

Operational Words
and What They Mean • Analyse • Divide the topic into its components and examine each
component critically.
• Compare (or compare and • Identify similarities (or similarities and differences; perhaps
contrast) whether one option outperforms another).
• Contrast • Identify differences between.
• Describe • Write a detailed account of something: its function and uses.
• Discuss • Describe and explain, presenting different facets of an issue,
and consider implications.
• Evaluate (or assess) • Consider advantages and disadvantages. Use evidence to
determine the validity, effectiveness, or usefulness of some
position.
• Illustrate • Provide appropriate examples.
• Justify • Provide evidence and sufficient grounds for a position.
• Review • Describe and evaluate critically, drawing a conclusion from
the evidence examined.
Note. Adapted from two sources: 1. Writing research reports and essays in psychology (3rd ed.), by Ellerman, D. A., &
Wildermuth, N. L., 2000, USQ Press. 2. Good essay writing: A social sciences guide (5th ed.), Redman, P., & Maples, W.,
2017, Sage.
If your instructor did not suggest topics, you must create your own. Try to integrate
two or more issues that interest you. For example, you might be interested in both body
language and romantic relationships. You could then integrate these issues to create
an original topic, such as “How does body language affect attractiveness?”. Exhibit 3.1
provides some other issues and topics you could integrate.
Integrate issues that are quite different from one another. If your main passion is the
grooming behaviour of Northern Tasmanian possums and your other passion is the
grooming behaviour of Southern Tasmanian possums, integrating these topics would not
be especially enlightening.
66
Chapter 3: Writing Essays
• Why do some individuals act more altruistically than everyone else? Exhibit 3.1
Interesting Topics
• Why do we never seem to become happier over time?
• Should parents ever lie to their children?
• Why do some individuals harm themselves?
• What benefits do tall individuals enjoy?
• Does the month in which we are born influence our personality?
• Why do some individuals worship celebrities?
• Are our first instincts usually correct?
3.2.2 Reading
Next, consider which sources of information to collect and read. Your instructor may
have provided you with a short list of references. You also need to find further references
yourself. As a rough guide, for every 6,500 characters (1,000 words) of an excellent first-
year essay, or a passable later-years essay, you should read
• a basic introduction to this topic, such as a relevant chapter in a general psychology
textbook;
• at least one advanced book on your topic;
• selected parts of two to five other advanced books;
• two or three theoretical papers or reviews giving a comprehensive overview of
relevant, current issues and literature; and
• at least six relevant research papers.
We give more information on conducting a literature search, on reading effectively, and
on organising information in 4.1 and 4.2.
3.2.3 Draft Argument

Next, begin to develop and refine your argument. The most common problem occurs
when you cannot do so, even after considerable reading. Often, the conclusions reached
by different authors seem contradictory. Your instructors have purposely chosen topics
from areas of controversy to challenge you to go to the frontiers of knowledge and return
with a gem of truth.
If you cannot decide between two competing perspectives, you can argue that, given
the current state of knowledge in the area, no resolution is possible. This argument
should then guide your essay (e.g., you should show inadequacies on both sides of the
controversy). Such an approach does not excuse you from displaying your confused
thinking on a topic; your essay should show the confusion in the literature.
Ensure your argument is arguable. That is, ensure that someone else could reasonably
oppose your argument (Usage Example 3.1).
Not Arguable Arguable Usage

Example 3.1
Children can learn. Children learn best with the XYZ Propose Arguable
program. Arguments
People need motivation to work. People work best when their

motivation is intrinsic.
Employees prefer good bosses. Employees prefer supportive leaders
to confident leaders.
67
Ideally, you should develop your own argument. Realistically, however, any argument
you can develop in the few days or weeks you spend on it will likely be the same as that of
people who have made the topic their life’s work (1.2.5). Ensure that you cite the sources of
your argument (Usage Example 3.2).

Example 3.2
Attribute I will show that fluid intelligence I will show, as concluded by Horn and
Arguments decreases with age. Cattell (1967), that fluid intelligence
decreases with age.
3.2.4 Plan
Next, develop a rough plan or outline of your essay. Record notes on the main points
and pieces of evidence to be discussed, and shuffle these notes around until you find a
logical progression of ideas. Then, write a rough draft of your concluding paragraph, in
which you should be able to say you showed your argument to be true by giving evidence
and reasons and by disposing of counterarguments. This will help you direct your writing
and any further reading.
3.3 Structure
An essay can be divided into six sections: Title page followed by a page break, Abstract
followed by a page break, Introduction, Body, Conclusion followed by a page break, and
References. Use Level 1 headings (1.4.2) for the Title and Author Note on the first page, for
the Abstract on the second page, for the Introduction (its heading is the Title) on the third
page, and for the References after the finish of the Conclusion (Figure 3.1). Use Level 2
headings (1.4.2) if you want to distinguish between subsections within the body of the
essay.
Figure 3.1 The Major 1

Components of an (Title page) 2
Essay with Their Abstract 3
First-Level Headings Title
Title 4
Author name 5
(Introduction)
Author affiliation
Author Note
(Body)
6
7
8
9
References
(Conclusion)
68
The best essays share some similarities to a good story. A good essay writer begins
with something that interests the reader (the Introduction—the first paragraph), draws
the reader into the details, drama, and conflicts of the story (Body), and ensures a happy
ending (Conclusion—last paragraph). Essays differ from most stories by giving the reader
the happy ending—the argument and conclusion—in the introductory parts.
3.4 Title Page

The title page of your essay is essentially the same as that for a research report (2.3).
The title, if not provided by your instructor, should be a brief description, in fewer than
100 characters (15 words), of the main topic or argument. It should also appear on the
third page, just before your introductory paragraph.
If your instructor wants you to develop your own title, choose one allowing you to
propose a reasonable argument (Usage Example 3.3).

Example 3.3
Can children learn? How do children learn best? Pose an
Arguable Title
Some writers prefer to construct the title last, to ensure that all an essay’s content is
relevant to the topic. Other writers prefer to construct a regularly updated working title to
guide the essay. The title is your first chance to impress a marker. Usage
Example 3.4
Omit redundant phrases, such as “an essay about …”. Also, omit needless details. Usage Construct
Example 3.4 demonstrates some techniques for constructing appealing titles. Appealing Titles
Avoid Best practice

Be precise and concise. An essay on the relationship The effect of violent videos on
between violent videos and aggression.
aggression.
Repeat words in An essay on the relationship Helpful research into helpful
different phrases. between violent videos and behaviour: The effect of violent
aggression. videos on aggression and
altruism.
Make rhymes. Violence on YouTube and The effects of exposure to
aggression. violent videos on hostility: The
progression of aggression.
Keep it brief. Use puns. The effect of gender, age, All the rage: Does watching
occupation, socioeconomic violent videos promote
status, ethnicity, experience, aggression?
personality, and IQ on the
relationship between watching
violent videos and aggression.
69
3.5 Abstract
If your instructor wants you to include an Abstract, you should write this section after
you have finished the essay. The Abstract (2.4 for format) should provide a complete,
informative summary of your essay, comprehensible to a naïve reader, comprising five or
so sentences that
• introduce the general topic and justify its importance;
• specify the essay’s argument;
• summarise the evidence supporting this argument, perhaps by presenting an
example or by outlining some complications to the argument; and
• specify your conclusion and the implications of your argument.
Avoid citing studies in the Abstract unless the essay is specifically about them (e.g., a
book review). Place the Abstract on the second page under the Level 1 heading Abstract.
It is one unindented paragraph. APA Example 3.1 illustrates an Abstract reflecting each of
the previous four points.
APA Example 3.1 Abstract

Abstract Between 1995 and 2006, there were about 8,400 assaults in Australia. Their rate
steadily increased, despite massive investment into crime prevention. I argue that
viewing violent videos contributes to these crimes, via desensitisation to violence.
I reviewed evidence from laboratory studies and from surveys consistent with
this argument and show the deficiencies of the few studies that oppose it. Media
regulators might, therefore, need to amend their policies to curb violent videos.
3.6 Introduction
Begin the main text of the essay on a new page. The title of your essay is its heading.
The Introduction is the first paragraph, usually less than 10% of the total number of
characters. Start with a sentence encouraging the reader to continue reading (2.5.1).
3.6.1 Significance
You should show that your topic is interesting and important. Perhaps you could
specify the problems that could arise if this topic was not tackled, or present some statistic
that highlights the significance or prevalence of this issue (APA Example 3.2).
APA Example 3.2 Despite increases in the budget for law enforcement in Australia (e.g., Grattan, 2016), the
First Part of a incidence of violent offences has increased over the last 20 years (Goh & Ramsey, 2020).
First Paragraph
Over the same period, there has been an increase of depictions of violence in entertainment
media (Romer et al., 2017). Could viewing violence lead to violent behaviour?
3.6.2 Controversies
You should emphasise that the issue is more complex than readers might think. You
could, for instance, illustrate some drawbacks or complications that challenge your
argument (APA Example 3.3).
APA Example 3.3 Although there is evidence for “Yes”, there is also evidence that viewing violence
Showing That
serves a protective function, through desensitisation, reducing the likelihood of
Your Argument
violent behaviour (e.g., Friehe et al., 2018).
is Arguable
70
A common error in the Introduction is to imply that the argument of the essay
is established. For example, in an essay on the origins of handedness, do not write:
“Researchers have established that handedness is caused by genetic factors (Medland
et al., 2006)”. Because of this bold assertion, the rest of this essay becomes irrelevant;
if readers want to know more, they would read Medland et al. (2006), rather than your
essay. Depending on your argument, you could write either “Medland et al. (2006) have
argued that handedness is caused by genetic factors, whereas others have emphasised the
role of the environment (de Kovel et al., 2019)” or “I show that handedness is caused by
genetic factors, as argued by Medland et al. (2006)”.
3.6.3 Final Argument

You should specify the argument of your essay (APA Example 3.4).
I will argue, along with Anderson and Bushman (2002), that viewing violent APA Example 3.4
videos can be a factor in producing violent crimes and that other factors are Giving Your
responsible for the contrary evidence. Argument
3.6.4 Map of Your Essay

You could provide the overall plan of your essay and the issues that you will discuss
(APA Example 3.5).
The essay will contain three main sections: APA Example 3.5
A Map of
1. A critical review of research suggesting that viewing violent videos leads to violent Your Essay
behaviour.
2. A review of research suggesting that viewing violent videos either has no influence
on, or decreases, violent behaviour.
3. A critique of the studies in point 2.
3.6.5 Definitions
Key terms are sometimes, but not always, defined in the Introduction. There are two
main classes of definitions. First, you can specify arbitrary boundaries to the words you
use, primarily to confine the scope of your essay (APA Example 3.6).
I will use aggressive acts to refer to instances in which the perpetrator intended to APA Example 3.6
harm another person. Limiting the Scope
of Your Essay
with Definitions
Second, you can refer to a theory that clarifies the words you use (APA Example 3.7).
I use the term desensitisation to refer to Nias’s (1979) theory that viewing numerous APA Example 3.7
depictions of violence can reduce the normally resulting negative emotions. Limiting the Scope
of Your Essay
with Theory
Define only terms crucial to your argument. Suppose your essay discusses the effect of
watching violent videos on the performance of employees. You may need to define “violent
videos” but not “employee”. The precise definition of employee is unlikely to affect your
argument.
71
3.7 Body
The body of your essay should contain about 70% of the characters. In the body
of the essay, you fulfil the promises you made in the Introduction. Here you introduce
procedures, data, theories, ideas, and criticisms. You develop your argument, address
counterarguments, and work systematically towards a conclusion.
3.7.1 Organisation
A logical order and progression of ideas is vital to establishing a sound and rational
argument in your essay. Some approaches are to:
• Organise the material on the basis of ideas rather than of authors.
• Avoid starting all paragraphs with the names of authors.
• Concentrate on the procedures of different experiments to determine why seemingly
similar studies yield conflicting results.
• Concentrate on the results of studies, rather than on their authors’ conclusions
about them. You might be able to make a stronger case for your interpretation.
• Specify the similarities and differences between two major theories.
• If the topic is posed as a problem, specify possible solutions, and then evaluate
each one.
• Present current opinions on a topic, then provide reasons and evidence to evaluate
them.
• Trace the development of ideas on the topic that lead to the current resolution.
Present signposts to show how a particular paragraph is relevant to the argument
(APA Example 3.8).
APA Example 3.8 In summary, violent videos seem to affect the emotions of viewers. But do these
Giving Signposts emotions affect behaviour? Anderson (2004) conducted a meta-analysis showing an
in Your Essay
association between emotions and behaviour after people played violent video
games …
Within major sections of the journey to your conclusion, paragraphs should flow
logically and seamlessly from one to the other. Use linking words such as “In contrast”,
“However”, “Second”, “Third”, and “Similarly”.
Within each paragraph, the sentences should also flow logically from one to the next.
After you write a paragraph, try changing the order of the sentences. If doing so does not
change the meaning of this paragraph, you need to rewrite the sentences so they flow
(5.2.4).
3.7.2 Conciseness and Precision to Show

Rather than to Tell
When you discuss studies, you must be both concise and precise. You should describe
only the relevant details of research articles you have read to show what researchers did
and what they found (Usage Example 3.5). If you would like to discuss several similar
studies, you can describe the first example in detail, then briefly summarise the other
examples.
72

Example 3.5
There is a link between viewing Bushman (1995) conducted an Show Rather
depictions of violence and aggressive experiment showing that participants Than Tell When
behaviour (Anderson et al., 2008; who viewed a violent video were Describing Studies
Bushman, 1995). more aggressive in a competitive
game than those who had viewed a
non-violent video. Anderson et al.
(2008), in a longitudinal study, found
an association between time spent
playing violent video games and
aggressive behaviour six months later.
3.8 Conclusion
The Conclusion is the last paragraph of your essay and should contain about 10% of
the characters. In an essay of more than 13,000 characters (2,000 words), it might be its
own section with a Level 1 heading Conclusion. In a conclusion you should integrate the
material and verify that all the complications to your argument have been addressed. Do
not introduce new data or re-interpret or re-evaluate data previously mentioned. Instead,
you should summarise
• your major arguments;
• evidence supporting them;
• challenges to them;
• how you resolved these challenges to show that your argument is true; and
• your conclusion (e.g., something about theory or about practical consequences).
I have shown evidence that viewing violent videos contributes to violent crimes, APA Example 3.9
via desensitisation to violence. I have also shown that studies reporting contrary Conclusion
findings either suffered from methodological problems or had results that were
consistent with my argument. Violent crime is an important social problem that could
be reduced by cutting exposure to depictions of violence.
The Abstract and the Conclusion are similar but they fulfil different goals. The Abstract
should be clear to a naïve reader. The Conclusion, however, can refer to some technical
terms and details.
3.9 References
Begin the reference list on a new page, with a Level 1 heading References. Give only
the studies cited in your essay (1.4.3, 4.4).
73
3.10 Finer Points of

APA Style
See 2.11 for general advice. Next we give advice specific to essays.
3.10.1 Personal Reference

Use personal reference for anything you have done in the essay (e.g., “I will show [my
argument]”, “I have shown [my argument to be true]”. Again, never, never, never write
“I think …” (1.3.3).
3.10.2 Tenses
You should primarily use past tense when you describe studies or evidence—such as
“Bushman (1995) showed that viewing violent videos leads to aggression”. You may also
use the present perfect tense (2.11.2)—such as “Anderson et al. maintained that … (e.g.,
Anderson et al., 2008)”.
Use present tense when you refer to existing or enduring claims, such as “Anderson et al.
continue to argue that viewing violent media causes aggression (e.g., Anderson et al.,
2010)” and conclusions, such as “Therefore, violent videos lead to aggression”. Finally, use
future tense to refer to subsequent sections, such as “As I will show, violent videos lead to
aggression”.
3.11 Example Essay

Imagine your instructor has set an essay with the topic, “Are Examinations Unfair?”.
This instructor has supplied a list of references including some articles on examination
anxiety, a limit of 6,500 characters, and a deadline. You read the literature, write several
drafts, and submit on time. It might look something like what follows. Your grade is an A.
Congratulations! (Note that this example is probably at a higher level, both in theoretical
treatment and amount of reading, than would be expected from a first-year student. It is
appropriate for an A-grade essay from a second-year or third-year student.)
74
ARE EXAMINATIONS UNFAIR? 1
Are Examinations Unfair? Worrying Effects of Examination Anxiety

Begin running
head and page
numbers (1.4.1).
Anne Student
Discipline of Psychology, School of Natural Sciences, University of

Higher Education
Author Note
I am grateful to M. Y. Boyfriend and M. Y. Flatmate who read earlier drafts
of this essay and to M. Y. Tutor for helping me choose a topic and formulate an
argument.
Please address correspondence about this essay to Anne Student, 144 Long
Street, Big City, 4011. Email: anne.student@psy.uhe.edu.au
75
All text in the

ARE EXAMINATIONS UNFAIR? essay is double 2
spaced (1.4.1).
The Abstract
Abstract is not
indented
(3.5).
Examinations might be unfair to some students either because anxiety interferes
with their performance or because attempts to control this anxiety impair their These
sentences
concentration. I evaluate the assumption that examinations are fair because demonstrate
the issue is
they partly assess the capacity of students to manage their anxiety—an ability complex and
highlight the
that is vital to work settings. I show, however, that ability to manage anxiety in argument
examinations does not predict ability to manage anxiety in the workplace. Teachers (3.5).
and administrators need to reduce anxiety to ensure that examinations are fair.
This
sentence
specifies an
implication
of this
conclusion
(3.5).
This sentence
presents the
conclusion
(3.5).
76
The essay
begins on a
ARE EXAMINATIONS UNFAIR? new page with 3
the title (3.6).
This introduces
This
the argument
sentence Are Examinations Unfair? Worrying Effects of Examination Anxiety of the essay
lets the
and cites its
reader know
some of the
Everyone has to sit examinations at some time or other. Are examinations originator
(3.2.3, 3.6.3).
research the best means of assessing ability? Although examination grades predict later
into the
topic using confidence, motivation, reputation, and success (e.g., Weir et al., 2004), they This sentence
citation provides an
(1.2.3). may also unfairly reflect individuals’ capacity to regulate anxiety (Sanna, interesting
1999). I will show, reflecting the argument of Zeidner (1998), that strategies opening to the
topic of the
This gives students use to manage assessment anxiety in examinations are ineffective in essay (3.6).
the reader
a map of
managing assessment anxiety in later employment, challenging the capacity of This sentence
the essay gives the
examinations to predict work performance. To do so, I will review results of
(3.6.4).
It also the study,
illustrates • the evidence for the relationship between examination performance and showing,
the use rather than
of bullet anxiety, telling, the
points reader that
(2.11.6). • the criteria for fair examinations, and the conclusion
of the
• the literature relating examination anxiety to anxiety at work. paragraph is
true (3.7.2).
Previous research indicates that anxiety might compromise examination
This performance of students (e.g., Cassady & Johnson, 2002). For example, Elliot
provides The word “they”
relevant and McGregor (1999) instructed psychology students to complete an inventory stands for
details of the narrative
the study that gauged current anxiety, state anxiety, five minutes before commencing citation,
(3.7.2). eliminating the
an examination. They found that those with higher state anxiety did worse on need to repeat
subsequent performance on a written examination of psychology knowledge. it or to give a
parenthetical
This citation
paragraph Catanzaro (1996) argued that anxiety does not impair examination (1.2.4, 4.3.1).
begins to
unpack the
performance; instead, inadequate study both increases anxiety and decreases
This acts as a
relationship performance. Zeidner (1998), however, argued that extensive, rather than signpost on the
between
essay’s journey,
examination inadequate, study can increase anxiety too. reminding the
performance
reader they are
and anxiety,
at the first bullet
fulfilling the
point (3.7.1)
promise
made in the
introductory This line lets the
paragraph reader know
(3.7) some of the
research into
the topic using
citation (1.2.3).
77
The “e.g.,”
in this
One hypothesis is that the relationship between examination performance and parentheti-
cal citation
anxiety might reflect attempts to control anxiety (Cassady & Johnson, 2002). signifies
Suppression of emotions, such as anxiety, compromises performance on a that many
studies
variety of tasks (e.g., Ciarocco et al., 2001; Martjin et al., 2002). For example, have shown
a similar
Schmeichel et al. (2003) had individuals watch a disturbing, distressing movie finding;
the next
and asked some participants to pretend they were unperturbed. These participants sentence
then
performed less effectively than did other individuals on a later test of mental describes
acuity. one exam-
ple (3.7.1)
The suppression of emotions does not, however, impair performance on all

activities. Suppression, for example, does not disrupt performance on activities
that participants have practised extensively or regard as repetitive (Koole,
Conjunctions,
2009). Yet suppression does seem to compromise performance on tasks in in this case
“Yet”, highlight
which individuals must curb their instinctive impulses or concentrate intently the logical
flow (3.7.1)
(Schmeichel et al., 2003). The suppression of anxiety during examinations seems
to involve the repression of impulses and, therefore, should impair performance.
The finding that performance is often compromised in individuals who experience This sen-
tence sets
considerable anxiety, however, does not necessarily imply that examinations are unfair. up the next
paragraphs,
To some extent, whether or not they are equitable depends on the criteria of fairness. ensuring
that the
Lent and Brown (2019) described two criteria for fairness. First, examinations essay flows
(3.7.1)
might be fair if performance corresponds to the level of an individual’s
knowledge, skill, and ability. Second, examinations might be fair if performance
accurately predicts success on some relevant criterion in the future, such as job
performance. Individuals who experience undue anxiety, and cannot regulate
this emotion effectively, might perform modestly in examinations and might also
fail to thrive in a work context. That is, the capacity to temper anxiety might
be pertinent to the work setting as well (e.g., Judge et al., 2002). Examination
performance, although confounded with the ability to curb anxiety, might
nevertheless predict work success accurately.
78
This topic
sentence Consistent with this argument, Furnham et al. (1999) showed that individuals
(1.3.3, 6.2.9)
summarises
who can manage their anxiety effectively tend to perform more successfully at
the entire work. Participants completed a questionnaire assessing the extent to which they
paragraph
experience unpleasant emotions, such as anxiety and irritability. The participants
who exhibited a relaxed rather than anxious personality were more likely to
perform effectively at work, as rated by their immediate supervisor.
The argument that a relaxed personality enhances work performance

implies that individuals who can moderate their anxiety under examination
conditions, and hence perform tests proficiently, are also more likely to succeed
in the workplace. Nevertheless, the capacity to manage anxiety in examination
conditions might not be applicable in other contexts. Zeidner (1998), for
example, conducted a systematic review of the literature and showed that anxiety
in examination conditions is not significantly related to anxiety in the workplace,
as measured by self-report scales and physiological indices.
In conclusion, individuals who experience considerable anxiety during

examinations tend to perform less effectively than do other students. I
This paragraph have shown that anxiety—or at least the suppression of anxiety—disrupts
gives the examination performance in some domains. Students who can manage
conclusion of
the essay (3.8) their anxiety in examination conditions might not be able to alleviate these
emotions in the work environment. On fairness, examinations score a
failing grade.
79
The of list
references
begins on a
new page (3.9) References
Cassady, J. C., & Johnson, R. E. (2002). Cognitive test anxiety and academic
performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27(2), 270–295.
https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.2001.1094
Catanzaro, S. J. (1996). Negative mood regulation expectancies,
emotional distress, and examination performance. Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(10), 1023–1029. https://doi.
org/10.1177/01461672962210005
Ciarocco, N. J., Summer, K. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2001).
Ostracism and ego depletion: The strains of silence. Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(9), 1156–1163. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0146167201279008
Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (1999). Test anxiety and the hierarchical
model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(4), 628–644. https://doi.
org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.4.628
Furnham, A., Jackson, C. J., & Miller, T. (1999). Personality, learning
style and work performance. Personality and Individual Differences,
27(6), 1113–1122. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00053-7
Judge, T. A., Heller, D., & Mount, M. K. (2002). Five-factor model of
personality and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied
Koole, S. L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative
review. Cognition and Emotion, 23(1), 4–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/
02699930802619031
Lent, R. W., & Brown, S. D. (2019). Social cognitive career theory at
25: Empirical status of the interest, choice, and performance models.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 115, Article 103316. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.06.004
80
Martjin, C., Tenbult, P., Merckebach, H., Dreezens, E., & de Vries, N. K.
(2002). Getting a grip on ourselves: Challenging expectancies about
loss of energy after self-control. Social Cognition, 20(6), 441–460. This shows
https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.20.6.441.22978 that in
references to
Norman, A. F. (1999). Anxiety and performance. In E. F. Geelong (Ed.), book chapters,
the initials
Handbook of stress and strain (pp. 143–158). Piper Books. of the name(s)
of the editor(s)
Schmeichel, B. J., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Intellectual come before
the surname
performance and ego depletion: Role of the self in logical reasoning (1.4.3, 4.4.3)
and other information processing. Journal of Personality and Social
Sanna, L. J. (1999). Mental simulations, affect, and subjective
confidence: Timing is everything. Psychological Science, 10(4),
339–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00165
Weir, R. E., Zaidi, F. H., Whitehead, D. E. J., & MacLaren, R. E. (2004).
School exam results matter in medical job applications [Letter].
British Medical Journal, 328(7439), 585. https://doi.org/10.1136/
bmj.328.7439.585-a
Zeidner, M. (1998). Test anxiety: The state of the art. Plenum.
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3.12 Helpful Sources

Bem, D. J. (1995). Writing a review for Psychological Bulletin. Psychological Bulletin, 118,
172–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.118.2.172
his article is written for academic psychologists submitting essays for publication;
T
your instructor wants you to aim at these standards.
Clanchy, J., & Ballard, B., (1997). Essay writing for students: A practical guide (3rd ed.).
Longman Cheshire.
useful guide to essay writing in general; includes many examples to illustrate
A
techniques and pitfalls.
Redman, P., & Maples, W. (2017). Good essay writing: A social sciences guide. (5th ed.). Sage.
his book contains an informative section on structuring the body of the essay and
T
using evidence to support the main argument.
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Chapter 4
Finding and Using
References
We are now in the digital age. Computers have made it so easy to find information
you might feel overwhelmed by its amount and diversity. In this chapter, we help you find
relevant sources of information (references, 1.1), suggest ways to work effectively with them
(4.2), and show how to cite them and how to format them in a reference list (1.4.3, 4.5).
4.1 Finding Information

Sometimes, your instructor may provide you with a list of references to read for an
assignment. Instructors, however, usually expect you to find and include additional
scholarly references (i.e., based on well-informed investigation and academic rigour). Scholarly: Based on
well-informed investigation
4.1.1 Scholarly Sources

and academic rigour.
Here are the most to the least scholarly sources:

1. Research reports and reviews in refereed journals. The editor of a refereed journal Refereed journal: A journal
ensures each paper in it has been peer reviewed: experts (peers) in the topic of the paper containing articles that
have been peer reviewed.
read it before, then approve it for, publication. Such papers are timely. Most journals today
Peer review: Experts (peers)
are available both in print and online, whereas some are published online only. Examples in the topic of a paper read
of refereed journals for research reports and reviews include Psychological Review and it before publication and
approve it for publication.
Psychological Bulletin, respectively.
2. Monographs. Monographs are published as books or, more rarely, as long journal Monograph: A single, self-
contained, scholarly, written
articles; they provide a thorough discussion of a topic and key references. Both sources,
work on a single topic,
if from a reputable journal or from a reputable publisher, are peer reviewed. (This book is usually by a single author.
peer reviewed.) Books can provide broad and deep coverage of their topics; however, they
seldom contain the latest research because they require a long time to publish. Books such
as textbooks, encyclopaedias, and dictionaries can provide useful overviews of a topic.
3. Edited Books. Edited books contain a collection of chapters (book chapters) written
by different experts who have been chosen by the book’s editors to provide multiple
perspectives on a topic. Each chapter has its own reference list.
4. Articles in Popular Science Magazines, Magazines, and Newspapers. Popular
science magazines include New Scientist, Scientific American, and Psychology Today.
Magazines include Time and Newsweek. Newspapers include The Guardian, The New York
Times, and The Washington Post. Science articles in all these sources are usually written by
journalists and are rarely peer reviewed. They are mainly useful as leads to peer-reviewed
journal articles.
83
5. Wikipedia. The editors of the APA Manual (American Psychological Association,

2020) recognised that Wikipedia can provide authoritative information on some topics. But
your instructors might be wary of it, advising you to use it mainly as a source of scholarly
books and articles for you to read. I (ROS) have founded or made substantial contributions
to more than 100 Wikipedia articles (all of which are, of course, exemplary), but I know
that many articles in my areas of expertise are poorly written, confusing, and sometimes
completely wrong. I agree with your cautious instructors.
6. Blogs, websites, and social media. The internet can provide the latest information
from experts in a particular field, but you normally need to spend considerable time to find
a few gems among the dross.
4.1.2 Search Strategies

To locate sufficient references for an undergraduate assignment, we recommend six
steps—incorporating Hart’s (2001) quick search strategy. Despite the name, it can take
at least four days. Focus your search on three main sources: refereed journal articles,
scholarly books, and book chapters. You might also encounter other sources such as
conference presentations, reports, theses, and personal communications. If you must use
these sources, use them sparingly.
1. Define your search terms. Identify key words or concepts you can use to locate
references (3.2.1). Search terms could include relevant words, synonyms, phrases, and
author names. Ensure you know their correct spelling, and variants, (e.g., “behaviour”
and “behavior”). If you are not familiar with the topic, you could consult a psychology
dictionary, thesaurus, or encyclopaedia to find key words. Once you find some relevant
journal articles, look at their key words (usually after the abstract) for more search terms.
2. Search for books. Your psychology textbook can provide an overview of a topic and
some key references. You must, however, read more than introductory texts. Read recent,
scholarly, relevant books. Begin by searching your library’s catalogue using your search
terms. Books can help you understand a topic’s major terms, theories, and issues.
3. Search for journal articles. Ensure that you read the works of different authors. To
become familiar with the principal studies and popular theories for a topic, use electronic
databases to search refereed journals. The databases are searchable using different fields
(e.g., subject, author, year, key words, type of publication). In psychology, some of the most
frequently used databases are PsycINFO, Medline, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science.
Using electronic databases is an efficient way to find current information on your
topic, giving you an electronic copy of your search results including author name(s), title,
publication details, and list of key words. Results often include an abstract, enabling you to
determine whether the work is relevant. Make sure you read more than an abstract; cite
an article only if you have read it all (point 4 of 1.2.4, 4.3.2). The database may also return
a link to an electronic version of the full article, which you can download or print. If not,
you will need to return to your library catalogue to see if the article is available to you.
4. Search the internet. Search the internet last. The best search engine is Google
Scholar. It returns information from supposedly scholarly sources but does not provide the
same level of quality and reliability as specialised library databases. Google Scholar usually
gives more hits than are useful; the first ones will usually be more relevant.
Unlike Google Scholar, a general search engine such as Google or Duck Duck Go will
provide far more hits than are useful. Unless you have configured Google otherwise, it will
try to guess what you are looking for based on your previous searches. This could mean
you go in circles of your own ignorance.
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Chapter 4: Finding and Using References
Internet searches will usually yield a Wikipedia article. It can be useful for getting an
overview of a topic and might contain key references (4.1.1).
5. Evaluate. Evaluate the suitability and credibility of each source you have found. Ask
yourself the questions in Exhibit 4.1.
6. Refine. Continue to refine your search by using relevant sources to search for other
useful references:
• Look for key words listed for journal articles to identify new search terms.
• If you find a key article, go backwards in time by looking in its reference list for
relevant prior research.
• Go forwards in time, using citation indices such as Google Scholar, Web of Science, Citation index: An online
or Scopus, from a key article to find sources whose authors have cited it. If those resource allowing one to
search for later sources
authors cited your key article, it is likely their papers will be important for you too. that cite an earlier source.
Relevance Exhibit 4.1

Evaluate Sources
• How closely does the information relate to your topic?
of Information
• Is the depth of coverage adequate for your purpose?
Currency
• Is the source sufficiently recent for your purpose? Check online sources for a date when first
published or last updated.
Credibility
• Has the information been peer reviewed?
• What are the authors’ professional affiliations or credentials?
• Has the work been cited by others?
• Are there signs of author bias or conflict of interest?
• For internet sources, what are the last letters of the URL? If they are com, the source is
published by a commercial organisation; if edu, by an educational institution; if gov, by a
government, and if org, by a not-for-profit organisation. Information from edu and gov, and
possibly from org sites is more reliable than com sources.
Note. Adapted from two sources: 1. Doing a literature search: A comprehensive guide for the social sciences (p. 26)
by C. Hart, 2001, Sage Publications. Copyright 2001 by Sage Publications. Adapted with permission. 2. Writing research
papers: A complete guide (15th ed. Global ed.) (pp. 63–66) by J. D. Lester and J. D. Lester, Jr., 2015, Pearson Education.
Copyright 2001 by Pearson Education. Adapted with permission.
4.2 From Reading

to Writing
4.2.1 Active Reading
To uncover valuable information, you need to be a critical, selective, and active reader.
This requires four steps.
1. Read purposefully. Before you begin, write down the precise questions you are
trying to answer or your purpose. For example, are you searching for factual information,
research evidence, or theoretical explanations? While you read, ensure you can see your
list of key search terms to help you remain focused on your topic.
85
2. Start with an overview. Read the abstract of a journal article first to determine its
relevance to your topic. For a book, refer to the table of contents and index to locate useful
information. Skim the text by scanning headings and reading only the first sentence of
each paragraph—which often summarises the main idea.
3. Read carefully and critically. Once you identify information relevant to your topic,
read carefully and think critically about what you are reading (5.3). Make annotations,
highlight, ask questions, and write comments as you read. Has the author presented a
sound argument, supported by credible evidence? Does the opinion expressed differ from
other perspectives you have read?
4.2.2 Notes
Taking notes ensures you
• remember what you have read,
• understand and think critically about what you are reading,
• translate and condense the material using your own words, and
• accurately record material that will eventually be included in your draft.
Everyone has a preferred method to record and organise notes, including using a
computer, writing on index cards, or writing notes in different colours. Whichever system
you choose, the important principles are that your records are accurate, reliable, and
easily manipulated to help you structure and organise your information. To take notes
effectively, you should:
• Always record the source of the information accurately, including all the details you
Reference manager: need to find the reference again. Consider using a reference manager (e.g., CiteULike,
Software that allows you EndNote, Zotero) to store information and notes about articles. A reference manager
to compile your own
database of references, to
is optional for first-year assignments, increasingly recommended for later-year
add keywords and your assignments, and just about essential for fourth-year assignments and theses. Reference
own notes to each record, managers require you to enter all the information for each reference into separate fields
to cite records correctly
in your word-processing (e.g., authors, year, title). You can also enter your own keywords and notes. Reference
software, and to generate managers make it easy to search for information in your readings and to generate
automatically a correctly-
citations and references automatically in APA style as you write.
formatted list of references.
• Rewrite material in your own words to improve your understanding and to avoid
unintentional plagiarism. Make summary notes to record the main themes and
key points of what you have read (1.2.4). Paraphrase to record the source material
with enough detail to present the information accurately. It is helpful to read first,
then put aside the source while you write, then go back to assess what you have
written against the original. Is it accurate? Is it too close to the original words? Use
quotations in your assignment only when it is important to express an author’s
exact words or when you wish to comment on what has been quoted. As you take
notes, place quotation marks around any paragraph, sentence, or phrase you copy,
and note the page number (1.4.3, 4.3.5).
• Alongside each note you record, add various symbols, such as an O to indicate the
note represents the author’s opinion, a C to indicate the author had cited someone
else, and an F if it is something the author has found.
• Use a table to organise the information. This approach can be used to collate
information from multiple sources. Develop a grid or table to help you recognise
the links between various sources of information, to evaluate arguments, and to
compare research findings on a related topic. Exhibit 4.2 illustrates how the grid
method can be adapted to suit your purpose.
86
Comparing Research Articles Exhibit 4.2

Grid Method of
Theoretical Aims / Sample Method Findings & Summarising
perspective hypotheses conclusion Research
Smith
(1996)
Brown
(2000)
Jones (2004)
Compare and Contrast

Description Method Outcomes Advantages Disadvantages
of testing
Treatment A
Treatment B
Treatment C
Note. Adapted from Writing research reports and essays in psychology: A handbook for students (3rd ed.)(pp. 20–21),
Ellerman, D. A., & Wildermuth, N. L., 2000, USQ Press.
4.3 Citation
You use citation to defend what you say (1.2.3) by giving the author(s) and year
of a source. You should cite only sources you have read fully—cite only what you sight
(1.2.4). Each citation must have a reference in the assignment’s reference list. We provide
references for all in-text citations in this chapter (4.5).
When you refer to the words, work, or ideas of others, you can summarise, paraphrase, or
quote (1.2.4, 4.2.2). Generally, you should summarise. You should paraphrase only rarely, and
you should quote even more sparingly, if at all; otherwise, the marker will feel your work is not
original. In every instance, you must cite the sources of your information. If you are not certain
whether to use a citation, cite to be safe; otherwise you might commit plagiarism (1.2.4).
4.3.1 Citation Types

There are two types of citations: narrative citations and parenthetical citations (1.4.3). In
a narrative citation, you give the surname of the author(s) in the text followed by the year
of publication in parentheses. In a parenthetical citation, you give the surname(s) and year
in parentheses.
The term “narrative citation” suggests that the name(s) of the authors and the date are
part of the story you are trying to tell in your assignments. Use a narrative citation when
the name of an author is important, or when you are going to summarise extensively—
such as when you are introducing someone’s theory, review, or experiment. A sentence
containing a narrative citation can be followed by other sentences containing pronouns
for the author name(s). For example, “Furnham (1986) reviewed the problem of response
bias in psychological tests” can be followed by “He divided the problem into …”. If it is
87
necessary to repeat a narrative citation in the same paragraph (e.g., more than one “he”),
give only the author name(s) unless this would be ambiguous (e.g., “Furnham concluded…”).
A narrative citation is also useful to avoid repeating a parenthetical citation in the
same paragraph. Narrative citations with more than one name, or “et al.”, are plural
(Usage Example 4.1).

Example 4.1
Use Correct Roediger and Karpicke (2006) has Roediger and Karpicke (2006) have
Grammar for examined the effect of retrieval examined the effect of retrieval
Citations practice on learning. practice on learning.
Karpicke et al. (2009) was testing Karpicke et al. (2009) were testing
with pencil and paper … with pencil and paper …
Note. All example citations in this chapter have references in 4.5.
Use a parenthetical citation if you want to de-emphasise the name of authors. The
most common example is when you cite the results of a study. The parentheses around
the citation imply the same results would have been obtained had anyone else conducted
the study. Using parenthetical citations allows you to summarise and to integrate related
information, yet to preserve details of each study (Usage Example 4.2).
Useful numbers of citations within one set of parentheses are from one to three. If
you go over three, your marker might suspect you had not read all the references or had
padded a reference list (point 4 of 1.2.4). The optimum number is two, one of which should
be a citation to the discoverer of the evidence and the other should be to a recent review.

Example 4.2
Use Parenthetical Roediger and Karpicke (2006) did a Testing is more effective than
Citations to be study in which they found testing is spending the same amount of time
Precise and more effective than revising material revising for recall (Roediger &
Concise About for the same amount of time. Marsh Karpicke, 2006), for recognition
Findings et al. (2007) confirmed this finding in memory (Marsh et al., 2007), and in
another experiment. Finally, McDaniel the classroom (McDaniel et al., 2007).
et al. (2007) uncovered the same
relationship in a more recent study.
Each parenthetical citation relates only to the phrase or sentence it follows. This means
parenthetical citations need to be used carefully. For example, if you wrote, “The theory
that verbal ability is controlled by a sex-linked gene is consistent with males’ having
poorer verbal skills than females (Levy, 1976)”, it is not clear whether Levy found that
males have poorer verbal skills than females or pointed out that the finding is consistent
with the theory. Strictly (and actually) it is the latter, but if it really is the former, then
you have copied Levy’s idea without a citation. This could leave you open to a charge of
plagiarism. As we said above, it is better to use a narrative citation when you are writing
about ideas: “Levy’s (1976) hypothesis—verbal ability is controlled by a sex-linked gene—is
consistent with the finding that males have poorer verbal skills than females (e.g., Hyde &
Linn, 1988)”. If you need to repeat a parenthetical citation, give the full citation each time.
4.3.2 Secondary Sources

Sometimes, an author you read outlines or discusses an important book or article
that you cannot access or is written in a language you cannot read. In these cases, you
can use secondary citations. In APA Example 4.1, you read the paper by Breitmeyer and
88
Ogmen, but not by Exner. In the reference section, include only the reference you read (i.e.,
Breitmeyer & Ogmen, 2007).
You should use secondary citations sparingly because your marker will take a dim view
of them if sources were readily available online, or if you had time to find a translation, or
if you had time to use interlibrary loans. Of course, pretending you did read a work you did
not is a breach of academic integrity (point 4 of 1.2.4).
If you read only an abstract of a work, add to its reference “[Abstract]” after the title
of the work. If you read only a chapter of an authored book, add “Chapter” and chapter
number after the year of the citation.
Narrative Citation APA Example 4.1

Exner (1868, as cited in Breitmeyer & Ogmen, 2007) was the first to demonstrate Secondary Citations
visual masking.
Parenthetical Citation
Research into visual masking began early (Exner, 1868, as cited in Breitmeyer &
Ogmen, 2007).
4.3.3 Personal Communication

If you want to acknowledge an idea you received from another individual via some
medium only you accessed (e.g., from a conversation, an email, or on some social medium),
use a form of citation called personal communication. Give the initials, name, the phrase
“personal communication”, and the precise date (APA Example 4.2). These citations do
not appear in the reference list.
Use personal communication sparingly, if at all, and only when it is not possible for the
reader to obtain the original source. Many personal communications you might receive,
such as from your instructor, are a form of secondary citation of primary material. Instead,
you should find the primary sources and cite them.
Narrative Citation APA Example 4.2

M. Y. Instructor (personal communication, May 1, 2021) has argued that Personal
Communication
individuals might feel less anxious after they imagine a tense person.
Individuals might feel less anxious after they imagine a tense person (M. Y.
Instructor, personal communication, May 1, 2021).
4.3.4 Learning Resources

In some cases, you may want to include information provided to you through your
institution’s learning management system (e.g., Blackboard, Moodle), such as lecture
materials, a PowerPoint presentation, survey, or video. If the resource can be retrieved by the
person reading your work, use the format for that type of information (APA Example 4.3).
However, if access is restricted and you intend for your work to be available to anyone, cite
the resource as a personal communication (APA Example 4.2).
89
APA Example 4.3 Narrative Citation

Restricted Learning Instructor (2020) showed a model of how viewing a violent video might affect
Resource behaviour.
A model of how viewing a violent video might affect behaviour involved two
moderating variables (Instructor, 2020).
4.3.5 Format
Most of the rules of citation can be summarised by one principle: A citation must be
complete enough for a reader to find the reference in the reference list. Usage Example 4.3
gives examples of name and parenthetical citations for different numbers of authors
Usage (references are in 4.5). Omit titles that are part of authors’ names (e.g., Jr. or III) from
Example 4.3 citations. Give only the year of publication.
Formats for Name
and Parenthetical
Citations
Avoid Best practice
If there is no author of a New International Version New International Version
source, cite the title as the (2011) contains … (2011) contains …
author name. If the title in the … (New International Version, … (New International Version,
citation’s reference is in italics, 2011). 2011).
set the citation’s title in italics. Tetris effect (2019) described “Tetris effect” (2019) described
Otherwise enclose the title in … …
quotation marks. … (Tetris effect, 2019). … (“Tetris effect”, 2019).
Cite one author with only the Martin Seligman (2011) found Seligman (2011) found …
surname. … … was found (Seligman, 2011).
… was found (Martin
Seligman, 2011).
Cite two authors with both Lynch et al. (2001) found … Lynch and Livingston (2001)
names and the year. Use …was found (Lynch and found …
an ampersand (&) for a Livingston, 2001). …was found (Lynch &
parenthetical citation. Livingston, 2001).
Use first author’s name plus Karpicke, Butler, and Roediger Karpicke et al. (2009)
“et al.”* for every citation of (2009) discovered that … discovered that …
three or more authors. confirmed the effect (Karpicke, confirmed the effect (Karpicke
Butler, & Roediger, 2009) .... et al., 2009) ....
* “et al.” means “and others”.
90
Include additional information to distinguish or clarify citations that would otherwise

Usage
be confusable (Usage Example 4.4).
Example 4.4
Distinguish
Confusable
Citations
Avoid Best practice

If the first, but not the later, Wenderoth et al. (1989) found Wenderoth, Johnstone, and
authors of a book or article are … In a related study, Wenderoth van der Zwan (1989) found …
identical and the year is the et al. (1989) showed … In a related study, Wenderoth,
same, include as many names van der Zwan, and Johnstone
as necessary to distinguish these (1989) showed …
references. If one author’s name
remains after those, give that
name. Otherwise use “et al.” for
more remaining names.
If two or more references Roediger and Karpicke (2006) Roediger and Karpicke (2006a)
include the same authors and found that … Roediger and found that … Roediger and
year, distinguish them with the Karpicke (2006) confirmed this Karpicke (2006b) confirmed this
letters a, b, c, and so on, placed finding. finding.
immediately after the year, … a well-established finding … a well-established finding
according to the order they (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006, (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a,
appear in the reference list. 2006). 2006b).
If two or more citations have Burton (2013) argued … Burton A. M. Burton (2013) argued …
different authors with the (2019) reviewed … D. Burton (2019) reviewed …
same surname, include the … (Burton, 2013; Burton, 2019). … (A. M. Burton, 2013; D.
initials of the authors. Burton, 2019).
Sometimes, more than one article might have uncovered the same finding. Follow the
Usage
conventions in Usage Example 4.5. Example 4.5
Concatenate
Citations for the
Same Finding
Avoid Best practice

For parenthetical citations, … was examined in several … was examined in several
place citations in the same studies (Roediger & Karpicke, studies (McDaniel et al., 2007;
parentheses arranged 2006b, 2006a; McDaniel et al., Roediger & Butler, 2011;
alphabetically and separated 2007; Roediger & Butler, 2011). Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a,
by semicolons. 2006b).
If the citations include the Seligman (1995) and Seligman Seligman (1995, 2011) found …
same authors, do not repeat (2011) found … … was found (Seligman, 1995,
these names, but separate the … was found (Seligman, 1995; 2011).
years, listed in chronological 2011).
order, by a comma.
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Here are a few more twists for citations (Usage Example 4.6).
Usage
Example 4.6
Finer Points
for Citations
Avoid Best practice
Show the year of a translated Kant (1781) said … Kant (1781/1965) said …
work or reprinted work … (Kant, 1965) … (Kant, 1781/1965)
following a slash.
Use “n.d.” (no date) when a Fagen-Ulmschneider showed … Fagen-Ulmschneider (n.d.)
work (usually a web page) has … (Fagen-Ulmschneider). showed …
no date. … (Fagen-Ulmschneider, n.d.).
4.3.6 Quotations
Use quotation in your assignments only if it is important to show the reader the
original words, such as if you are taking issue with those words or cannot put the material
any more economically or beautifully than the original author did. If you use the exact
words of another author without using the accepted format for quotation you will have
committed plagiarism, even if you cited the authors in the usual way (1.2.4).
You can use two forms of quotation: embedded and block.
Embedded quotations. Use embedded quotations for short quotations of less than
260 characters (40 words) (APA Example 4.4). Because you should minimise the number
of words you quote, embedded quotations are preferable. When you use them:
• Ensure the quotation fits seamlessly into the sentence, but is enclosed in double
quotation marks. Even if the quoted text comes at the end of a sentence in
the original, omit that end mark (e.g., a period) and place the end mark of your
sentence outside the closing quotation marks, usually after the closing parenthesis
of the citation or page numbers of the quotation.
• If you have already given a narrative citation in the sentence, give the page
number(s) in the original reference on which the quotation appeared, in
parentheses, immediately after the quotation. If quoting from a source with no page
numbers, use paragraph identifiers if available (e.g., para. 6), or use headings to
direct the reader (e.g., Introduction section, para. 3).
• If no citation appears before the quotation, that is, you are using a parenthetical
citation, follow the citation with a comma, then the page number(s).
• If the cited work is a classic work for which there are agreed sections that are
the same across editions, give those agreed sections rather than page numbers.
Classical works include religious works (e.g., the Bible, the Qur’an), works of ancient
Greek and Roman scholars (e.g., Lucretius, Aristotle), and classic plays (e.g., by
Sophocles, Shakespeare). In religious works, the agreed sections can be books,
chapters, and verses. Give an ordinary citation of the work and, in the usual place,
the book, and then the chapter and verse separated by a colon. In works by early
scholars, give the books and the section number or lines. In plays, give the act,
scene, and verse, separated by periods.
• Include any citations from the quotation as they appear in the original text, but do
not include these citations in your reference list.
• Ensure the quoted text is the same as in the original. That includes using the original
(correct) spelling (e.g., “behavior”, “color”, and “center” from American publications).
92
• Place “[sic]”, with the word in italics, after any error in the quotation. This term
shows that the error was in the original.
• If necessary, italicise words that are especially relevant to your arguments. Place the
phrase “[emphasis added]” after these words.
• Insert any material needed to clarify the sentence. Enclose this material in square
brackets [thus].
• Use single quotation marks to indicate quotation marks within the quotation.
• Use three dots, “…”, called an ellipsis, to show you have omitted material from the Ellipsis (plural ellipses):
Three or four dots to indicate
original quotation. that material has been
• Follow an ellipsis that includes the end of a sentence with an extra period (i.e., ….). omitted from a quotation.
• Omit ellipses at the beginning and end of a quotation.
Source with Page Numbers APA Example 4.4

Seligman (2011) argued that, “The three cognitive processes described … make Embedded
up ‘skill’ in our basic equation = skill x effort [emphasis added]” (p. 115), and effort Quotations
relates to character.
“Our knowledge of … [personality study and measurement] has been
immeasureably [sic] broadened by contributions from abnormal psychology”
(Editors, 1921, p. 2).
Source without Page Numbers
Lilienfeld et al. (2015) argued “the term ‘closure’ is hopelessly vague”, and
without “research support …[so] that most victims experience this end-state after
events of symbolic significance” (Frequently Misused Terms section, para. 2).
Religious Works, Classical Works, Classical Plays
As said in the Bible, “Greater love has no one than this: to lay down one’s life for
one’s friends” (New International Version, 2011, John 15:13)”
Lucretius (55 BCE/1921, Book 1) said, “Truly, what kind of colour could there be
/In the viewless dark? Nay, in the light itself/A colour changes” (lines 798–800).
Shakespeare (ca. 1600/1970) wrote the famous line in Hamlet: “To be, or not to
be” (3.1.1)*.
* 3.1.1 is not a section number in our book, but the act, scene, and verse of the quotation.
Block quotations. Use block quotations for more than 260 characters (more than
40 words) (APA Example 4.5). The same conventions apply to both embedded and block
quotations except:
• Begin the quotations on the next line after the text. The text then resumes on the
next line after the quotation.
• Indent all lines of the quotation by 1.27 cm from the left margin. If the quotation
includes later paragraphs, start them on a new line with the first line indented a
further 1.27 cm from the new left margin.
• Omit the double quotation marks except to indicate quotations within the block
quotation.
93
APA Example 4.5 When astronomers try to explain visual perception, the results can be confusing.
Block Quotation For example, Lynch and Livingstone (2001) wrote:
Mach bands are present because cones do not operate independently. One cone
“knows” what its neighbour is seeing [emphasis added] and responds both to
the amount of light falling on it and the adjacent receptors. At the high contrast
bright boundary … a bright stripe [is visible] where the image becomes dark
[and vice versa]. (p. 234)
This description is confusing because cones neither see nor know what other cones
are doing.
If you want to include lengthy passages or specific figures from an article or book,
you should first seek permission from the publisher. Check the front of articles or books
to determine if permission need not be sought (e.g., various Creative Commons Licenses
allow copying and adapting provided you cite the source and impose a similar licence).
4.4 References
You must include a reference list containing only references of all the works you cited.
This section shows how to specify four main classes of references: journal articles, book
chapters, books, and other sources.
Although the formats might seem complicated, all references consist of only a
maximum of six basic parts (we have used colours to distinguish them—you should show
your examples in black text):
1 the names of the author(s) or editor(s) of the work;
2 the work’s publication date;
3 the work’s title and any details such as a specific edition, the kind of work, or a
translated title;
4 the publication data (e.g., the journal name, volume, issue, and pages; the editor(s),
the title of the book in which a book chapter appears and the publisher of the book;
or a book’s publisher);
5 for an online source, its digital object identifier (DOI) or its uniform resource
Digital Object Identifier
locator (URL) (4.4.1); and
(DOI): A unique, permanent
code given to an online 6 any final information, such as the reference to an original work from which the
source by the International
DOI Foundation.
current work is a reprint or if the work is a translation.
Uniform Resource In what follows, we give information about how to format some of the references from
Locator (URL): The address
the 5% not covered by the templates we have already given (1.4.3). Although we have
assigned to a specific web
page, for example http:// done our best to simplify the new templates, our advice is to be realistic about the large
www.xxxx.gov.au amount of work necessary to master them, and to assess whether the marks you will gain
for assignments by doing so is worth it. Frankly we doubt it. If you are keen to take this
next step to understanding the intricacies of APA-style referencing, brace yourself.
4.4.1 General Principles

Here we give citations , with [explanatory material] to references in 4.5.
Authors. To specify the author of a reference:
• Give the surname exactly (e.g., Howes & Wargo Aikins [two-name surname], 2002),
then a comma, and the initials, each with its own period.
94
• Separate the initials with one space. If an author has a hyphenated given name,
include the hyphen with the initials (e.g., Lu [Z.-L.] & Sperling, 2012).
• Abbreviate any title accompanying a name (e.g., Jr., von, or III), give it last, and
separate it from the initials with a comma (e.g., Roediger [III] & Butler, 2011).
• Separate the names of each author with a comma.
• For two to 20 authors, place “, & ” before the last surname.
• For 21 or more authors, give the first 19 authors, a comma, and three dots (ellipsis),
before the final author (e.g., Liu et al., 2012).
• If a group is given as the author, use that group name followed by a period (e.g., APA
Style Team, 2020).
• If no author is specified in the reference, use its title instead, in quotation marks
(e.g., “Tetris effect”, 2019).
Editors of the book for a book-chapter reference. Apply the author conventions to
show the names of the editors of the book in which the chapter appears, except:
• Give each editor’s initials before the surname.
• Omit the comma before the “&” if there are only two editors.
• Give any editor’s title after the surname with no comma.
• Place the abbreviation “(Ed.)” or “(Eds.)” after you specify all editors.
Publication date.
• Place the year of publication in parentheses; follow the right parenthesis with a period.
• For books, specify the most recent copyright year, which is usually found on the
page after the title page.
• For translations, specify the year in which the work was translated. In the final
material of the reference, write “(Original work published [the year in which the
work was first published])” (e.g., Alhazen, ca. 1024/1989).
• If the reference does not specify a year, write “n.d.” to indicate “no date”.
• If the reference’s date is “n.d.” and it changes frequently, give the month and date, and
after a comma, the year you retrieved the reference (e.g., Fagen-Ulmschneider, n.d.).
• Give the month and the date, separated from the year by a comma, for newspaper
articles or frequently-changing online articles (e.g., “Tetris effect”, 2019).
• For online-only sources, specify the date of most recent update.
Title.
• Specify the title exactly as it appears in the reference, including the original spelling
(e.g., Lynch, & Livingston, 2001 [color]).
• Capitalise only the first letter of the titles of books, journal articles, and book
chapters.
• Capitalise the first letter following a colon.
• Italicise book titles, titles of journals, and titles of other sources.
• End with an end mark (e.g., period or question mark).
Publisher name. Provide the publisher name in as brief a form as is intelligible. Omit
material such as Inc., Ltd., Co.
Abbreviations. Table 4.1 gives some abbreviations used in references.
95
Table 4.1.
Abbreviation Literal meaning Usage
Abbreviations Used
in References 2nd Second No period; same for all numbers
ca. circa When a publication year is uncertain (“circa” is Latin
for “about”; e.g., Alhazen, ca. 1024/1989)
chap. Chapter
Ed(s). Editor(s)
ed. edition
p(p). page(s) For book chapter
Rev. Revised
Trans. Translator(s)
Vol. Volume When part of a title
vols. Volumes When part of publication data
– To As in “pp. 22–33”
4.4.2 The Digital Revolution

The APA Manual (2020) addresses changes that occurred since the start of the digital
revolution: the transition from information printed on paper to information available
electronically. That revolution is now almost complete. Much of the world’s printed
references have been digitised into electronic copies and most new references are
electronic (some with printed versions). Electronic sources can be found either directly via
the internet, or indirectly for downloading onto various ereaders such as the Kindle.
To allow readers to find an electronic copy, if available, always give the DOI as the
citation source. In electronic sources, search for “doi” to find it. On printed sources, it is
usually on the first page, near the publishers’ information and copyright notice. Provide
the DOI even if you read the printed copy. Otherwise, if there is no DOI for an online source,
provide the URL.
• Place the DOI after the final full stop of the publication data with this format:
“http://doi.org/[the DOI copied exactly from the source]” (e.g., “http://doi.
org/10.1177/0733464817724042”) (McAdoo, 2017)
• Give the URL after the final full stop of the publication data. Keep the URL intact
without breaks, if possible; otherwise, break the URL at a slash. Sometimes the
word-processor may move the link to a new line or impose a break after a slash,
which is acceptable.
• Format DOIs and URLs using the default hyperlink display setting, (e.g., blue font
and underlined) or in standard text that is not underlined.
• Do not place a full stop at the end of the DOI or URL; otherwise the link may not
work.
• Always check to see if the URL is working. If not, it will not be possible for the reader
to retrieve the information and it should not be included. You can check to see if it
can be located using an archived URL (https://archive.org). If so, use that URL; if
not, find another reference.
• If the source is an electronic version of a printed document such as a PDF (Portable
Document Format) file, include the page numbers from the printed document.
• Some electronic journal articles have neither issue nor page numbers, but give an
identifying code for the paper. If so, omit the issue and replace the page numbers
with “Article [article code]” (as in O’Shea et al., (2013; 4.4.2).
96
4.4.3 Journal Articles

Journal articles include papers in academic journals, articles in magazines and
newspapers, and blog posts.
We have already given you a basic template for formatting a journal article reference
(1.4.3). In APA Example 4.6 we give a more comprehensive template and examples. (The
template we give here and the ones we give later for the other reference types are similar to
how a reference manager translates its records into correctly formatted references.) Their
titles are not italicised; their journal names and the volumes are. If any of the template’s
components are missing from the reference (e.g., a DOI or a URL), simply omit them.
Template APA Example 4.6

Journal Articles
Author1, I. N., Author2, I. N., & Author3, I. N. (Publication year, Month,
Day). Article title [translated title, type of work]. Source Title Italicised
With Major Words Capitalised. volume number italicised (issue number),
start page–finish page or article code. DOI or URL. (Reprinted from
Original Publication)
Journal Article with DOI
Karpicke, J. D., Butler, A. C., & Roediger, H. L., III. (2009). Metacognitive
strategies in student learning: Do students practise retrieval when
they study on their own? Memory, 17(4), 471–479. https://doi.
org/10.1080/09658210802647009
Online-only Journal Article with Article Code
O’Shea, R. P., Chandler, N. P., & Roy, R. (2013). Dentists make larger holes
in teeth than they need to if the teeth present a visual illusion of size. PLoS
ONE, 8(10), Article e77343. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077343
Journal Article with URL
Aitken, J. (1878). On a new variety of ocular spectrum. Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, 10, 40–44. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1309853/pdf/janatphys00165-0034.pdf
Journal Article with More Than 20 Authors
Liu, J. H., Paez, D., Hanke, K., Rosa, A., Hilton, D. J., Sibley, C. G.,
Cabecinhas, R., Zaromb, F., Garber, I. E., Leong, C.-H., Moloney, G.,
Valchev, V., Gastardo-Conaco, C., Huang, L.-L., Quek, A.-H., Techio, E.,
Sen, R., Osch, Y. van, Muluk, H., ... Suwa, K.-I. (2012). Cross-cultural
dimensions of meaning in the evaluation of events in world history?
Perceptions of historical calamities and progress in cross-cultural data from
thirty societies. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43 (2), 251-272.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022110390926
97
Newspaper Article
Miller, K. D. (2015, October 10). Will you ever be able to upload your brain?
New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/11/opinion/sunday/will-
you-ever-be-able-to-upload-your-brain.html
Blog (with group author)
APA Style Team. (2020, March 19). What’s new in the seventh edition Publication
Manual. APA Style Blog. https://apastyle.apa.org/blog/whats-new-7e
a
Give an issue number only if there are more than one for the same volume.
4.4.4 Book Chapters

Chapters include online and printed chapters in edited books and entries in dictionaries
and encyclopaedias (APA Example 4.7). Their titles are also not in italics; the title of the
source containing the chapter or article is.
APA Example 4.7 Template

Book Chapters
Author1, I. N., Author2, I. N., & Author3, I. N. (Publication Year, Month
Day). Chapter title [translated title]. In A. N. Editor1 & A. N. Editor2
(Eds.), Book title italicised (edition, Volume, pp. start page–finish page).
Publisher. DOI or, only if Publication year is n.d. and information changes
frequently, Retrieved Month Day, Year from URL. (Reprinted from Original
Publication, Original work published Publication Year, Month Day)
Chapter with a DOI
Howes, C., & Wargo Aikins, J. (2002). Peer relations in the transition to
adolescence. In R. V. Kail & H. W. Reese (Eds.), Advances in child
development. (Vol. 29. pp. 195–230). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-
2407(02)80055-6
Chapter without a DOI or URL
Alpern, M., & Arbor, A. (1969). Eye movements. In H. Davson (Ed.), The eye
(Vol. 1). Academic Press.
Online Only Work with a URLa
Tetris effectb (2019, June 18). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.
php?title=Tetris_Effect&oldid=902393434c
a
For online-only sources, provide as much detail about the date as is available (e.g.,
year, month and date). Give only the year in the citation (e.g., “Tetris effect”, 2019).
b
If the author and title are identical do not repeat the title.
c
Although Wikipedia articles do change frequently, you can send a reader to the
version you saw by using the “View history” function. It will give you the precise
date of the version you saw and its exact URL.
98
4.4.5 Books
We give a template and examples for references to books in APA Example 4.8.
Template APA Example 4.8

Authored or
AuthorOrEditor1, I. N., AuthorOrEditor2, I. N., & AuthorOrEditor3, I. N. Edited Books
(Ed(s). if edited book). (Publication Year, Month Day). Book title italicised
[translated title] (edition, Volume) [Type of work]. Publisher. (Explanatory
material). DOI or, only if Publication year is n.d. and information changes
frequently, Retrieved Month Day, Year from URL (Reprinted from Original
Publication, Original work published Publication Year, Month Day)
Authored Book with a DOI
Howe, M. L. (2011). The nature of early memory: An adaptive theory of the

genesis and development of memory. Oxford Scholarship Online. https://
doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195381412.001.0001
Edited Book with URL
Barlow, H. B., & Mollon, J. D. (Eds.). (1982). The senses. Cambridge

University Press. https://archive.org/details/senses0000barl
Authored Book without a DOI or URL
Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (2000). The elements of style (4th ed.).
Longman.
Translation of an Authored Book without a DOI or URL
Alhazen (1989). The optics of Ibn Al-Haytham: Books I–III: On direct vision
(A. I. Sabra, Trans.). The Warburg Institute. (Original work published ca.
1024)
4.4.6 Other Sources

Use the reference format most similar to the source you have found. If that fails, use the
book format (4.4.4) for all other sources, such as webpages, websites, reports, unpublished
conference presentations, and theses APA Example 4.9.
99
APA Example 4.9 Template

Other Sources
AuthorOrEditor1, I. N., AuthorOrEditor2, I. N., & AuthorOrEditor3, I. N.
(Ed(s). if edited source). (Publication Year, Month Day). Source title
italicised [translated title] (edition, Volume) [Type of work]. Publisher or
Site name. (Explanatory material). DOI or, only if Publication year is n.d.
and information changes frequently, Retrieved Month Day, Year from URL
(Reprinted from Original Publication, Original work published Publication
Year, Month Day)
Report without a DOI or URL
Fry, G. A., & Bridgman, C. S. (1942). The influence of atmospheric scattering

in range finding (Report number 930). Office of Publications Board,
Department of Commerce.
Unpublished Conference Presentation
Ross, H. E., Nawaz, S., & O’Shea, R. P. (1999, September). Judgements of eye
level in outdoor scenes. [Paper presentation]. Applied Vision Association
Conference on Natural Images II, University of Bristol.
Unpublished Thesis
Wolfe, J. M. (1981). On binocular single vision. [Unpublished doctoral

dissertation]. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Thesis with a URL
Hoefler, S. H. (2009). Modelling the role of pragmatic plasticity in the

evolution of linguistic communication. [Doctoral dissertation, University
of Edinburgh]. Edinburgh Research Archive. https://era.ed.ac.uk/
handle/1842/3283
Online Only Sources with a URL
American Psychological Association. (2020). APA style. http://www.apastyle.org/
Online Only Sources with a URL and Requiring a Retrieval Date
Fagen-Ulmschneider, W. (n.d.). 91-DIVOC: Flip the script on COVID-19.

Retrieved June 20, 2020, from https://91-divoc.com/pages/covid-
visualization/ a
a
Include a retrieved date only if you accessed an n.d. website with content that
changes frequently.
100
4.5 Reference List

The reference list appears on a new page, with a Level 1 heading: References. Left
justify the first line of each reference and indent the subsequent lines of each individual
reference by 1.27 cm. This format is called a “hanging paragraph”. Hanging paragraph:
Format that has the first
We give an example list in APA Example 4.10, containing references for every citation line left justified, and every
in this chapter. subsequent line indented
by a specific distance
References need to be in alphabetical order of first author surname. from the left margin.
• If the authors’ surnames of two references are the same, arrange alphabetically on
initials (e.g., Burton, A. M., 2019; Burton, D., 2019).
• If the first author of two references is the same, arrange according to the second
author, and so on (e.g., Roediger & Butler, 2011; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a).
• If all the authors of two references are the same, arrange according to the year (e.g.,
Seligman, 1995, 2011).
• If both the authors and year of two references are the same, arrange according
to the title, ignoring any initial “a”, “an”, or “the”. Distinguish the references by
placing “a”, “b”, and so on immediately after the year of publication (e.g., Roediger &
Karpicke, 2006a, 2006b).
• For authors with compound names, such as von Helmholtz (1910/1962), check
reference lists in their own papers to determine how they alphabetise their own
names. If authors have not referenced their own names, alphabetise on the first
capitalised parts of their surnames.
Unless your instructor rules otherwise, ensure that each reference is complete on one
page.
101
APA Example 4.10 References

References for
Citations in Alhazen (1989). The optics of Ibn Al-Haytham: Books I–III: On direct vision
This Chapter
(A. I. Sabra, Trans.). The Warburg Institute. (Original published ca. 1024)
American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the
American Psychological Association (7th ed.).
Breitmeyer, B. G., & Ogmen, H. (2007). Visual masking. Scholarpedia, 2(7),
3330. https://doi.org/10.4249/scholarpedia.3330
Burton, A. M. (2013). Why has research in face recognition progressed
so slowly? The importance of variability. The Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 66(8), 1467–1485. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470
218.2013.800125
Burton, D. (2019). Demographic research: The big picture in research. Art
Education, 72(1), 46–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/00043125.2019.1534437
Editors. (1921). Editorial announcement. Journal of Abnormal Psychology and
Social Psychology, 16(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0064543
Fagen-Ulmschneider, W. (n.d.). 91-DIVOC: Flip the script on COVID-19.
Retrieved June 20, 2020, from https://91-divoc.com/pages/covid-visualization/
Furnham, A. (1986). Response bias, social desirability and dissimulation.
Personality and Individual Differences, 7(3), 385–400. https://doi.
org/10.1016/0191-8869(86)90014-0
Helmholtz, H., von (1962). Handbook of physiological optics (3rd ed.)
(J. P. C. Southall, Trans.). Dover. (Original work published 1910).
Howes, C., & Wargo Aikins, J. (2002). Peer relations in the transition to
adolescence. In R. V. Kail & H. W. Reese (Eds.), Advances in child
development (Vol. 29. pp. 195–230). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-
2407(02)80055-6
Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (1988). Gender differences in verbal ability:
A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 104(1), 53–68. https://doi.
org/10.1037/0033-2909.104.1.53
Instructor, M. Y. (2020, June 1). Structural equation modelling [PowerPoint
slides]. Moodle. https://myuniversity.login.edu/login
Kant, I. (1965). Critique of pure reason. N. K. Smith (Trans.). St Martin’s.
(Original work published 1781).
Karpicke, J. D., Butler, A. C., & Roediger, H. L., III. (2009). Metacognitive
strategies in student learning: Do students practice retrieval when
they study on their own? Memory, 17(4), 471–479. https://doi.
org/10.1080/09658210802647009
102
Levy, J. (1976). Cerebral lateralization and spatial ability. Behavior Genetics,

6(2), 171–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01067147
Lilienfeld, S. O., Sauvigne, K. C., Jay Lynn, S., Cautin, R. L., Latzman, R. D., &
Waldman, I. D. (2015). Fifty psychological and psychiatric terms to
avoid: A list of inaccurate, misleading, misused, ambiguous, and logically
confused words and phrases. Frontiers of Psychology, 3(1100), 1–15,
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01100
Liu, J. H., Paez, D., Hanke, K., Rosa, A., Hilton, D. J., Sibley, C. G.,
Cabecinhas, R., Zaromb, F., Garber, I. E., Leong, C.-H., Moloney, G.,
Valchev, V., Gastardo-Conaco, C., Huang, L.-L., Quek, A.-H., Techio, E.,
Sen, R., Osch, Y. van, Muluk, H., ... Suwa, K.-I. (2012). Cross-cultural
dimensions of meaning in the evaluation of events in world history?
Perceptions of historical calamities and progress in cross-cultural data from
thirty societies. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43(2), 251–272.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022110390926
Lu, Z.-L., & Sperling, G. (2012). Black-white asymmetry in visual perception.
Journal of Vision, 12(10):8, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1167/12.10.8
Lucretius. (1921). Of the nature of things (W. E. Leonard, Trans.).
https://archive.org/details/onthenatureofthi00785gut (Original work
published 55 BCE.)
Lynch, D. K., & Livingston, W. C. (2001). Color and light in nature (2nd ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
Marsh, E. J., Roediger, H. L., III, Bjork, R., & Bjork, E. L. (2007). The
memorial consequences of multiple-choice testing. Psychonomic Bulletin &
Review, 14(2), 194–199. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03194051
McDaniel, M. A., Roediger, H. L., III, & McDermott, K. B. (2007).
Generalizing test-enhanced learning from the laboratory to the classroom.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(2), 200–206. https://doi.org/10.3758/
BF03194052
New International Version [Bible]. (2011). Biblica. https://www.biblica.com/
bible/niv/
O’Shea, R. P., Chandler, N. P., & Roy, R. (2013). Dentists make larger holes
in teeth than they need to if the teeth present a visual illusion of size. PLoS
ONE, 8(10), Article e77343. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077343
Roediger, H. L., III, & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval
practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20–27.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003
103
Roediger, H. L., III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2006a). The power of testing memory:
Basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspectives on
Psychological Science, 1, 181–210. https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-
6916.2006.00012.x
Roediger, H. L., III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2006b). Test-enhanced learning:
Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological Science,
17(3), 249–255. https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.2006.01693.x
Seligman, M. E. P. (1995). The optimistic child. Houghton Mifflin.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish. William Heinemann Australia.
Shakespeare, W. (ca. 1600/1970). Hamlet (A. W. Verity, Ed.). Cambridge
University Press. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201634
Tetris effect (2019, June 18). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.
php?title=Tetris_Effect&oldid=902393434
Wenderoth, P., Johnstone, S., & van der Zwan, R. (1989). Two-dimensional
tilt illusions induced by orthogonal plaid patterns: Effects of plaid motion,
orientation, spatial separation, and spatial frequency. Perception, 18(6),
25–38. https://doi.org/10.1068/p180025
Wenderoth, P., van der Zwan, R., & Johnstone, S. (1989). Orientation illusions
induced by briefly flashed plaids. Perception, 18(6), 715–728. https://doi.
org/10.1068/p180715
104
4.6 Helpful Sources

American Psychological Association. (2020). APA style. http://www.apastyle.org/
This site has lots of useful information about APA style and a handy search field.
American Psychological Association. (2020). APA Style Blog. https://apastyle.apa.org/blog
The similar site for the sixth edition of the APA Manual answered essentially any
question people had about APA style, obviating the need to consult that APA Manual.
It is still a little early (while we are writing this: January 2021) for the current site to
have similar coverage. If you cannot find an answer to your question about a citation
or referencing issue, go to https://apastyle.apa.org/contact to see what you need to
do to contact the members of the APA Style team. Maybe your name will be in lights.
Clanchy, J., & Ballard, B., (1997). Essay writing for students: A practical guide (3rd ed.).
Addison Wesley Longman Australia.
This book provides easy-to-follow and useful tips on how to develop effective reading
and note-taking.
Hart, C., (2001). Doing a literature search: A comprehensive guide for the social sciences. Sage.
his book provides a useful guide to different kinds of reference material and how to
T
conduct a search of the literature.
Lester, J. D., & Lester, J. D. Jr. (2015). Writing research papers: A complete guide (15th ed.
Global ed.). Pearson Education.
Purdue OWL. (2020). https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/purdue_owl.html
his site provides useful tips and strategies for students from searching for information
T
to note-taking and referencing.
Reed, J. G., & Baxter, P. M. (2003). Library use: Handbook for psychology (3rd ed.). American
Psychological Association.
This book contains good general advice about library searching.
105
Chapter 5
Thinking Critically and
Developing Ideas
In a research report, you should show you have thought critically about theories or
models in psychology, have proposed a hypothesis, and have tested it. In an essay, you should
show you have thought critically about issues or theories in psychology, have proposed an
argument, and have evaluated it. In this chapter, we help you to think critically, to justify
hypotheses and arguments, to interpret findings, and to identify research limitations.
5.1 Critical Thinking

Zechmeister and Johnson (1992) specified nine criteria for thinking critically. Consider
this question: Why does prejudice exist? It is a good example because the moral offensiveness
of prejudice threatens most of the criteria. You are likely to think critically if you are:
• intellectually curious, you want to know the truth (e.g., you want to know why
prejudice exists, rather than reacting to its negative aspects);
• objective, you consider evidence rather than responding emotionally (e.g., you
read laboratory studies instead of only the accounts of victims or perpetrators of
prejudice);
• open-minded, you are willing to consider all sides of the issue (e.g., perhaps only some
people exhibit prejudice or perhaps everyone exhibits prejudice in particular contexts);
• flexible, you are willing to change your position or method if warranted;
• intellectually sceptical, you accept the arguments that other individuals propose
only if these assertions are logical, complete, and supported by evidence;
• intellectually honest, you accept evidence and entertain arguments even if they
contradict your own beliefs—you are as sceptical about your own position as you
are about those of others;
• systematic, you pursue each argument to its logical conclusion;
• persistent, you attempt to resolve all inconsistencies in each argument; and
• respectful of other viewpoints, you are willing to admit that you are wrong and others
are right.
5.2 Your Hypothesis or

Argument
The marking criteria for research reports and essays will include presenting a logical
and rational hypothesis or argument as well as integrating theories and findings to defend
your hypothesis or argument. Next, we describe some strategies for developing and
organising hypotheses and arguments.
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5.2.1 Theories
To formulate your hypotheses and arguments, you use theories (2.1.1). A theory is:
A systematically organized body of knowledge applicable in a

relatively wide variety of circumstances, especially a system
of assumptions, accepted principles, and rules of procedure
devised to analyze, predict, or otherwise explain the nature or
behavior of a specified set of phenomena. (The American Heritage
Stedman’s Medical Dictionary, 2002)
This is very different from the ordinary use of the word, where it can mean a conjecture,
without any proof, about why something happened.
Theories can range from being broad and encompassing (e.g., evolutionary theory)
to being narrow and confined to one phenomenon (e.g., blindsight—that connections
between the eyes and the brain stem allow people with damage to the visual cortex to
point at objects they cannot perceive). Most of the research reports and essays you write
will be at the narrow level, more like conceptual hypotheses (2.1.1), involving some
relationship between a cause and an effect framed broadly as concepts.
Consider an experiment, similar to that in Chapter 2, in which individuals are asked to
evaluate the extent to which a stranger in a photograph seems trustworthy. Before they
rated this person, half the participants watched a violent video; the remaining participants
watched a video of a quiz show. The individuals who watched the violent video were
less likely than were the other participants to perceive the stranger as trustworthy. Your
conceptual hypothesis might be that watching depictions of violent behaviour alters our
evaluation of the motives of others. Ideally, your conceptual hypothesis comes from some
Usage more general theory, such as Bandura and Walters’s (1977) social learning theory.
Example 5.1
Distinguish Usage Example 5.1 gives some examples of non-theories and of theories.
Non-Theories
from Theories
Avoid Best practice
A theory must give an After individuals watch violent After individuals watch violent
explanation. Social learning videos, the stranger in the videos, they feel more agitated
theory is that we have evolved photograph seems untrustworthy. and anxious, and these feelings
to learn from the behaviour promote suspicion.
of others and that this will
make it more likely we will
imitate others’ behaviours
and experience appropriate
emotions. Hence you could
predict that watching violent
videos should increase the
heart rate or blood pressure of
viewers as a way of preparing
for conflict.
A theory must be more general In this study, the stranger When individuals watch violent
than the phenomena it is resembled one of the violent videos, memories of aggressive
meant to explain. You could characters in the video and, individuals are activated,
predict that participants would therefore, seemed untrustworthy. and these memories promote
be more likely to perceive suspicion.
strangers as untrustworthy
after they merely imagine,
rather than watch, an
aggressive person.
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Chapter 5: Thinking Critically and Developing Ideas
5.2.2 Support for Theories

Often, the introduction of a research report or the body of an essay consists mainly of a
description of various theories. To meet the marking criteria, you should not only describe
the relevant theories concisely and precisely, but you should also analyse the theories
by presenting findings that justify each theory, and by identifying complications to these
justifications.
To present findings that support or justify a theory, first specify all the relationships or
associations the theory implies. Other authors may already have done so; wide reading
will help. For example, the limited theory that watching violent videos provokes agitation,
and this agitation promotes suspicion, implies at least two associations:
1. Watching violent videos should promote agitation and anxiety.
2. When individuals feel agitated and anxious, they perceive strangers as
untrustworthy.
Then, you would need to find studies that support each association. The first sentence
in APA Example 5.1 outlines a limited theory (in italics). The remaining sentences present
the findings that support this theory. (In the following examples of this chapter, we use
italics; you should use non-italic font in your research report or essay. In these examples
we have made up authors’ names using colours; you should have real citations.)
According to Scarlet (1990), after individuals watch violent videos, they feel APA Example 5.1
agitated and anxious, and these emotions provoke mistrust of strangers. Consistent Using Findings to
Support Theories
with this proposition, Indigo (2005) reviewed studies showing that heart rate and
blood pressure, which are physiological indices of anxiety, rise after individuals
watch violent videos. Furthermore, Blue (2005) found that individuals who often feel
agitated and anxious are less inclined to trust strangers. These findings, therefore,
support the theory that agitation and anxiety underpins the association between
watching violent videos and mistrust of strangers.
When organising information for your research report or essay, the findings can
sometimes precede rather than follow the description of a theory (APA Example 5.2).
Many studies indicate that participants perceive strangers as untrustworthy after APA Example 5.2
they watch violent videos (e.g., Green, 1985; Yellow, 1988). To explain this finding, Using Findings to
Introduce Theories
Scarlet (1990) argued that people feel agitated and anxious after they watch violent
videos, and these emotions provoke mistrust of strangers. Consistent with this
proposition, ….
5.2.3 Critical Thinking About Theories

As well as presenting findings that support a theory, you need to discuss any challenges
to it. Challenges can be divided into limitations in the methods and contradictory findings.
Limitations in the methods, flaws in the studies, might mean that findings supposedly
supporting the theory do not (APA Example 5.3).
Red (2006) challenged the finding that heart rate and blood pressure rise APA Example 5.3
after individuals watch violent films because previous studies did not include an Methodological
Limitations of the
appropriate control condition (e.g., Indigo, 2005). Aqua (2007) then showed that
Corroborating
heart rate and blood pressure rise after individuals watch any films that depict social Findings
interactions, even if the portrayal is not violent.
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How can you uncover these limitations and flaws? You can either use citation indices
(4.1.2) and read widely enough to find other authors who challenge these findings or think
critically about possible flaws (5.3).
Contradictory findings are those that do not support the theory. You might uncover
findings that indicate the theory does not apply to all settings or contexts. When
you present these findings, highlight the contexts—such as the cultures, locations,
demographics, or situations—in which they were observed (APA Example 5.4).
APA Example 5.4 Other researchers have demonstrated that agitation does not always promote
Findings That
mistrust. Azure (2005) demonstrated that agitation can even alleviate mistrust of
Contradict a Theory
strangers in China and Japan.
If you give many contradictory findings, the research report or essay might confuse
the reader. To address this problem, you can challenge the method that produced these
contradictory findings (APA Example 5.5) and you can discuss some possible moderator
variables, also called moderators, an issue we address in 5.3.6.
APA Example 5.5 Nevertheless, Azure (2005) used a controversial method to assess mistrust, in
Challenge the which participants were asked whether or not they would listen to the advice of this
Contradictory
stranger. This measure might not assess trust, but instead reflect other variables, such
Findings
as perceived intelligence.
5.2.4 Integration of Theories

Next, you need to order and integrate theories; otherwise, your assignment would
seem like a muddle of theory, supporting data, contradictory data, and contradictions of
the contradictions. At least three techniques can be used to order and integrate theories:
Arrange theories chronologically (APA Example 5.6), classify theories by subject (APA
Example 5.7), and explain contradictory findings (APA Example 5.8).
APA Example 5.6 Scarlet (1990) argued that individuals feel agitated and anxious after they watch
Chronological violent videos, and these emotions provoke mistrust of strangers. [Clarify this
Arrangement
theory.] [Present information that substantiates and contradicts this theory.]
of Theories
A more comprehensive theory was formulated by Jade (1995), who argued that
watching violent videos activates memories or schemas of aggressive individuals,
provoking mistrust. [Clarify this theory.] [Present information that substantiates and
contradicts this theory.]
Nevertheless, Beige (2001) …
Although APA Example 5.6’s italicised phrases follow chronologically, they do not
always follow logically, making your assignment seem disjointed.
Classifying theories by subject might allow your prose to flow logically. Perhaps some
of the theories focus on conscious thoughts, whereas other theories focus on unconscious
thoughts. Perhaps some of the theories focus on emotions, whereas other theories focus
on thoughts or cognitions, and so forth (APA Example 5.7).
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Some scholars argue that conscious emotions and thoughts explain the relationship APA Example 5.7
between watching violent videos and suspicion of strangers. For example, Scarlet Arrangement of
Theories by Subject
(1990) argued that viewing violence induces a state of agitation and anxiety, which
fosters suspicious attitudes towards other individuals. Studies that have supported ...
In contrast, other researchers argue that unconscious emotions and thoughts
explain the association between watching violent videos and mistrust of strangers.
Jade (1995) argued that viewing violence activates unconscious memories or schemas
of aggressive individuals, which in turn provoke suspicion.
The supporting and contradictory findings provide another opportunity to integrate

theories. You could introduce a finding that contradicts one theory, then present another
theory that explains the finding (APA Example 5.8).
Scarlet (1990) argued that individuals feel agitated and anxious after they watch APA Example 5.8
violent videos, and these emotions provoke mistrust of strangers. [Clarify this theory.] Arrangement
of Theories by
Nevertheless, Azure (1995) demonstrated that agitation can alleviate mistrust of Contradictory
strangers in some cultures, particularly in China and Japan. Findings
To accommodate this finding, Bronze (2005) proposed that …
Determining which approach is most appropriate will depend on the subject matter.
In some cases, you could use more than one technique to structure your arguments.
5.3 Research
In the best research reports, students critically evaluate previous research as well as
their own study. Likewise, in the best essays, students critically evaluate the studies they
cite. Here, we offer some simple guidelines to help you evaluate research insightfully.
5.3.1 Experiments vs. Non-Experiments

The process you should follow to evaluate research differs between experiments and
non-experiments (2.1.1).
Experiments. We define three main experimental designs.
Participants or Subjects are Randomly Assigned Into the Various Conditions. Such
experiments are called between-subject or independent-groups experiments (APA
Example 5.9). The logic of such an experiment is that if the conditions received by
participants in one group differ from those received by participants in another group, and
the results differ between the two groups, then the difference in the conditions must have
caused that difference in the results (5.3.2).
Example 1 APA Example 5.9

Umber (2009) investigated whether watching violent videos provokes suspicion. Two Examples of
Between-Subject
Half the participants watched a violent video; the remaining participants watched a
Experiments
quiz show. Then, all participants rated the extent to which they perceived a stranger
in a photograph as trustworthy.
(Continued)
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(Continued)
Example 2
Mustard (2010) examined the impact of posture on credibility. She asked
10 participants to tilt their head slightly backwards while they presented a speech and
10 to keep their head upright while they presented a speech. An audience then rated
the credibility of these participants.
Each Participant or Subject Performs all Conditions in a Different Order. The logic
of such an experiment is that if there are different conditions and the results differ, then
Quasi-experiments: Studies
in which participants were providing the conditions were given in different orders for different participants, then the
not randomly assigned difference in the conditions must have caused that difference in the results. We discuss
to the conditions of the
independent variable.
such within-subject or repeated measures experiments further in 5.3.4.
Usually, these studies There is some mixture of the two experimental designs. These mixed designs retain
compare pre-existing groups
(e.g., males vs. females; the logic of the components, allowing causal inferences to be drawn from the results.
high, medium, or low
Non-Experiments. Non-experiments include quantitative research in which participants
socioeconomic status).
Correlational design:
are not randomly assigned to groups or conditions. They include quasi-experiments and
Studies in which the correlational designs that rely on groups or conditions of an independent variable formed
researcher does not compare before the study commenced (APA Example 5.10). In the first example, the researcher did not
distinct groups but examines
the relationship between
manipulate whether or not participants were exposed to violence. In the second, the researcher
numerical variables, such did not manipulate posture. In the third, the researcher did not randomly assign participants to
as IQ, height, and age. be males or females.
APA Example 5.10 Study 1

Three Studies To examine the effect of violence in the media, participants estimated the number
That Are Not
of hours each week they watch violent videos and rated the extent to which they
Experiments
perceived a stranger in a photograph as trustworthy.
Study 2
To examine the effect of posture, participants presented a speech while they were
evaluated by an audience. Each minute, the researcher recorded whether or not the
participants tilted their heads backwards or forwards.
Study 3
To examine the effects of gender on mathematical ability, male and female
students in a class performed a test of mathematical ability.
5.3.2 Causality
Researchers conduct experiments because they enable the direction of causality to
be established. For example, suppose the researcher found that asking some participants
to watch a violent video provoked mistrust towards strangers. The researcher, therefore,
can infer that watching violence causes the mistrust; mistrust could not have caused the
participants to be randomly assigned to watch the violent video.
The direction of causality cannot be inferred logically from non-experiments. Suppose
the researcher discovered that individuals who tend to watch violent videos are more
suspicious of strangers. The researcher cannot distinguish among at least three possible
causal explanations:
1. Watching violent videos causes mistrust in viewers.
2. Mistrust causes people to watch violent videos.
3. Some unknown, spurious, variable causes people to watch violent videos and be
mistrusting (5.3.3).
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In your discussion of non-experiments, you should

• concede the direction of causality cannot be determined; and
• if possible, outline findings, ideally from experiments, or theories that support
possible explanations (APA Example 5.11).
Drab (2001) showed that the number of hours during which individuals watch APA Example 5.11
violent videos is related to mistrust of strangers. Nevertheless, the direction of Challenge
the Direction
causality cannot be established from this study. For example, mistrustful viewers
of Causality
might be more inclined than other individuals to watch violent videos. Orange
(Explanations
(2005) showed that participants who were irritated then rated a violent video as more 1 and 2)
enjoyable than did those in a control condition.
5.3.3 Spurious Variables

Spurious variables can influence both the independent variable and the dependent
variable (2.8.6). For example, confidence might influence both the frequency with which
individuals watch violent videos and their suspicion of strangers. This third, spurious
variable, unfortunately, can create a misleading relationship between the independent
and dependent variable.
We show this problem in Figure 5.1. We plotted a symbol for each participant. The x-axis
represents the number of hours each participant watched violent videos per week. The
y-axis represents the extent to which each participant perceives strangers as suspicious.
10 Figure 5.1
Spurious Association
High School Students Between Hours
8 Individuals Watch
University Students
Suspicion of Strangers
Violent Videos and

6 Suspicion of Strangers
(Confounded with
Level of Education)
4
0
0 5 10 15 20
Hours of Violent TV
The university students (shaded circles) tended to watch less hours of violent videos and
seemed to be trusting of strangers. The high school students (open squares) typically watched
more hours of violence and seemed more suspicious. The education level of students (as well as
other variables, such as age and year of birth) is associated with both the frequency with which
they watch violent videos and their mistrust of strangers, as shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2
Level of education Illustration of a
Confounding Variable
Hours of violent TV Suspicion of strangers
113
After you inspect the graph, you might conclude that individuals who watched
more hours of violence are also more suspicious of strangers. But if you inspect only the
university students, or only the high school students, there is no obvious relationship
between watching violent videos and suspicion. The misleading relationship between
violence and suspicion of strangers is only because high school students both watch
violence and feel suspicious towards strangers.
For any relationship from non-experiments, therefore, you should:
• Read the literature to identify variables that influence the independent variable.
For example, age and gender might influence the extent to which individuals watch
violent videos.
• Read the literature to identify variables that influence the dependent variable. For
instance, age and socioeconomic status might affect the perceptions of strangers.
• Identify variables that influence both the independent and dependent variable.
These variables might create a misleading relationship between the independent
and dependent variable.
• Discuss how any spurious variable could explain the observed relationship between
the independent and dependent variable (APA Example 5.12).
APA Example 5.12 The relationship between watching violent videos and suspicion towards strangers
Spurious Variables could be ascribed to other variables, such as age or education. That is, high school
students are more inclined than university students to watch violent videos (e.g.,
Sapphire, 1995) and to perceive strangers as suspicious and hostile (e.g., Jonquil, 2000).
5.3.4 Confounds
Although experiments are not compromised by the problems that afflict non-experiments,
Confounding variable: they can be compromised by confounding variables. Consider the experiment on whether
A variable that is
or not watching violent videos promotes mistrust of strangers, in which, before they evaluate
inadvertently correlated
with the independent a stranger in a photograph, half the participants watch a violent video and the remaining
variable in experiments. participants watch a quiz show. In this instance, the depiction of criminals—and not the
violence itself—could have influenced the level of suspicion, as Figure 5.3 illustrates.
Figure 5.3 Suspicion Treatment Independent Dependent

of Strangers as procedure variable variable
a Function of
Hours of Watching Watched violent or
Exposure to violence Suspicion
Violent Videos non-violent TV
Depiction of criminals
Confound
The depiction of criminals is called a confounding variable (APA Example 5.13).
APA Example 5.13 Although participants who watched the violent video demonstrated more mistrust,
Considering this finding cannot necessarily be ascribed to the violence itself. Instead, the
Confounds in
violent video portrayed criminals. Rust (2000) showed that exposure to depiction of
Between-Subject
criminals, even if presented subliminally, provokes suspicion.
Experiments
114
Other possible confounds arise in within-subject designs. An illustration of a within-

subject experiment and some of its data appear in APA Example 5.14.
All participants first watched a violent video and then evaluated the extent to APA Example 5.14
which a stranger, who was presented in a photograph, seemed trustworthy. Next, Considering
Confounds in a
participants watched a quiz show and evaluated the trustworthiness of another
Within-Subject
stranger. Raw data are in Table A1. Experiment
Table A1
Raw Suspicion Scores from the Experiment
Participant Violent video Quiz show video

1 6 5
2 9
3 8
4 4 4
5 5 4
6 6 5
7 10
8 6 5
9 5 4
10 6 5
11 4 4
Average 6.27 4.50
Because the quiz show was always presented last, the order of conditions is a
Counterbalancing: In
confounding variable. Any differences between the average of each condition could be within-subject designs,
from the passage of time. In the last condition, for example, participants might be more counterbalancing is a
technique of equating
practised on the task or more fatigued. We could have determined whether or not order
different possible orders
effects influenced the outcome if half the participants had watched the quiz show first—a in which participants
technique called counterbalancing. APA Example 5.15 illustrates the problems that arise are exposed to the
experiment’s conditions.
when conditions are not counterbalanced.
The decreased suspicion after participants watched the quiz show could be from APA Example 5.15
its coming second in the experiment. Participants all watched the violent video and Considering
Confounds in
responded before they watched the quiz show. Participants might have felt more
Within-Subject
fatigued after they watched the second video, and this decline in alertness could have Experiments
biased their perceptions of the stranger.
Another problem with order effects is called mortality. Some participants may
Mortality: The tendency
withdraw from the experiment before completing all the conditions. Any differences of some participants to
between the first and the last condition could arise because, for example, suspicious withdraw from a within-
subject experiment
participants were more likely to withdraw than were trusting participants. before completing all the
conditions, sometimes
5.3.5 Inadequate Measures biasing the outcome.
Some issues, such as flawed measures, arise in both experiments and non-experiments.
To illustrate the concept of flawed measures, consider a researcher who wants to explore
whether or not watching violent videos promotes mistrust.
Again, half the participants watch a violent video; the remaining participants watch a
quiz show. Afterwards, all the participants inspect a photograph of a stranger. To assess
115
the extent to which they trust this person, the participants rate the extent to which they
agree or disagree with various statements, such as “This person looks dishonest” or “This
person seems unreliable”.
Suppose that individuals who watched the violent video are significantly more inclined
to agree with such statements. This finding does not necessarily show that exposure to
violence promotes mistrust. The measure of mistrust might be flawed in at least two ways:
Reliability: A measure of the 1. The measure might not be reliable—which implies the responses of each individual
consistency of measures of a
variable. Types of reliability might vary randomly over time.
include test–retest reliability,
2. The measure might not be valid—which implies the statements might not gauge
inter-rater reliability, and
internal consistency. mistrust but some other characteristic.
Validity: A measure of Unreliability cannot be used to explain a significant difference. Unreliable measures
how well a measure of a
variable actually measures
tend to reduce—not increase—the incidence of significant effects.
that variable. Types of
If the measure was not valid, the conclusion that watching violent videos promotes
validity include content
validity, concurrent mistrust becomes tenuous. This measure, for example, might partly gauge the
validity, predictive validity, extent to which the stranger seems to be unattractive rather than untrustworthy
and face validity.
(APA Example 5.16).
APA Example 5.16 Other considerations indicate that exposure to watching violent videos might
Considering not necessarily promote mistrust. For example, the measure of trust might actually
Invalid Measures
represent the degree to which the stranger seems attractive rather than trustworthy.
Watching violent videos, therefore, might actually promote disdain rather than
mistrust.
To develop these arguments, you should read papers that have appraised each of your
measures. These papers often highlight other characteristics that bias your measures,
Social desirability: An
such as social desirability—the extent to which individuals attempt to portray themselves
inclination of individuals favourably. For example, participants affected by social desirability would be likely to agree
to portray themselves if asked this question, supposed to assess trust, “Would you help this stranger if she asked
positively when they
complete psychological
you to help search for a lost child?”
measures, sometimes
biasing the responses.
5.3.6 Generality
The final problem, called generality, is also relevant to both experiments and non-
Generality: The degree to
which the results of one experiments. A researcher might have conducted a sound study, showing that watching
study may be applicable violent videos promotes mistrust. Yet, this conclusion might not apply to every person in
to other settings.
every context, as shown by these examples:
• The conclusion might not apply to other individuals; the study might have been
conducted in a Western nation and thus might not be valid in the East.
• The conclusion might not apply to all times; in the future, perhaps, individuals
might become habituated to violent videos.
• The conclusion might not apply to all places and contexts; the study might have
been conducted in an affluent area and might not generalise to other locations.
• The conclusion might not be independent of the methods that were used; other
methods might have generated different results.
Pointing out possible failures of generality is the weakest way of criticising research—
use it only when all other approaches fail. You can strengthen it by reporting research
into moderator variables (2.3.3) showing the failures are actual rather than possible
(APA Example 5.17).
116
In contrast to this study, which was conducted in an affluent area, Brown (2000) APA Example 5.17
showed that watching violent videos does not promote mistrust in less-affluent Consider
locations. Therefore, socioeconomic status might moderate the effect of exposure to Moderators:
Comparison
violence on mistrust.
with Conflicting
Research
Alternatively, you could consider the mechanisms that underpin this theory and
identify variables that would most likely influence these mechanisms. Consider the theory
that memories of aggressive individuals are activated after participants watch violent
videos. This theory should not apply to individuals who have never met an aggressive
person before. Exposure to aggressive individuals might moderate the effect of viewing
violence on mistrust (APA Example 5.18).
To explain the effect of watching violent videos on mistrust, Sepia (2000) argued APA Example 5.18
that violent scenes might activate memories of the aggressive individuals whom Considering
participants have met before. Consequently, exposure to aggressive individuals in the Moderators:
past could moderate the effect of violence on mistrust. Examine
Mechanisms
5.4 Original Thinking

An excellent assignment will demonstrate original thinking. Try to contribute new ideas
to the body of knowledge on your research topic. Although even experienced researchers
find it difficult to contribute new ideas, your marker will reward you for trying. Several
approaches can help you develop original arguments and ideas.
5.4.1 Non-Obviousness
To interest readers, if possible, show that your hypotheses or results contradict some
common assumptions or beliefs. You might include sentences like “Some people assume
that anxiety impairs wellbeing (Lavender, 2010). However, recent theories challenge this
assumption”. These sentences will let the reader know the results are important. Without
them, the reader may feel the results were inevitable.
5.4.2 Alternative Explanations for Significant

Findings
When your hypotheses are supported, you should first write a paragraph that
highlights the theory this finding corroborates (APA Example 5.19).
The finding that watching violent videos promotes mistrust of strangers is APA Example 5.19
consistent with the theory that individuals feel agitated and anxious after they observe Reiterating Theory
a violent scene, and these feelings provoke mistrust.
Then you should consider alternative explanations to this finding using the various
categories of limitations we have addressed above. For example, if participants were not
randomly assigned to conditions, and hence the study is not an experiment, you could
• challenge the direction of causality;
• identify spurious variables;
• question the validity of your measures;
• discuss the generality of these findings; or
• consider a combination of these limitations (APA Example 5.20).
117
APA Example 5.20 Nevertheless, alternative explanations could explain the finding that individuals
Alternative who frequently watch violent videos mistrust strangers. Perhaps a mistrust of
Explanations in
strangers provokes a sense of aggression; to release this aggression, individuals might
Non-Experiments
feel compelled to watch violence. In addition, this measure of mistrust might actually
reflect disrespect …
If the study was an experiment, you could instead identify confounding variables,
question the validity of measures, or discuss the generality of findings (APA Example 5.21).
You would then repeat this process for each finding that supported your hypotheses.
APA Example 5.21 Nevertheless, alternative explanations could explain the finding that watching
Alternative violent videos promotes mistrust of strangers. The violent video, for example,
Explanations in
portrayed younger characters. Shamrock (2000) revealed that exposure to younger
Experiments
individuals was sufficient to promote mistrust.
On the other hand, you do not want your reader to think they have wasted time
reading your work (2.8.6). Try to reassure the reader that the possible limitations do not
detract from the importance of the findings.
5.4.3 Alternative Explanations for

Non-Significant Findings
Sometimes you find no relationship: Watching violent videos might not be related to
mistrust towards strangers because:
1. Your hypothesis is incorrect. If you have cited similar studies with results
consistent with your hypothesis, then you need either to discuss why your method
was better than the others (APA Example 5.22), or consider the remaining
reasons.
APA Example 5.22 The non-significant effect of watching violent videos on mistrust could be because
Explanation of
there really is no relationship. We used a measure of mistrust that has been shown by
Non-Significant
Rose (2011) to be free of the problems that beset earlier measures....
Findings: Incorrect
Hypothesis
2. Your study was underpowered. The hypothesis might be correct, but the
statistical tests might not have been powerful enough to detect the relationship
(2.6.1, APA Example 5.23).
APA Example 5.23 The non-significant effect of watching violent videos on mistrust could be due
Explanation of to limited statistical power. Future research should replicate this study with more
Non-Significant
participants.
Findings: Power
• Regrettably, the explanation in APA Example 5.23 is about as original as a cover

band and therefore needs to be extended. You should provide more insightful means
to increase power, including
• identifying more reliable measures;
• considering methods that would increase the range of each independent variable;
and
• identifying other variables that influence the dependent variable appreciably and
therefore should be controlled in future studies (APA Example 5.24).
118
The non-significant effect of watching violent videos on mistrust could be ascribed APA Example 5.24
to limited power. To boost power, future research could use the MOM test of mistrust Explanation of Non-
Significant Findings:
(Magnolia, 2012)—a more reliable but lengthy procedure. In addition, future studies
Power (Continued)
could ask participants to watch the programs for longer. Finally, future research could
measure and control the effect of personality.
3. There were suppressor variables. The hypothesis might be correct, but suppressor
variables might have masked it. Imagine that exposure to violence provokes
mistrust, as hypothesised. Imagine also that exposure to violence promotes fatigue—
called a suppressor—which in turn diminishes mistrust. These two effects might
nullify each other (APA Example 5.25).
The non-significant effect of watching violent videos on mistrust could reflect APA Example 5.25
two conflicting effects. Exposure to violence might promote mistrust, but might also Explanation of Non-
Significant Findings:
induce fatigue, which has been shown to temper mistrust (Black, 2000). Fatigue
Suppressors
might have obscured the hypothesised effect.
To unearth possible suppressors, such as fatigue:

• Read the literature to identify variables that correlate with the independent variable.
For example, fatigue and confidence might coincide with watching violent videos.
• Read the literature to identify variables that correlate with the dependent variable.
For instance, fatigue and age might influence mistrust.
• Identify variables that exhibit conflicting relationships with the independent and
dependent variable. For example, fatigue might be positively related to exposure to
violence but negatively related to mistrust.
4. There was a failure of generality. Your hypothesis might be correct, but your
method was not sufficient (5.3.6). Perhaps watching violent videos promotes
mistrust in high school students only, whereas your participants were university
students. Perhaps watching violent videos promotes mistrust towards tall
individuals only, whereas the stranger that was presented in the photograph
was short. In this instance, the level of education of participants or the height of
strangers might moderate the effect of exposure to violence on mistrust.
5.4.4 Unexpected Findings

Occasionally, you might find a significant effect in the opposite direction to the
hypothesis. Watching violent videos might decrease rather than increase mistrust. If so,
ensure that you are not peering at the graph upside down. Then, attempt to explain this
unexpected finding.
To concoct a plausible explanation, you could try to identify suppressors (5.4.3). You
could then claim that the suppressor overshadows the hypothesised pathway (APA
Example 5.26).
The finding that watching violent videos inhibits mistrust could be from fatigue. APA Example 5.26
Exposure to violence might have induced fatigue, which has been shown to temper Explanation of
Conflicting Findings
mistrust (Black, 2000).
119
5.4.5 Future Research

As part of the Discussion of a research report and in some essays, you need to identify
directions for future research (2.8.6). Often, your suggestions will address limitations of
either your study or previous research.
Suppose you argued the direction of causality could not be established. To overcome
this limitation, you would describe procedures that researchers could use to manipulate
the independent variable—and thus conduct an experiment (APA Example 5.27)
APA Example 5.27 To demonstrate that watching violent videos promotes mistrust, rather than vice
Future Suggestion versa, researchers could manipulate the extent to which participants watch violent
to Establish videos. They could, for example, give all participants five URLs and instruct them
the Direction
to use the URLs at home to download and watch one video each day. Half the
of Causality
participants would be randomly assigned to watch violent videos; the remaining
participants would watch similar, but non-violent videos.
If you argued that spurious factors might have compromised the study, you could again
propose an experiment. You could propose that researchers measure and statistically
control these spurious variables. This technique is advanced and might be discussed in
postgraduate courses (APA Example 5.28).
APA Example 5.28 To ensure the relationship between watching violent videos and mistrust cannot
Future Suggestion be ascribed to personality, future research could manipulate the extent to which
to Address Spurious participants are watching violent videos. Alternatively, researchers could include a
Variables measure of personality and then control these traits statistically.
If you argued that confounds might have challenged the conclusions, you might be able
to suggest other manipulations that avoid confounds. Alternatively, similar to spurious
variables, you could suggest these confounds be measured and controlled statistically
(APA Example 5.29).
APA Example 5.29 To ensure the effect of depicted violence is not merely from exposure to young
Suggestion for characters, other manipulations could be considered. Researchers could measure the age
Future Research to
of characters in the videos and then control this variable statistically. Alternatively, age
Address Confounds
could be manipulated. For example, there could be two violent and two control videos,
one each showing younger characters and one each showing older characters.
If you argued that some of the measures were defective, you should suggest scales or
procedures that minimise these problems (APA Example 5.30).
APA Example 5.30 The measure of mistrust, unfortunately, might have reflected other factors, such
Suggestion for as disdain or disrespect. Instead, to gauge mistrust, researchers could test a scenario
Future Research to in which a stranger approaches each participant. Participants who move to avoid this
Address Limitations
stranger could be assumed to demonstrate mistrust.
in the Measures
If you argued the findings might not apply to other individuals, times, settings, or
methods, you should suggest moderators that could be examined in the future. If you
suggested the findings might not apply to university students, you could suggest that
future research examine whether level of education moderates the effect of exposure to
violence on mistrust (APA Example 5.31).
120
The relationship between watching violent videos and mistrust might not apply APA Example 5.31
to university students. Future research could examine whether the level of education Suggestion for
moderates the effect of watching violent videos on mistrust of strangers. Furthermore, Future Research to
this association might not apply to other measures of mistrust, and therefore a broader Address Generality
range of tools could be used such as ….
5.4.6 Practical Implications

Towards the end of a research report or essay, you should specify some of the practical,
real-world implications and applications of the findings or conclusions. We present three
guidelines:
1. Identify who would benefit (APA Example 5.32).
No Significant Difference APA Example 5.32

If it is true that watching violent videos has no harmful effects, then those calling Practical
for censorship of such videos (e.g., Khaki, 2008) can desist. Implications
Hypothesis Confirmed
Media regulators might introduce policies to minimise the harmful effects of
watching violent videos.
Opposite Finding
If it is true that watching violent videos confers benefits, then those calling for
censorship of such videos (e.g., Khaki, 2008) can desist. Such videos might also be
used to treat people suffering from chronic mistrust.
2. Suggest procedures to shield people from harm, including training programs,

advertising campaigns, recruitment practices, counselling strategies, and
refinements to the physical surroundings (APA Example 5.33).
To encourage younger individuals to watch videos that do not depict violence, APA Example 5.33
teachers could set assignments about other shows, such as popular comedies. Practical
Implications from
Confirmatory
3. Consider when and where these benefits are most likely to be effective Findings
(APA Example 5.34)
This approach might be especially beneficial in regions where violent videos are APA Example 5.34
watched frequently. Efficacy of Practical
Implications
5.5 Flawed Arguments

In your research report or essay, you present your arguments, offer supporting
evidence, consider complications and complexities, and dispose of counterarguments.
Make sure all arguments are sound. Here are the main classes of flaws to look for in your
reading, and to avoid in your writing.
121
5.5.1 Vacuous Support for Arguments

Writers often cite evidence that seems to support their arguments but is actually
uninformative. One example is appeal to authority. Writers declare that some revered
person supports the argument. This evidence does not validate an argument; only
evidence does (Usage Example 5.2).

Example 5.2
Appeal to
Even Peter Crimson, a YouTube Blond (2011) conducted a meta-
Evidence, Not executive, admits that watching analysis of 450 experiments between
to Authority violent videos could foster hostility, 1985 and 2005 which showed that
further vindicating the argument that exposure to violent programs fosters
watching violent videos promotes hostility, further vindicating the
aggression. argument that watching violent videos
promotes aggression.
Another variation is appeal to ignorance. As evidence of their arguments, writers might
claim that no contradictory findings have been observed. Again, this evidence does not
validate their arguments—particularly if nobody has looked for contradictory findings

Example 5.3
Point Out Gaps No study has ever shown that Green (2011) reviewed the literature
in the Literature, aggression diminished when to show that no studies have been
Rather Than governments prohibited access to conducted on whether aggression
Appealing to YouTube. Therefore, the aggression diminished when governments
Ignorance that pervades society could not be a prohibited access to YouTube.
function of watching violent videos.
5.5.2 Vacuous Dismissal of Opposition

The second class of errors is from writers who use emotional allegations, rather than
objective arguments, to dismiss opponents. Writers who attack the character—and not the
opinions—of their opposition commit the sin of ad hominem argument (Usage Example 5.4).

Example 5.4
Avoid Ad Sepia (2000) demonstrated that White (2005) reviewed Sepia’s
Hominem watching violent videos promotes (2000) study and found three serious
Arguments mistrust. Nevertheless, Sepia is not a methodological problems that make
qualified psychologist, hence his claim his claim tenuous. First ….
is tenuous.
Similarly, some writers subtly attempt to ridicule opponents, implying that no sane
person could agree with opposing arguments. This is the flawed argument of appeal to
emotion (Usage Example 5.5).

Example 5.5
Appeal to Nobody could doubt that watching My review showed that watching
Rationality and to violent videos promotes aggression. violent videos promotes aggression.
Evidence, Rather
Than to Emotion
5.5.3 Misrepresentation of the Opposition
Some writers describe a faulty or weak version of opposing arguments, called a straw
man, that is easy to demolish. You should always attack the strongest version of your
opponents’ arguments (Usage Example 5.6).
122

Example 5.6
Studies reveal that exposure to Magenta (2007) reviewed studies Attack a Strong
violent depictions in cartoons does showing that although exposure to Argument, Not
not promote anger in the audience. depictions of realistic violence does a Straw Man
Viewing violent videos, therefore, promote short-term anger, these
could not provoke aggressive acts. effects are quite short-lived. Watching
violent videos, therefore, could not
provoke aggressive acts requiring
planning.
One tactic that is sometimes used to construct a straw man is to disregard

contradictory evidence. In Usage Example 5.6, for instance, the author might neglect
the studies demonstrating that aggression escalates after watching violent videos in other
genres, such as detective shows.
A practice called false dichotomies can even conceal this neglect of contradictory
evidence. Some writers subtly imply that only two options should be considered and thus
overlook other alternatives (Usage Example 5.7).

Example 5.7
Watching violent videos either Although watching violent videos Avoid False
promotes anger or has no effect. might not promote anger, it might Dichotomies
Numerous studies have failed to find promote aggression without affecting
any effect of watching violent videos anger. Indeed, it might directly affect
on levels of anger. behaviour, through modelling, rather
than influencing emotions at all.
In fact, all correctly framed dichotomies are truisms—avoid making them (Usage
Example 5.8).

Example 5.8
There are two types of people: those It is possible that personality and Avoid Dichotomies
affected by violent videos and those situational variables influence the
not. effect that watching violent videos has
on people.
Sometimes, (false) dichotomies emerge because writers rely on definitions that appear
in dictionaries, a practice known as false etymology. Dictionaries are not designed to
communicate the subtleties of psychology research and theory (Usage Example 5.9). You
should look in papers in which the authors of a theory defined it.

Example 5.9
The Oxford dictionary defines In defining aggression for her theory, Avoid False
“aggressive” as vigorous and intense, Buff (2009) pointed out five key Etymology
such as “aggressive takeovers”. aspects. First …
Watching violent videos, however, has
been demonstrated to reduce vigour.
Therefore, exposure to this violence
could not provoke aggression.
123
5.5.4 False Generalisation

The final class of flaws is called false generalisation. For example, writers often
overgeneralise: They incorrectly assume that evidence that was uncovered in one setting
should also apply to a very different context (Usage Example 5.10).

Example 5.10
Avoid Teenagers are more likely to entertain Although teenagers are more likely
Overgeneralising aggressive thoughts after they watch to entertain aggressive thoughts
news footage of wars. Watching after they watch news footage of
violent videos, therefore, promotes wars (Mint, 2007), it remains to be
aggression. determined whether other aspects of
aggression, such as behaviour, are
affected. Moreover, it also remains to
be seen whether this finding applies
to other segments of the population
and whether other forms of depicted
violence have any such effects.
Some writers also use false analogies. They reach conclusions about various issues
because of their similarity to other topics. Unfortunately, they ignore critical differences
between these two sets of issues (Usage Example 5.11).

Example 5.11
Keep Analogies Children who watch violent videos are Watching violent videos is likely
Close analogous to children who are exposed to affect children much less than
to domestic violence—and therefore witnessing other forms of violence,
are likely to experience pain, distress, such as domestic violence. Fuchsia
and confusion. (2008) has summarised the complex
of issues that surround domestic
violence, including modelling of
violent behaviour, abuse of the
children themselves, withholding of
affection, and …
In short, make sure your arguments are rational, sound, and based on evidence and
wide reading.
5.6 Helpful Sources

Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design and analysis issues
for field settings. Rand McNally.
A classic work. It is comprehensive but needs several readings.
Markovsky, B. (1994). The structure of theories. In M. Foschi & E. J. Lawler (Eds.) Group
processes: Sociological analyses (pp. 3–24). Nelson-Hall Publishers.
A beautifully written introduction to the elements of sound theories and to the
pitfalls of commonsense.
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2001). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your learning and
your life (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.
A comprehensive and practical guide to developing and applying critical thinking
skills.
124
Snopes. (2019). https://www.snopes.com

From this acclaimed website you can check whether something you may have
heard, such as an urban legend, is true or not. Its one disadvantage is that there is
a lot of advertising to scroll over before you can find the text from Snopes’s critical-
thinking staff.
Zotti, E. (Ed.). (1984). The straight dope: A compendium of human knowledge by Cecil
Adams. Ballantine.
This book is the first of four volumes by this remarkable, funny, critical thinker who
knows the answers to the most interesting questions ever posed. See also Cecil
Adams’s website http://www.straightdope.com/
125
Chapter 6
Writing Correctly and
With Style
In this chapter, we provide information about parts of speech, grammar, punctuation,
usage, and style.
6.1 The Reader’s Journey

Think of writing like driving your reader somewhere. You should know:
1. enough about the components of a car (parts of speech) and how they work
together (grammar) to get into and to start the car;
2. enough to keep the car going, to steer, and to brake (punctuation);
3. enough of the road rules so you drive on the correct side of the road and respect
other road users (usage);
4. enough techniques to drive with care, and, possibly, flair (style); and
5. where you are going (all the other chapters of this book).
6.2 Parts of Speech,

Combinations of Words,
and Grammar
Part of speech: A Parts of speech are the roles individual words play in a sentence. They include verbs,
classification of words nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and determiners.
based on their functions
in a sentence. In formal Grammar is the set of rules for how parts of speech combine into coherent phrases,
English, it includes verb, clauses, and sentences.
noun, pronoun, adjective,
adverb, preposition, Some words have more than one part of speech. For example, “part” can be a noun
conjunction, and determiner. (part of speech), a verb (part one’s hair), an adverb (part green), or an adjective (part
Grammar: The set of owner).
rules for how parts of
speech combine into
coherent phrases,
clauses, and sentences.
6.2.1 Verbs
Verb: A word denoting
Verbs are words denoting actions. In formal writing, every sentence requires a verb.
the action of a Here is some example text from McDougall (1914) with the verbs in italics and the main
sentence or clause. verb in bold italics:
The department of psychology that is of primary importance for

the social sciences is that which deals with the springs of human
action. (pp. 2–3)
126
Chapter 6: Writing Correctly and With Style
Verbs have tense, referring to when the action of a verb happened. You will use four
main tenses in your writing:
• Present tense means the action is happening now (e.g., deals).
• Past tense means the action happened some time ago (e.g., dealt).
• Present perfect tense means an action started in the past but continues or repeats
(e.g., has dealt).
• Future tense means the action is going to happen (e.g., will deal).
Verbs can be either active or passive voice (1.3.3).
• In active voice, the subject acts on the object (e.g., “McDougall [subject] emphasised
[active-voice verb] motivation [object]”).
• In passive voice, the subject is acted on by the object (e.g., “motivation [subject] was
Infinitive: The generic form
emphasised [passive-voice verb] by McDougall [object]”). of a verb; the verb preceded
You should prefer active voice in your writing—it is shorter and simpler than passive by “to” (e.g., “to go”).
Present participle: A
voice.
verb made from the
There are two almost-verbs that create difficulties in writing: infinitive part followed
by “ing” (e.g., “going”).
• An infinitive is the basic form of a verb preceded by “to” (e.g., to deal).
• The present participle expresses action taking place now, but needs to follow a
main verb (e.g., is dealing). Usage
Example 6.1
By themselves, infinitives and present participles cannot function as verbs (Usage Use Almost-
Example 6.1). Verbs Correctly
Avoid Best practice

Use an ordinary verb form, To be human. What does it What does it mean to be human?
rather than an infinitive, as mean?
the verb of a sentence.
Use an ordinary verb form, This theory dealing with This theory deals with
rather than a present participle, motivation. motivation.
as the verb of a sentence.
6.2.2 Nouns
Nouns are words for persons, places, or things: Noun: A word for a
person, place, or thing.
action.
Proper nouns are the names of people, places, and unique things. Proper nouns Proper noun: A word that
have the first letter of each major word capitalised (e.g., “Smith”, “Australia”, “American is the name of a person,
place, or unique thing.
Psychological Association”).
Number: Whether a noun
Nouns have a property called number: singular nouns refer to only one of the named is singular or plural.
things (e.g., “department”); plural nouns refer to two or more of the named things (e.g.,
“sciences”). Most plurals are formed simply by adding s, es, or en to the end of a singular
noun (e.g., “cats”, “foxes”, “oxen”; also note “children”). Exceptions include words derived
from Greek and Latin; their singulars often end in a, us, or um, and their plurals end with
ae, i, and a respectively. The five most misused plurals appear in Table 6.1. Your marker will
be impressed if you use these words correctly. Print the table, stick it on your refrigerator
door, and practise every day. Appendix C presents other tricky plurals.
127
Table 6.1. Singular Plural Examples

Five Tricky Plurals
criterion criteria One criterion of good writing is the correct use of plural words.
Several other criteria are important, including correct punctuation
and grammar.
datum data A datum for each individual was the reaction time for the first
question. I analysed all participants’ data using t-tests.
medium media An influential medium is TV. Other media such as magazines,

newspapers, and radio cannot combine moving images and
sound.
phenomenon phenomena One learning phenomenon is spontaneous recovery.
There are three other important learning phenomena.
Collective noun: A noun stimulus stimuli Each stimulus was displayed in a circular field.
for a collection of things We presented the 10 stimuli in a random order.
(e.g., family for all the
members of a family).
A noun’s number must agree with its verb. A list of nouns with “and” before the
final one is plural. The number of a list of nouns with “or” or “nor” before the final one is
determined by the noun closest to the verb. Collective nouns that stand for a collection
Usage of things (e.g., “family” for all the members of a family) are usually singular, except in New
Example 6.2 Zealand English (Usage Example 6.2).
Ensure that
Nouns Agree
with Their Verbs
Avoid Best practice
Treat two or more singular Buccola and Spector (2016) Buccola and Spector (2016)
words, if joined by an “and”, has proposed a useful definition. have proposed a useful
as plural. definition.
When two or more words are Either smiling or lollies Either smiling or lollies promote
joined by “or” or “nor”, use promotes happiness. happiness.
the word closer to the verb
to determine whether the Either lollies or smiling Either lollies or smiling
combination is singular or promote happiness. promotes happiness.
plural.
Treat collective nouns as The family were interviewed The family was interviewed
singular (except if you are together. together.
writing in New Zealand
English). It is most humane, The members of the family
however, to emphasise that were interviewed together.
groups are made up of
individuals.
Treat whole numbers and Seventy-five percent of the Seventy-five percent of the
percentages that exceed one as population is happy. population are happy.
plural; treat other numbers as
singular. One in four own a TV. One in four owns a TV.
There were 1.4 mg of the drug There was 1.4 mg of the drug in
in each food pellet. each food pellet.
128
6.2.3 Pronouns
Pronouns are words that stand for nouns. Pronoun: A word that
stands for a noun.
The department of psychology that is of primary importance for the
social sciences is that which deals with the springs of human action.
Impersonal Pronouns
Impersonal pronouns stand for things (e.g., “it”, “this”, “that”, “these”, “those”). The
impersonal pronoun “that” stands for “the department of psychology”.
Personal Pronouns Person: To whom a
noun or pronoun refers,
Personal pronouns stand for people (e.g., “I”, “you”, “her”, “their”). whether the speaker, the
one spoken to, or others.
Grammatical Person. A personal pronoun refers to a particular person: the
Grammatical gender:
speaker(s)—first person (I, we), the person or people spoken to—second person (you), or Whether a noun or
another or others—third person (he, she, they) (Table 6.2). Person affects which other words pronoun is masculine,
in a sentence, clause, or phrase agree with that pronoun (e.g., for verbs: “I am”, “she is”). feminine, or neuter.
Table 6.2.
Possessive adjective or
Subjective, Objective,
Person Subjective Objective determiner (see 6.2.8)
and Possessive
Singular Cases of Personal
First I me my, mine
Pronouns by Person
and Number
Second you you your, yours
Third he, she him, her his/her, hers
who whom whose
Plural
First we us our, ours
Second you you your, yours
Third they them their, theirs
who whom whose
Grammatical Gender. A personal pronoun has a particular grammatical gender:

masculine (he), feminine (she), and neuter (for all plurals: we, you, they). For singular
pronouns, it reflects the actual gender of the person referred to. The APA Manual allows the
Usage
singular “they” for cases where the gender is unknown or irrelevant and for any person
Example 6.3
who prefers to be referred to as “they” (1.3.2). We recommend methods other than the
Ensure That
singular they, such as pluralisation of the other parts of a sentence or clause so “they” can Pronouns Agree
be plural too (Usage Example 6.3). Grammatical gender of a personal pronoun can affect with Their Nouns
how some other words in a sentence, clause, or phrase agree with that pronoun (e.g., for and are Free from
nouns: “She is an actress”; although this usage is declining in favour of “actor”). Gender Bias
Avoid Better practice

Use a singular pronoun to The participant submitted his The participant submitted their
represent a singular noun; use responses online. responses online.
a plural pronoun to represent Participants submitted their
a plural noun. responses online.
The participant submitted
responses online.
Participants responded online.
(Continued)
129
(Continued)
Avoid Better practice
Use preferred pronouns to The patient was a 65-year-old The patient was a 65-year-old
represent an individual’s woman. They complained of woman. She complained of not
gender. not being able to see colours. being able to see colours.
One of the self-identified men One of the self-identified men
complained about the online complained about the online
questions; they dropped out of questions; he dropped out of the
the study. study.
Use correct gender and case The patient was a 33-year-old The patient was a 33-year-old
for possessive pronouns. person. Their complaint was man. His complaint was having
having poor memory. poor memory. [By using “man”,
the writer gives the gender of the
person.]
Use preferred pronouns to The patient was a 33-year-old The patient was a 33-year-old
avoid gender bias. person. His complaint was person. Their complaint was
having poor memory. having poor memory. [By using
“Their”, the writer gives the
person’s preferred pronoun for
gender.]
Case: A noun’s or pronoun’s Grammatical Case. A personal pronoun has a particular case: subjective or nominative (I),
grammatical role in a objective or accusative (me), or possessive or genitive (my, mine). It refers to the grammatical
sentence, clause, or phrase.
role the pronoun has:
• In a simple, active-voice sentence or clause, the subjective case denotes the subject
(e.g., “I calculated”); The subjective pronoun usually initiates the action and
precedes the verb.
• In a simple, active-voice sentence, clause, or prepositional phrase, the objective case
denotes the object: What the verb or preposition acts on (e.g., “The idea [subject]
surprised [verb] me [object]”). The objective pronoun usually follows the verb. The
only exception is that the verb “to be” takes the subjective case for the object (e.g., “It
[subject] was she [object]”). Any pronoun following a preposition is in the objective
case too (e.g., “The marriage counsellor assigned different tasks to him and me”).
• Possessive means the pronoun owns—possesses—something (e.g., “My argument is”).
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronoun: A Relative pronouns introduce parts of clauses used to modify nouns or pronouns, and
pronoun that introduces
include “who”, “which”, “that”, and “where”.
a clause that functions
as an adjective.
action.
Who Versus That. Use “who”, “whom”, and “whose” to refer to humans (e.g., “It was
Piaget who first showed …”; “Freud is the one to whom Jung was referring …”; “Spock,
whose ideas shaped the attitudes of a generation of mothers, asserted …”). Reserve “that”
for referring to non-human animals and objects (e.g., “The animals that were in the
experimental group …”; “The realisation that changed our approach …”).
130
Who Versus Whom. “Who” refers to the subject of the sentence—the person, animal,
Usage
or thing that performs some act; “whom” refers to the object of a sentence (Usage Example 6.4
Example 6.4). Safire (1992) gave some good advice: if you need to use “whom” in a Distinguish
sentence, rewrite it. Between “Who”
and “Whom”
Avoid Best practice

Use “who” for the subject of Individuals whom smile feel Individuals who smile feel
a sentence. Use “whom” for happy. happy.
the object of a sentence. If in
doubt, rewrite. The man who Smith examined The man whom Smith examined
felt upset. felt upset.
Smith examined the upset man.
Which Versus That. Use “which” to introduce a parenthetical clause—a clause that
could be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence—involving non-humans
(e.g., “This idea, which has been promoted on several previous occasions, is again becoming
popular.”). In particular, “which” often precedes an optional description of some noun or
pronoun. For example, the phrase “smiling, which is relaxing, promotes happiness” implies
that smiling is always relaxing and also promotes happiness. In addition, use “which” if
you would otherwise have to write “that … that” (e.g., as in McDougall’s sentence).
Use “that” to introduce a clause indispensable to the meaning of the sentence (e.g.,
“The stimulus that was shown in the inter-trial interval was a smiley face”). In particular,
“that” is often used to restrict the meaning of the previous noun. For example, the phrase
“smiling that is genuine promotes happiness” implies that only genuine smiling promotes
happiness. Adjective: A word
modifying a noun.
6.2.4 Adjectives
Adjectives are words describing nouns and pronouns.
Comparative: An adjective
comparing two nouns.
action.
Usage
Example 6.5
The most common errors with adjectives occur with comparatives—adjectives that
Distinguish
compare two items. Comparatives include “more” and “less” as well as words in which “er” Numbers From
is added, such as “larger” or “fewer” (Usage Example 6.5). Amounts
Avoid Best practice

Use “fewer” for numbers of Smiling promotes less benefits Smiling promotes fewer benefits
discrete items and “less” for than does laughing. than does laughing.
amounts (including time). In
general, the word following Participants in Group A had Participants in Group A had four
“less” must be singular; the four fewer minutes to complete less minutes to complete the task
word following “fewer” must the task than participants in than participants in Group B.
be plural. Group B.
Note that “different” is not a comparative, so you cannot write “A is different than B”.
Write “A is different from B”.
131
6.2.5 Adverbs
Adverb: A word modifying Adverbs are words that modify verbs or adjectives. Adverbs are usually formed from
a verb or an adjective. adjectives plus “ly” (e.g., “correctly”, “effectively”, “largely”). We have changed the first part
of McDougall’s sentence to include an adverb:
The department of psychology that primarily deals with the

springs of human action …
Some adverbs, such as “only”, “almost”, “just”, “nearly”, and “barely”, are called
modifiers: They modify the meaning or implications of another word or phrase. For
Usage example, “He studied only 10 hours” implies that 10 is inadequate. In general, these words
Example 6.6 should immediately precede the term or phrase they modify (Usage Example 6.6).
Locate Adverbs
Correctly
Avoid Best practice
Place adverbs, especially “only”, He only studied 10 hours. He studied only 10 hours.
just before the term or phrase [“Only, placed here, means the
they modify. only activity he undertook was
studying—not breathing or
eating]
Dangling modifier: An Students often write ambiguous sentences because of a problem called dangling
error in which a modifier is modifiers. This happens when a section of a sentence, often a present participle (e.g.,
missing the words required
to clarify what it is modifying. “pressing” in Usage Example 6.7) or an adjectival phrase is intended to modify the
meaning of a part of the sentence that is missing.
Usage
Example 6.7
Tie Dangling
Modifiers Into
Their Sentences
Avoid Best practice
Spell out all parts of a sentence. By pressing a key, a new trial By pressing a key, the
commenced. participant started a new trial.
“One morning I shot an elephant One morning, I shot an elephant
in my pajamas”. (Groucho Marx that was in my pajamas.
in Animal Crackers, 1930)
6.2.6 Prepositions
Preposition: Words that Prepositions are words that show the relationships of nouns and pronouns to other
show the relationship
words. They include “at”, “by”, “in”, “to”, “with”, and “between”.
of nouns and pronouns
to other words.
action.
132
Each preposition has its own meaning, but “between” and “among” are often confused
Usage
(Usage Example 6.8). Example 6.8
Distinguish
Between “Between”
and “Among”
Avoid Best practice

Use “between” to distinguish The choice is among Theory X The choice is between Theory X
two things. Use “among” to and Theory Y. and Theory Y.
distinguish more than two
things. The choice is between Theory The choice is among Theory X,
X, Theory Y, and Theory Z. Theory Y, and Theory Z.
6.2.7 Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words that join other words, phrases, or clauses. We have to continue
McDougall’s sentence to meet some:

action, the impulses and motives that sustain mental and bodily
activity and regulate conduct.
Conjunctions such as “as”, “although”, and “than” must join two things in the same
sentence (e.g., “As can be seen in Figure 4, the means are the same.”; “Although in theory
the technique should work, in practice this procedure is not effective.”; “Effect A is larger
than effect B.”).
Conjunction: A word that
Conjunctions such as “however”, “nevertheless”, and “moreover” join things in adjacent joins two nouns, phrases,
clauses, or sentences.
sentences or independent clauses (e.g., “Theory X is Darwinian. Theory Y, however, is
Larmarckian. Nevertheless, Theory Y is popular.”; “Participants enjoyed the experiment.
Moreover, some volunteered for subsequent experiments.”). Usage
Example 6.9
“Neither” and “either” can be pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, or, most commonly in Use Neither and
formal writing, conjunctions (Usage Example 6.9). Either Correctly
Avoid Best practice

Use “neither” and “either” There were neither There were no colloquialisms,
only for two things. colloquialisms, contractions, contractions, foreign words, or
foreign words, nor proper nouns proper nouns in the list.
in the list.
Participants could choose one of
Participants could choose either three alternatives.
of three alternatives.
Follow “neither” with “nor” Neither Breese (1899) or Neither Breese (1899) nor
and “either” with “or”. McDougall (1914) explained the McDougall (1914) explained the
phenomenon. phenomenon.
Either Breese (1899) nor Either Breese (1899) or
McDougall (1914) explained the McDougall (1914) explained the
phenomenon. phenomenon.
133
6.2.8 Determiners
Determiner: A word A determiner is a word preceding an item (a noun or noun phrase) that tells a reader
preceding a noun or
what you mean, such as whether the item is specific (definite) or general (indefinite), to
noun phrase giving the
relationship of the noun or whom it belongs, and how many.
noun phrase to the context
of the surrounding text. The department of psychology that is of primary importance for the
social sciences is that which deals with the springs of human action.
There are five basic sorts of determiners:

Article: The words 1. Articles. Articles are words preceding an item that refer to its definiteness. There are
“a”, “an”, and “the”. three articles: “a”, “an”, and “the”.
• “A” is an indefinite article used when the following word begins with a consonant
sound (e.g., “a stimulus”). The noun that follows must always be singular. Indefinite
articles indicate one among many possible nouns (e.g., “A vital concept for my
argument”—this implies there are other possible vital concepts).
• “An” is the same as “a”, except it is used when the following word begins with a
vowel sound (e.g., “an anxiety disorder”).
• “The” is the only definite article. It indicates only one noun that can be singular or
plural (e.g., “The most important concept for my argument”—there can be only one
most-important concept) or a noun already introduced by an indefinite article (e.g.,
“The concepts I mentioned earlier”).
Demonstrative: A word 2. Demonstratives. Demonstratives show the item(s) to which you are referring, such
showing the item(s) to as “this”, “these”, and “those”.
which you are referring.
• Demonstratives can be definite—referring to one (e.g., “this argument”) or to a set
of items (e.g., “these considerations”) you have already mentioned, or indefinite—
referring to some among more (e.g., “some counterarguments”).
• Prefer definite demonstratives (“this”, “that”, “these”, “those”) over indefinite ones
(“some”, “any”).
• Demonstratives must point clearly to their item(s). If in one sentence you refer to
two studies and you begin the next sentence with “This study”, then the reader will
not know which you mean (6.4.3).
Possessive: A word showing 3. Possessives. Possessives show who owns an item (e.g., “mine”, “hers”).
ownership of item(s) to
• Possessives can be definite—referring to one owner (e.g., “my argument”) or
indefinite (e.g., “someone’s argument”).
• Prefer definite possessives (“my”, “your”, “his”, “her”, “Mary’s …”) over indefinite ones
(“someone’s”, “anyone’s”).
Quantifier: A word showing 4. Quantifiers. Quantifiers show how many items there are or how much of an
how many or how much amount there is.
there is of item(s) to which
you are referring. • Prefer definite quantifiers (e.g., “all”, “every”, and “no”) over indefinite quantifiers
(e.g., “few”, “little”).
Number: A word showing 5. Numbers. Numbers are exact quantifiers (e.g., “five studies”).
exactly how many or how
much there is of item(s) to • Numbers are only definite (e.g., “1.4-g weight”).
• Prefer numbers over indefinite quantifiers (2.11.3, 6.4.3).
134
6.2.9 Combinations of Words

Writing also involves knowing how to combine words into phrases, clauses, sentences,
and paragraphs.
Phrases. A phrase contains one or more adjacent words that function as a single unit
(such as an adjective or a noun) within a sentence.
The department [noun phrase] of psychology [prepositional,
adjective phrase] that is [verb phrase] of primary importance
[prepositional phrase] for the social sciences [prepositional
phrase] is that [verb phrase] which deals [verb phrase] with the
springs [prepositional phrase] of human action [prepositional
phrase].
Clauses. A clause consists of adjacent words or phrases including a verb. An

independent clause must be able to stand as a complete sentence [everything in this
sentence prior to here is an independent clause], whereas a dependent clause could not
stand as a sentence.
{The department of psychology that is of primary importance

for the social sciences} [dependent clause 1] is {that which deals
with the springs of human action} [dependent clause 2].
Sentences. A formal sentence contains a verb and a subject, expresses a complete thought,
begins with a capital letter, and ends with an end mark, usually a period but sometimes an
exclamation mark or a question mark. Average sentence length is about 100 to 130 characters
(15 to 20 words). The shortest sentences contain only a single word, a verb, with an implicit
subject (e.g., “[You] Go.” “Observe.” “Stop.”). Formal sentences should contain an explicit subject:
“I go.” “You observe.” “The argument stops.” Formal sentences should also contain an object: “I
will propose the following argument.” “Figure 3 shows the means and standard deviations.” Note
that subjects and objects can be single words, phrases, or clauses:
{The department of psychology that is of primary importance
for the social sciences} [subjective clause] is [the verb of the
sentence] {that which deals with the springs of human action}
[objective clause].
Paragraphs. A paragraph should contain about 520 to 780 characters (80 to 120
words). It must contain at least two sentences. A paragraph expresses one major idea
(6.4.5). The main idea, the punch line, of each paragraph should be expressed in a single
topic sentence. The most common type of paragraph in scientific writing has the topic
sentence first. Subsequent sentences develop, explain, and illustrate the topic. The next
most common type has the topic sentence last, with the preceding sentences guiding the
reader to the topic. Mix paragraph types for variation.
6.3 Punctuation
6.3.1 End Marks (Period, Question Mark,
Exclamation Mark)
A period (2.3) ends a sentence containing a statement (2.3). A question mark ends
a sentence containing a question. An exclamation mark ends an emphatic or facetious
sentence. Exclamation marks are rare in formal writing.
135
6.3.2 Commas
Use a comma for four purposes (Usage Example 6.10).
Usage
Example 6.10
Use Commas
Correctly
Avoid Best practice
Use a comma to segregate Breese (1899), Crovitz and Breese (1899), Crovitz
elements of lists of three or Lockhead (1967) and Campbell and Lockhead (1967), and
more items, including authors’ and Howell (1972) all Campbell, and Howell (1972) all
names. Place a comma before rediscovered the phenomenon. rediscovered the phenomenon.
the final “and” or “or”.
Use a comma to separate An innovative successful theory An innovative, successful theory
adjectives that describe the
same noun.
Use a comma to segregate This idea originated by Freud This idea, originated by Freud,
parenthetical phrases or clauses has influenced many scholars. has influenced many scholars.
from the rest of a sentence.
Use a comma to segregate Smiling promotes happiness and Smiling promotes happiness,
independent clauses joined crying reduces anger. and crying reduces anger.
by “and”; omit the comma
between dependent clauses. Smiling promotes happiness, Smiling promotes happiness and
and also fosters hope. also fosters hope.
[dependent clause]
6.3.3 Semicolons
Usage Use a semicolon within a sentence to separate closely related, independent clauses, or
Example 6.11 to segregate items in a list that contain commas (Usage Example 6.11).
Use Semicolons
Correctly
Avoid Best practice
Use a semicolon to separate Theory A is popular, theory B is Theory A is popular; theory B is
closely related, independent unpopular. unpopular.
clauses.
Use a semicolon to segregate Here is an example list of related Here is an example list of related
items in a list that contain abbreviations: CR, UCR, CS, abbreviations: CR, UCR, CS,
commas. and UCS, m, g, and s, and IQ, and UCS; m, g, and s; and IQ,
CA, and MA. CA, and MA.
A run-on sentence occurs when two or more complete sentences are joined with
Run-on sentence: A
sentence that needs
a comma or a conjunction. Break them with semicolons if the sentences express
to be divided into two related thoughts and with periods if the sentences express different thoughts (Usage
or more sentences. Example 6.12).
136
Usage
Example 6.12
Divide Run-on
Sentences
Avoid Best practice

Place independent thoughts The choice among the classical The choice among the classical
into independent clauses or in theories is complicated, there are theories is complicated; there
separate sentences. problems with all of these theories are problems with all of
and Friston (2010) proposed a new these theories. Friston (2010)
theory I will discuss. proposed a new theory I will
discuss.
6.3.4 Colons
Use a colon within a sentence to introduce a list of items (e.g., “There were four
conditions: control, auditory, visual, and olfactory.”) or to emphasise a single, final element
of a sentence (e.g., “Skinner devoted his life to one concept: operant conditioning.”). In
both cases, the clause preceding the colon must be independent. The colon essentially
prompts the reader to expect clarification of the previous clause.
Sometimes, the words after the colon form a complete sentence. Only in these instances
should the first letter after the colon be capitalised.
6.3.5 Apostrophes
In formal writing, an apostrophe is used only to signify a possessive (e.g., “the experiment’s
design”). To form the possessive of a singular noun, add apostrophe s (e.g., “the theory’s
assumptions”, “the stimulus’s duration”, “Jones’s paper”). To form the possessive of a plural noun
ending in s, add a final apostrophe (e.g., “these theories’ assumptions”, “The Joneses’ [i.e., Fred’s
and Myrtle’s] contribution”). To form the possessive of a plural noun ending in anything other
than s, add apostrophe s (e.g., “children’s toys”, “the stimuli’s origin”). One exception, however, is
that the possessive of “it” is “its” (without an apostrophe). It is similar to personal pronouns (e.g.,
“his” and “her”) in having its own possessive case.
6.3.6 Parentheses
Other than for citations (4.3.1), for various explanatory or statistical purposes (2.7.3,
2.7.5), or for self-defined abbreviations (2.11.4), use parentheses (1.4.3) to enclose
material that is unnecessary for the meaning of the sentence (e.g., this example).
Parentheses tell the reader that the enclosed material could safely be ignored. Ensure
the grammar of enclosed material matches the rest of the sentence. Each time you use
parentheses, ask yourself if the material is vital to the meaning of the sentence. If this
material is vital, include the information in the sentence. If the material is anything
other than an example, omit it to save distracting the reader.
Do not include consecutive parentheses. Insert their material into the same parentheses
and separate them with a semicolon (Usage Example 6.13).

Example 6.13
free-energy principle (FEP) (Friston, free-energy principle (FEP; Friston, Concatenate
2010) 2010) Adjacent
Parentheses
137
Em dash: The longest

dash, equal in length
6.3.7 Em and En Dashes
to the letter M, used Use em dashes—illustrated here—to emphasise a shift in the grammatical flow of
to set off parenthetical
material in sentences.
a sentence. Em dashes are the longest dashes, equal in length to the letter M. They
En dash: The next-longest
create a pause intermediate in strength between commas and parentheses. Text follows
dash after the em dash, equal immediately, without any spaces, before and after an em dash.
in length to the letter N. They
are used as an abbreviation Use en dashes as an abbreviation for “to”. En dashes are the next-longest dash
for “to” and for minus signs. after the em dash, equal in length to the letter N. Examples include ranges of pages in
references or quotations (e.g., “pp. 1–10”), other ranges (e.g., “participants’ ages ranged
from 18–26”), and to indicate direction (e.g., “Sydney–Melbourne bus”). Text follows
immediately, without any spaces, before and after an en dash.
En dashes can also be used for minus signs. To show a negative number, precede the en
dash with a space (e.g., “samples were stored at –18° C”). To show minus in an equation,
surround the en dash with spaces (e.g., “x – y = z”)
6.3.8 Hyphens
Compound word: A set Compound words are sets of words that mean something different from each of the words in
of words that denotes a isolation, such as “self-esteem”. Use hyphens, the smallest dashes, in compound words whenever
meaning that diverges
from each of the words in • the first word is self (e.g., “self-esteem”);
isolation (e.g., “self esteem”).
• the first word is a number (e.g., “one-way mirror”);
• a subsequent word begins with a capital letter (e.g., anti-Republican);
• the compound represents an adjective and precedes a noun (e.g., “high-anxiety
employee”, “well-known star”, “good-looking dog”; “short-term pleasure”); and
• the hyphen prevents an ambiguity. For example, compare the meaning of “man chasing
woman” with “man-chasing woman” or “We asked the teachers to re-mark the papers”.
Scare quotation: When

If the compound includes an adverb or comparative, hyphens are dropped (e.g., “highly
a writer places quotation anxious employee” or “less anxious employee”). Otherwise, try to minimise hyphens. Set
marks around a word or your word processor not to break words across lines with hyphens.
words to indicate that they
6.3.9 Quotation Marks

are not meant literally.
Use quotation marks mainly to show quotations and to show linguistic examples
(4.3.5, Usage Example 6.14). Minimise use of scare quotations, where you put quotation
Usage marks around words you mean the reader not to take literally. Instead, find words that can
Example 6.14 be taken literally (6.4.1).
Use Quotation
Marks Correctly
Avoid Best practice
Use quotation marks to Buccola and Spector (2016) said Buccola and Spector (2016) said
show quotation. smile or lift the piano. [This “smile or lift the piano” (p. 190).
would represent plagiarism]
Use quotation marks to Desirable adjectives, such as Desirable adjectives, such as
show linguistic examples. clever, kind, and fun. “clever”, “kind”, and “fun”.
Use quotation marks Two confederates acted as Two confederates acted as
to show that the words participants. These participants were participants. These “participants”
enclosed by the marks are instructed to act amicably when were instructed to act amicably when
not to be taken literally. they met the remaining participants. they met the remaining participants.
Use the above principle The computer “knew” which The computer recorded which
sparingly. Do not use it for alternative the participant had alternative the participant had
scare quotations. This is lazy chosen. chosen.
or patronising.
138
6.4 Style
6.4.1 Formal and Dispassionate Writing Usage
Maintain a Consistent, Formal Tone. Maintain a formal tone, avoid clichés and Example 6.15
colloquialisms, use metaphors sparingly, and beware the verbal equivalents of scare Avoid Clichés
quotations (Usage Example 6.15). Like the Plague1
Avoid Best practice

Maintain a formal tone; avoid At the end of the day [cliché 1], In conclusion, the unruliness
clichés and colloquialisms; use the moral of the story [cliché 2] of children trained with the
metaphors sparingly. is that the bottom line [cliché 3] X technique obscured any
of my study is that children significant results. When the
trained with the X technique results were analysed with
were literally [cliché 4] out a more powerful test, no
of hand [colloquialism 1], so meaningful findings emerged.
the results are up the creek
[colloquialism 2] . . . When
the results were analysed with
a finer-toothed [metaphor 1]
statistical test, the hypothesis
still lay bleeding on the ground
[mixed metaphor 2].
Slash slashes. The participant was asked Participants were asked whether
whether he/she felt happy and/ or not they felt happy, content,
or content. or both.
Avoid the verbal equivalent of With this in mind, the I discarded the hypothesis.
scare quotations. hypothesis was dead, as it were,
and was discarded as such.
1
Attributed to William Safire
Use the Best Words. Ensure you know the meaning of all words you use. Beware when
using a thesaurus to find synonyms. Some pairs of words are often confused (Table 6.3).
Other pairs appear in the online materials that accompany this book.
Table 6.3.
Problem pair Part of speech Meaning Example
Problem Pairs
adverse adj unfavourable the participants suffered from adverse
reactions to the drug
averse to adj reluctant some individuals with agoraphobia are

even averse to leaving their houses
affect noun emotion the client’s affect was flat
effect noun result the effect of diffusion of responsibility

was to delay helping
(Continued)
139
Table 6.3. Problem

Problem pair Part of speech Meaning Example
Pairs (Continued)
affect verb influence learning the prior list affected recall of
the test words
verb pretend the client affected a cheerful

demeanour
effect verb bring about the therapist effected a quick recovery

in her client
alternate verb change from one to perception alternated between one and
another the other stimulus
alternative noun one of two or more choose the correct alternative

possibilities
adj an alternative candidate
comprise verb consist of the list comprised 10 words
consist of verb comprise the list consisted of 10 words
disinterested adj impartial Smith, coming from neither side of the

controversy, is a disinterested judge
uninterested adj without interest, the participant, having just eaten, was
unconcerned uninterested in eating more
farther adj more distant observers judged the distance of the

farther of the landmarks
adv maze-bright rats progressed farther in

the maze than maze-dull rats
further adj additional with further research the phenomenon

might be explained
adv when Jones developed the theory

further
gender noun someone’s position gender refers to the psychological

on a psychological aspects that differ among men,
dimension from women, and various other genders
masculine to feminine
sex noun male, female, trans, sex refers to the biological or sexual
and intersexuality aspects of being male, female, trans,
and intersexual
imply verb entail logically smoke implies fire
infer verb generalise from from these examples, we can infer a

evidence principle
principal adj main, first the principal effect of caffeine is

stimulation …
noun the principal of the school (i.e., the

main teacher of the school)
principle noun law, tenet Frechner coined the pleasure principle
Note: adj = adjective, adv = adverb.
140
The best words are formal and precise. Informal, imprecise words include “done”, “give”,
Usage
“get”, “got”, “made”, “make”, “little”, and “due to” (Usage Example 6.16). Example 6.16
Use the Best Words
Avoid Best practice

Beware “do”. We did a statistical test to show We conducted a statistical test
that smiling promotes happiness. to show that smiling promotes
happiness.
Beware “get”. To get participants to smile, we To encourage participants to
asked them to raise the ends of smile, we asked them to raise
their mouths. the ends of their mouths.
Beware “make”. Happy individuals often make Happy individuals often reach
inappropriate decisions. inappropriate decisions.
Beware “due to”. Smiling promotes happiness due Smiling promotes happiness
to the effect of bodily sensations because bodily sensations affect
on emotions. emotions.
Beware “things”. There are two important There are two important
things affecting how a smile is factors affecting how a smile is
perceived. perceived.
Use visual metaphors carefully. This study looks at the effects of This study is on the effects of
smiling on happiness. smiling on happiness.
Happiness is seen as the most Some authors say happiness is

desirable emotion. the most desirable emotion.
6.4.2 Simplicity
Use modern, simple, direct words, and write in the active voice (6.2.1). To illustrate by
counterexample: Obsolescent prolixities and circumlocutions are to be eschewed (the first
part of the first sentence has been recast into complex, indirect words and expressed in
the passive voice). Avoid any jargon from outside psychology—any for which your marker
might need to refer to a dictionary.
Sentences should seldom exceed 130 characters (20 words). Break long sentences into Usage
two or more shorter sentences. However, avoid the opposite extreme of using only short Example 6.17
sentences; otherwise, the writing style is choppy and monotonous. Write Simply,
Explicitly,
Use first person and active voice to be explicit and concise (e.g., “I decided to extend
Positively,
the deadline” rather than “A decision was made to extend the deadline” (1.3.3). Frame and Use Only
sentences positively (Usage Example 6.17). Psychology Jargon
Avoid Best practice

Write simply. To originate an authentic test, To create a valid test, I used
I employed artlessly worded simply worded questions.
interrogations [too many
complicated words].
Write explicitly. The test was improved [passive I used [active voice] positively
voice] by reframing questions to framed questions to improve the
be more positive. test.
(Continued)
141
(Continued)
Write positively. To create a valid test, I did To create a valid test, I used
not use questions framed positively framed questions.
negatively.
Use only psychology jargon. The plaintiff spoke to the court In an unusual move, the person
ex parte about being declared who began the court case
indigent [too much jargon, in spoke in private to the judge
this case legal, from outside about being unable to pay costs
psychology]. for legal representation.
Parallel construction: When you are describing, comparing, or contrasting similar ideas, use parallel
Use of similar grammatical construction. Use the same grammatical forms (e.g., subject, verb, object) and even,
forms and words for
adjacent phrases, as far as possible, the same words for adjacent phrases, clauses, or sentences (Usage
clauses, or sentences. Example 6.18).
Usage
Example 6.18
Use Parallel
Construction for
Parallel Ideas
Avoid Best practice
Use the same grammatical The participant began each trial The participant used key presses
forms (e.g., subject, verb, with a button press, using the to start each trial, to provide a
object) and even, as far as keyboard to give a response, response, and to end a trial.
possible, the same words. and the trial finished when the
participant pressed another
button. [the three clauses all
have different grammatical
forms]
The results showed no The results showed no
significant differences in the significant differences in
area of anxiety, or regarding anxiety, depression, or psychosis
depression; psychoses also did across the groups.
not differ.
Use the same terms for the Anxiety reduces performance Anxiety reduces performance most
same ideas. most for highly intelligent for highly intelligent individuals
individuals …. Often gifted …. Often highly intelligent
individuals … individuals …
6.4.3 Precision and Clarity

Be precise rather than emphatic or vague. For example, instead of writing “a disastrous
event” or “numerous times”, write “a disaster” (a better noun) or “17 times” (the exact
number). Instead of writing “a relatively large number of participants” or “a fairly big effect”,
be precise with “25 participants” or “a 55% effect”.
Specify Relational Words Explicitly. Relational words describe relations between
things (e.g., “different [from]”, “similar [to]”, “bigger [than]”, “oldest [of]”, “irrelevant [to]”).
Unless obvious from the context, when you use these relational words, explicitly specify
the things you are comparing (Usage Example 6.19).
142

Example 6.19
The mean height of males is greater The mean height of males is greater Spell Out Relations
than females. than the mean height of females.
The oldest participant of all the The oldest participant was 80 years.
participants was 80 years. [obvious from the context]
Specify Non-specific Referents. All sentences should be clear. These provide

problems. We hope by now you have recoiled in horror at the previous sentence. To what
does “These” (a non-specific referent) refer: sentences or non-specific referents?
Non-specific referent:
The sentence “These provide problems” illustrates two problems of non-specific When it is not clear to which
noun a pronoun (such as
referents. First, any time you use a pronoun, ensure the reader is clear about what it
“this” or “that”) refers.
is referring (as with the “it” in this sentence). Second, your text should always stand
independently of the previous paragraph, heading, or title. “These provide problems”
should be “Non-specific referents cause problems” (Usage Example 6.20).

Example 6.20
Many psychologists ask individuals Many psychologists ask individuals Specify Non-
to smile. This has been shown to to smile. Smiling has been shown to specific Referents
promote happiness. promote happiness.
This approach is better than those that This approach is better than
are more expensive. alternatives that are more expensive.
Smiling is a beneficial activity. It has Smiling is a beneficial activity. This
been shown to promote happiness. act has been shown to promote
happiness
Reserve Temporal Words for Referring to Time. Some words that we normally Usage
understand as referring to time also can be used to refer to logical relations. Reserve such Example 6.21
words for referring to time (Usage Example 6.21). Reserve Temporal
Words for Time
Avoid Best practice

Use “while” to mean “as Some research indicates that Individuals tend to feel happy
time passes”; use “although” smiling promotes happiness, while they smile.
or “whereas” to mean “in while some research indicates
contrast to”. that smiling promotes anxiety. Some research indicates that
smiling promotes happiness,
whereas some research indicates
that smiling promotes anxiety.
Use “as” to mean “concurrent Smiling promotes happiness Smiling promotes more
in time”; use “because” to mean as our emotions are biased by happiness as we do it more
“for this reason”. expressions. often.
Smiling promotes happiness
because our emotions are biased
by expressions.
(Continued)
143
(Continued)
Avoid Best practice
Use “since” to mean “after Smiling promotes happiness Since 2000, many studies
in time”; use “because” since our emotions are biased by have examined the benefits of
otherwise. expressions. smiling.
Smiling promotes happiness
because our emotions are biased
by expressions.
Anthropomorphism: Attribute Humanity Only to Humans. Only humans engage in such activities
When a writer attributes as arguing, suggesting, or attempting. To attribute these abilities to non-humans,
human aspects to
such as theories, concepts, or data, is to commit an error called anthropomorphism
something non-human.
Usage
Example 6.22
Attribute Humanity
Only to Humans
Avoid Best practice
Avoid anthropomorphism. Friston’s (2010) theory suggests Friston (2010) suggested an
an alternative explanation. alternative explanation.
This concept favours a different Proponents of this concept

perspective. favour a different perspective.
The study examines this issue I examined this issue.
6.4.4 Economy
Use the fewest, simplest words:
• Eliminate paragraphs that are not directly relevant to your assignment.
• Eliminate sentences in which you restate other sentences (i.e., sentences beginning
explicitly or implicitly with phrases such as “In other words”, “To put it another
way”).
• Turn passive into active voice (e.g., “The unconscious was emphasised by Freud” to
“Freud emphasised the unconscious”).
• Turn clauses into phrases (e.g., “Young children may respond less carefully and
may tend to say ‘yes’ to everything” to “Young children may carelessly agree with
everything”).
• Turn phrases into single words (e.g., “The theory applied in the context [phrase 1] of
sensory processes [phrase 2]” to “The theory applied to sensation”).
• Replace clichéd expressions by simple prepositions or conjunctions and eliminate
tautologies (Usage Example 6.23).
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Usage
Example 6.23
Use the Fewest,
Simplest Words
Avoid Best practice

Prune any unnecessary words. In order to promote happiness, To promote happiness,
individuals should smile. individuals should smile.
If individuals smile, then they If individuals smile, they tend to

tend to become happier become happier.
Prune prepositional phrases in terms of in, on, about

about relationships. with respect to in, on, about
in relation to about
Prune prepositional phrases at the present time now

about time. in the process of now
at that particular time then
in the near future soon
Prune other wordy be of the opinion think

expressions. despite the fact that although
Prune tautologies. actual fact fact

close proximity close
final conclusion conclusion
must necessarily must
reason why reason
6.4.5 Integration
Point the Way Within Paragraphs. If your paragraph begins with its topic sentence,
make sure all the remaining sentences explain, develop, and illustrate it, integrating
information. If your paragraph ends with its topic sentence, make sure all the preceding
sentences integrate information and lead gracefully and logically to it. In any case,
ensure that some sentences include appropriate conjunctions and connecting phrases,
such as “however”, “nevertheless”, “in contrast”, “although”, “in addition”, “furthermore”,
“moreover”, “indeed”, “similarly”, “likewise”, “consequently”, “therefore”, “first”, “second”,
“finally”, “for example”, “for instance”, and “to illustrate”.
Point the Way Between Paragraphs. Each paragraph should be independent of other
paragraphs. Although independent, each paragraph should flow logically and gracefully
from the previous paragraph. The concluding sentence of one paragraph should logically
evolve into the first sentence of the next paragraph (APA Example 6.1).
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APA Example 6.1 Example 1

Pointing the For these methodological problems, there are three possible solutions. [The next
Way Between
paragraph would begin with a sentence about the first solution].
Paragraphs
Example 2
One interpretation of the results is that social processes cannot account for
these behaviours. [The next paragraph would begin with a sentence about how an
alternative interpretation of the results allows a social-processing explanation].
6.5 Finer Details

Careful writers adhere to some writing conventions that might otherwise seem
pedantic. This is because careful writers know that readers who neither know nor care
about the conventions will not notice when they are kept, but that readers who do know
and care will be distracted if the conventions are not kept. A good writer writes for all
readers.
6.5.1 Keep Infinitives Intact

Writers split infinitives when they place a word or phrase, often an adverb, between the
“to” and the verb part of an infinitive. A famous example of a split infinitive is “To boldly go”.
To re-join the infinitive one could write: “To go boldly”. To avoid the whole issue, one could
use a verb that does not require the adverb: “To venture”.
6.5.2 Keep Prepositions Away from the End of

a Sentence
Winston Churchill is reputed to have objected to keeping prepositions away from
the end of a sentence, saying: “This is an impertinence up with which I will not put”.
Nevertheless, his sentence can be redrafted into a natural form honouring the rule: “I will
not put up with such impertinence”.
6.6 Your Own Style

To resume the analogy we presented in 6.1, writers ignorant of grammar and
punctuation are like drivers who, although they know the way to their destinations, fail to
arrive because they drove on flat tyres, ran out of petrol, or had accidents. Writers ignorant
of good usage are like drivers who reach their destinations, but only after running over
kerbs, clashing the gears, and losing their passengers. Writers ignorant of style are like
drivers who reach their destinations, but meander down unnecessary side roads, driving
farther than necessary. Skilled drivers have their own styles: some drive carefully, admiring
the view along the way; other drivers rush, showing flair and verve. As you master the
skills of driving your texts, you can develop your own style. Remember, however, that the
point is to arrive at your destination with your passengers still on board.
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6.7 Helpful Sources

Arnaudet, M. L., & Barrett, M. E. (1990). Paragraph development: A guide for students of
English. Prentice Hall Regents.
This book provides useful guidance on structuring paragraphs.
Fowler, H. R., & Aaron, J. E. (2016). The Little, Brown handbook (13th ed.). Pearson.
A comprehensive and easy-to-use guide to using grammar correctly and to writing
effectively.
Pinker, S. (2014). The sense of style: The thinking person’s guide to writing in the 21st
century. Penguin.
A psychologist’s clearly written perspective on writing clearly, including a chapter
on grammar. If you read nothing else about effective writing, read this book.
Strunk, W., Jr., White, E. B., & Angell, R. (2008). The elements of style (4th ed.). Allyn &
Bacon.
A brief, readable book on the major problems in writing style and grammar.
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Chapter 7
Writing for Other
Forms of Assessment
In your study of psychology, your instructors may ask you to complete assessments
other than research reports and essays. These include examinations, posters, and
literature reviews (narrative and systematic).
7.1 Examinations
You will strike examinations every semester of your course, including multiple-choice
(MCQ), short-answer, and essay questions.
7.1.1 Preparation
To prepare for an examination, carefully review your notes, the course notes, the prescribed
reading, and any associated websites or practice questions. Pay attention to the learning
outcomes listed in your instructor’s course notes and lectures to identify content areas most
likely to be examined. Use lecture recordings to revisit topics you find difficult. Practise on any
previous examinations that you can find. Form a study group in which you can test each other.
If you do not understand some of the material, ask your instructor during consultation hours.
Your instructor may unintentionally give hints about examination content (“Oh, you don’t
need to worry about that.”). If you suffer from examination anxiety, visit the health service of
your institution for support and information about remedial strategies.
Being smart about how you study can save time, reduce stress, and improve your
grades (Brown et al., 2014). Try these strategies:
• Schedule time between study sessions—spacing out your revision is better than
uninterrupted cramming.
• Find ways to test your knowledge while you study—using questions and practising
recall is better than simply reading and highlighting your notes.
Mind map: A diagram • Use mind maps and mnemonics to help increase the amount of information you
containing an item to
can recall and to help combat writer’s block. A mind map is a diagram containing
be remembered in the
centre of a page, linked an item to be remembered in the centre of a page, linked by lines to related
by lines to related items, items, which in turn link to other related information. A mnemonic is an easily
which in turn link to other
remembered sentence or poem encoding harder-to-remember information, such
related information.
as lists. For example, Some People Can Fly! is a mnemonic for Piaget’s stages of
Mnemonic: An easily
remembered sentence cognitive development: Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, Concrete operations, Formal
or poem encoding operations.
harder-to-remember
information, such as lists.
7.1.2 Planning During an Examination
Before the official start time of the examination, you will usually be allowed a few
minutes to read the first page of instructions. Use this time to understand exactly how
148
Chapter 7: Writing for Other Forms of Assessment
many questions you must complete in the examination and to create a schedule for
answering them (e.g., an examination might include three sections from each of which you
must attempt one essay question). Determine the time you have to assign to each question
based on the marks (e.g., if 50% of the marks are assigned to the first section, ensure you
spend 50% of the examination time on this section).
Once you can look at the remaining pages of the examination, and if it is a mix of
different types of questions, follow this plan:
1. Read any essay and short-answer questions.
2. If you have a choice, choose which essay(s) to answer, then sketch an outline for it
(them).
3. If you have a choice, choose which short-answer questions to answer, then sketch
an outline for them too.
4. Answer MCQs first, then short-answer questions, then essay questions. Some MCQs
might remind you of information you should include in your short answers and
essays. Write this information immediately into your outline(s), and then go on to
the other MCQs. Note: this strategy works best if all sections of the examination
cover similar content.
5. For questions of the same type and percentage of marks, attempt the easiest
questions first. This tactic extends the time that is available to think about the more
difficult questions.
6. Leave about 10% of the examination time to check your answers. Check them in the
same order as you completed them. In the case of short answers and essays, this
tactic ensures enough time for you to see your answers with fresh eyes.
Make sure you attempt every question your instructor requires. You might earn some
marks for a question you attempt, even if you are not sure of your answer, but you will
score zero if you omit to answer a question.
If you have writer’s block on a particular essay question, try writing a story about how
you would discuss the question with one of your classmates. That might get you going.
7.1.3 Multiple-Choice Questions

There are usually many MCQs, taking 1–2 minutes each. MCQs consist of a stem and
two or more alternatives from which you select the most correct option. Usually, you
receive a point for selecting the correct alternative, and no points for selecting any other
alternative. If you select two or more alternatives, you will receive zero for the question,
even if one of the alternatives you chose is correct. If you are uncertain of the answer,
guess, unless you are told you will lose a point for choosing an incorrect alternative.
To answer an MCQ, read and understand the stem. Beware stems containing the
word “not”—these require you, opposite to habit, to select the incorrect alternative. Then
read and understand the alternatives. If you are not sure which one is correct, first try
to eliminate any options you know cannot be the answer (e.g., Who discovered classical
conditioning? Incorrect alternatives: Donald Duck, Donald Trump, Donald Bradman) and
then guess among the remaining alternatives. You can improve your odds of guessing the
correct alternative by
• choosing the longest alternative: truth often warrants some qualification requiring
more words;
• eliminating alternatives containing absolute terms (e.g., always, every, and all);
• eliminating alternatives containing spelling, grammatical, or syntactic errors;
149
• eliminating alternatives that differ logically from the stem (e.g., if the stem implies a
plural alternative, eliminate any options that are singular); and
• choosing the odd alternative (e.g., the option phrased in the active voice if all other
alternatives are phrased in the passive voice).
If all else fails, choose alternative c.
7.1.4 Short-Answer Questions

For short-answer questions, give the required information in about a paragraph of
clear, grammatical, and cohesive sentences, taking about 5–20 minutes each. Your marker
will expect you to show that you understand, and can write clearly about, the answer.
7.1.5 Essay Questions

Examination essays are similar to essays discussed in Chapter 3. That is, you need to
analyse the topic, to decide on an answer or argument, to write an introduction, body, and
conclusion, and to write clearly and precisely. Examination essays differ from other essays
in requiring less original thinking, in assessing your ability to remember material, and in
not having an abstract and reference list (you can have citations).
In analysing the topic, you must understand what your marker has asked you to do
(3.2.1). Your approach will differ if a question is “Write short notes on” (convey information
about the topic) from if it is to “Compare and contrast” (describe the similarities of and
differences between). Try to peer inside the minds of your markers to predict how they
might assign marks. For example, in a compare-and-contrast question, your marker may
assign 50% of the marks for comparing and 50% for contrasting. If your instructor has
specified how the marks are going to be assigned, devote time and words of your essay in
proportion to the marks.
Some students, unfortunately, regard an essay topic as an excuse to regurgitate every
scrap of information that might possibly connect to the topic. Your markers may deduct
marks for information that is irrelevant, even if correct. They will likely deduct marks for
information that is irrelevant and incorrect.
Ensure your handwriting is legible. If you run out of time for a particular essay or short
answer, use bullet points; otherwise write in complete, grammatical sentences.
7.1.6 Helpful Sources

Brown, P. C., McDaniel, M. A., Roediger, H. L., (2014). Make it stick: The science of
successful learning. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
This book has useful tips and advice on how to study more efficiently and effectively.
Burns, T., & Sinfield, S. (2016). Essential study skills: The complete guide to success at
university (4th ed.). Sage.
This book has a good summary of the SQP4 (survey, question, predict, plan, prepare,
practise) technique for examination preparation and performance.
Buzan, T. (2003). Use your head (Rev. ed.). BBC Worldwide.
This is a very successful book, in numerous editions. Buzan describes the MMOST
(mind map organic study technique) for learning.
Haisman, G. (2001). SWOT: Study without tears. NZCER.
Mundsack, A., Deese, J., Deese, E. K., & Morgan, C. T. (2003). How to study (5th ed.).
McGraw-Hill.
150
7.2 Posters
A poster is a visual display of a research report, usually about 1.8 m by 1.2 m. Posters
have become an increasingly common way of communicating research findings at
conferences. Presenters stand beside their posters at scheduled times, describing and
discussing their research with anyone who visits. In later years of your studies, especially
at fourth year, you might have to prepare and present a poster in a class conference.
7.2.1 Content
Communicate your message as simply and concisely as possible. Include only critical
information; give the details verbally. Use interesting and informative illustrations instead
of text wherever possible. Aim to have fewer than 3250 characters (500 words). Posters
generally adhere to the same format as a research report (Chapter 2).
Title. The same guidelines for creating a title of a research report apply to posters (2.3).
Abstract. Some, but not all, instructors may prefer you exclude an abstract (2.4).
Introduction. Unlike a research report, provide a heading (e.g., “Introduction”, or “Aims
and Hypotheses”). The poster’s short introduction provides the background and rationale
for your study (2.5).
In a short list of concise statements, you should
• highlight the significance of your study,
• refer to one or two key studies or theories that justify your research, and
• state the aim of your study and your hypotheses.
Method. Some researchers use bullet points to describe participants or subjects,
materials, and procedures (2.6). Reduce the amount of information provided by
• omitting details of apparatus, such as model numbers;
• using diagrams rather than text (e.g., experimental design or apparatus); and
• omitting details of commonly accepted methods and measures.
Results. Focus your results on one or two take-home messages. Provide a succinct
statement that summarises the major findings that support this message, including the
outcomes of any inferential statistics (2.7). Minimise words by
• using figures to display the results (2.7.3);
• omitting details about statistical assumptions and analyses; and
• excluding inferential statistics for non-significant effects. If necessary, write
something like, “None of the other effects were significant”.
Discussion (or Conclusions). In a short list of concise statements (2.8),
• summarise the key findings for the aim and hypotheses,
• indicate the theoretical or practical implications of these results,
• identify any limitations, and
• indicate future directions for your work.
References. List any references cited in the text, using APA style (4.5).
Acknowledgements. Include a section acknowledging those who helped you with the
research (e.g., granting bodies, fellow researchers; 2.3).
151
7.2.2 Format
Layout. Most posters are presented in landscape (e.g., 1.8 m wide and 1.2 m long),
although portrait presentation can also be used. Usually, to construct a poster, you create
a series of pages, called panels, to be arranged in some logical order (Figure 7.1). Each
panel corresponds to one section or subsection.
Figure 7.1
Example of The Effect of Font Size on Attraction of Attention
Poster Layout
John Smith, ABC University
Abstract Method Results: Accuracy

•This study... Participants... •...
•... Apparatus... •...
•... Procedure... •...
Background Results: Speed Conclusions

... ... ...
... ... ...
... ... ...
Aims & hypotheses References

•... ...
The title appears across the top of the poster, with the authors and their institution.
Underneath, present the remaining information, typically, in vertical columns, like a
newspaper.
Construct the entire poster in Microsoft PowerPoint (or similar software). All the
panels can be integrated into the one slide using the textbox function. You can download
a template, such as the PowerPoint template available from Purrington’s (2019) website,
or search for other examples on the internet (e.g., search for “poster AND template AND
powerpoint”). Conferences are starting to use large computer monitors to display posters.
If so, all you need is your PowerPoint file. If not, you then need to print your file at a
commercial print shop. Alternatively, you can paste several A4 pages onto a poster board
that can be purchased at most stationery stores.
Follow these recommendations to ensure your poster is both appealing and easy to
follow (based on Nicol & Pexman, 2003; Purrington, 2019; Tham, 1997).
Headings. Use more headings than in a research report. Signpost sections of the poster,
such as “Aims and Hypotheses”, “Conclusions”, “Implications”. Ensure these headings are
simple and follow APA style.
Font and spacing. The text needs to be easily read by a viewer standing more than
2 m away:
• Present titles and headings in a sans-serif font (e.g., Helvetica or Arial) and text in a
serif font (e.g., Times Roman).
• Use at least 24-point font for ordinary text, 28-point font for headings, 40-point font
for authors’ names, and 56-point font for the title.
• Ensure there are no more than 55 characters per line of text, including spaces; set in
columns if necessary.
152
• Use boldface font for headings.

• Use single line spacing for text within sections.
• Use black or very dark colours for your text.
• Use white or very pale colours for the background.
Colour. Although you want your poster to be visually appealing and noticeable, simple
designs can be most effective:
• Avoid very bright colours (e.g., hot pink, fluorescent orange, radioactive green).
• Use contrasting background and foreground colours.
• Choose colours that will be clearly distinguishable to everyone, including people
who are red–green colour blind (Baio, 2011).
• Choose two or three colours for the entire poster; use a plain background without
any pattern.
• You can add extra contrast by creating a border around each section (e.g., by using
a piece of paper that is slightly larger and different in colour from the page that
contains the text).
• Keep the poster as uncluttered as possible.
• Avoid the use of graded shading in figures, which does not appear clearly in print.
General. Ensure your poster is easy to follow:
• Use a consistent presentation style across all panels and subsections.
• Use bullet points.
• Use a new panel for a new section.
• Use arrows or numbers to help viewers follow the story.

Your marker will likely assess your poster using similar assessment criteria used for a
research report (2.1), along with your display, your verbal description, and your discussion.
In approximate order of priority, your marker will likely assess how well you
• gave simple and clear key written arguments, purpose, method, results, and
conclusions;
• produced a visually appealing display with easy-to-read information and a clear
storyline;
• spoke simply, clearly, and concisely about your poster and gave good answers to
questions;
• provided appropriate citations and references;
• used clear and accurate expression, including grammar, spelling, and punctuation; and

Baio, A. (2011, January 27). Colorblind leading the blind. Waxy. http://waxy.
org/2011/01/colorblind_leading_the_blind/
Colours to use for the nearly 8% of people who are colour-blind.
Nicol, A. A. M., & Pexman, P. M. (2010). Displaying your findings: A practical guide for
creating figures, posters and presentations. American Psychological Association.
153
A clear and comprehensive guide to constructing a scientific poster; illustrated with

good examples.
Purrington, C. B. (2019). Designing conference posters. Colin Purrington. https://
colinpurrington.com/tips/poster-design
Useful, funny advice on the content and presentation of a poster, including links to
templates and software.
Tham, M. (1997). Poster presentation of research work. https://www.queensu.ca/exph/
sites/webpublish.queensu.ca.exphwww/files/files/Workshops/Poster-Presentation-
of-Research-Work.pdf
Useful advice on designing a poster.
7.3 Narrative Literature

Reviews
Narrative reviews are the most common form of literature review assignments for
undergraduate students. To conduct one, you need to analyse and synthesise information,
to identify gaps in existing knowledge, to define the research topic more narrowly, to
understand the methodologies that can be used to explore the issues, and to make and
test a clear argument.
7.3.1 Content
The contents of a narrative review resemble a mix of an essay (3.1) and of a more
detailed version of the introduction to a research report (2.5) to provide a summary of the
background to a research question. As discussed by Hart (2018), a narrative review should
include
• an argument, providing a structure to the review;
• descriptions of a broad array of theories, enabling you to show the historical
development of research in the area, highlighting the important discoveries and
controversies;
• definitions of concepts that affect the discussion of your topic;
• a broad array of past research findings, perhaps from other disciplines that could be
used to support or challenge theories;
• an evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the major findings;
• a detailed treatment of the main methodological issues and techniques; and
• a clear direction for future research.
7.3.2 Format
The presentation of the narrative review is similar to that of an essay (Chapter 3).
There are no specific requirements for the structure of the review, except for the title and
reference list. Check with your instructor to determine whether you should provide an
abstract.
The body of the literature review can be divided into subsections to help the reader
understand the structure of the review. Use Level 2 headings to identify these subsections
(1.4.2).
154

Your marker will likely assess your narrative review using similar criteria for an essay
(3.1.2). In approximate order of priority, your marker will likely assess how well you
• integrated and evaluated the literature, providing a clear justification of your
argument;
• considered, and responded to, counterarguments;
• told a clear story, providing adequate coverage of historical context and tracing the
development of hallmark studies;
• provided appropriate citations and references;
• used clear and accurate expression, including grammar, spelling, and punctuation;
and

Hart, C. (2018). Doing a literature review: Releasing the research imagination. Sage
Publications.
Although aimed primarily at postgraduate students, this text is a useful guide to
conducting and writing a literature review that provides comprehensive advice on
reading research, analysing arguments, and presenting ideas.
Machi, L. A., & McEvoy, B. T. (2016). The literature review: Six steps to success (3rd ed.).
Corwin.
Presents the process of doing a literature review as a series of manageable steps.
7.4 Systematic Reviews

The increasing popularity of systematic reviews in the last 20 years is due in part to the
development of bibliographic retrieval methods allowing for a reproducible search of the
scientific literature, addressing concerns that narrative reviews allow authors to cherry-
pick studies. Your instructor might ask you to write a systematic review in later years of
your course.
Systematic reviews can be followed by a statistical analysis of the effect sizes of
reviewed studies, turning them into meta-analyses. You instructor is unlikely to ask you to
perform a meta-analysis in the first four years of your course.
7.4.1 Content
Systematic reviews contain at least five components:
• A clear research question.
• An exhaustive, replicable search of the scientific literature using specified search
terms and search engines to find papers.
• Evaluation of the papers on specifiable criteria (e.g., whether their authors used
methods allowing causation to be inferred or not), sorting papers either to be
included or excluded from the review.
• A summary table of the included papers.
• A clear answer to the research question.
155
Instructors might tell you how many papers to include in the table of your review. They
might helpfully give you the research question. If you are free to choose your own research
question, you may find you have to go through several cycles from 1 to 5 to produce an
answer with a desired or manageable number of papers in your table.
7.4.2 Format
Systematic reviews are structured like a research report (Chapter 2), with an
Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion. The Introduction provides a rationale and
clear statement of the research question (point 1 above). The Method gives explicit details
of how you searched the literature, including which databases you used and your search
terms (2). It also gives how you screened papers to include or reject for review (3). The
Results section gives the details of the outcomes of that search including the summary
table (4). The Discussion gives your summary of the evidence and your answer to the
research question (5). We give more details of these reviews in the online materials.

Your marker will likely assess your systematic review using similar criteria for a
research report (2.1). In approximate order of priority, your marker will likely assess how
well you
• met your aims, with thoughtful discussion of the limitations and implications of
your answer;
• justified your question by citing theoretical and empirical work;
• described your results in a table listing key aspects of each study;
• chose search terms and selection criteria that provided a reasonable answer to your
question;
• used clear and accurate expression, including grammar, spelling, and punctuation;
and

PRISMA. (2015). Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses.
http://prisma-statement.org/Default.aspx
This website is for professional researchers. It is the APA Manual of systematic reviews.
Siddaway, A. P., Wood, A. M., & Hedges, L. V. (2019). How to do a systematic review: A
best practice guide for conducting and reporting narrative reviews, meta-analyses,
and meta-syntheses. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 747–770. http://doi.org/
10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102803
A comprehensive outline of the why and how of conducting a systematic review.
Zurynski, Y. (2014). Writing a systematic literature review: Resources for students and
trainees. Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit. http://www.apsu.org.au/assets/
Resources/Writing-a-Systematic-Literature-Review.pdf
A brief guide to conducting a systematic review and links to useful online resources.
156
Appendix A
Flawed Research Report
This section presents a flawed research report. As a learning exercise we encourage you to:
• Identify the error marked by each superscript. Superscripts show only the first instance of each error.
• Check the explanation of each superscript at the end of the appendix to see if you were right. If so, feel
smug. If not, go to the section number(s) in parentheses to refresh your memory.
• Check whether the explanation also contains an icon to illustrate the seriousness of each error. No
icon means a conscientious marker of the research report might note the first instance of the error
and make a very minor deduction to the mark. A tight-lipped-face icon (K) means the marker
would note the error and make a minor deduction to the mark. A frowning-face icon (L) means the
marker would note the error and make a larger deduction to the mark. The more of these two icons,
the more serious the error. The death-card icon (♠) means the error is fatal, and the marker would
be obliged to stop marking and to refer the research report to the instructor for possible disciplinary
action.
• Compare the flawed research report with a correct version (2.12).
Isn’t marking fun?
157
Self-Esteem and Ability 11
The effect of writing the word “I” alongside a list of desirable adjectives on
creative and analytic ability 2
Andrew Student
Discipline of Psychology, University of Higher Education,

School of Natural Sciences
Subject: PSY101 Introduction to Psychology 3
Assignment: Research Report 1
Student No: 15698632
Tutor: A. N. Instructor
Submitted: 12 April, 2021
Word count: 1,320 4
158
Appendix A: Flawed Research Report
Abstract
5
Many individuals erroneously assume that intelligence is fixed and hence they do not
engage in activities which 6 might refine their mental capacity.
7, 8
153 9, 10 participants completed tasks that assess their capacity to propose creative
suggestions as well as their ability to apply principles and algorithms to solve problems.
Before they completed these tasks, to boost their self-esteem, half 11 the participants
transcribed a series of favourable adjectives and preceded each term with the letter I.12
Participants in the control group completed the same task, but preceded each term with the
letter X. The hypotheses were only partly supported. 13 The implications and limitations of
these findings are discussed. 14
159
The effect of writing the word “I” alongside a list of desirable adjectives on
creative and analytic ability
A series of studies that was conducted by 15 Haddock, Macrae, and Fleck 16 (2002)
proved 17 that intelligence can be enhanced. 18 In their study, participants received a
photograph of a famous supermodel. The hair of this supermodel was blonde and the
leotard she wore was light blue. 19 After the participants observed this photograph, their
performance on a test of general knowledge improved.
Afterwards, the confidence and performance of participants who completed a test of
general knowledge improved. 20, 21 Participants who had not observed the photograph did
not demonstrate this improvement. Haddock et al. (2002) suggested that participants judged
themselves to be more intelligent than the supermodel, and this evaluation might have improved
their performance (see also Mussweiler, 2001, 22 LeBouf & Estes, 2004, for similar findings).
The research conducted by Haddock et al. (2002) indicates that initiatives that are
intended to enhance peoples’23 confidence,24 might foster improvements in mental capacity.
Aspinwall and Richter (1999) suggested that confidence allows individuals to persevere
with challenging but soluble problems and does not necessarily lead people to persist in
efforts to solve intractable problems.25
Therefore,26 Zhang (2003) argued that confident individuals are more likely27 to be unfettered
by doubts or anxieties and thus can devote their concentration to the problems they receive.28
Seibt and Forster (2004), however, questioned whether the benefits of confidence apply to
all mental abilities. To demonstrate, confidence might foster creative ability but inhibit analytic
ability, which refers to the capacity of individuals to apply a specific set of principles and
algorithms to complete a task or solve a problem (Seibt & Forster 29 2004) 30, 31. In particular,
when individuals become more confident, the extent to which they act cautiously and
meticulously changes. 32 Because of this inclination, they express rather than suppress unusual
and thus original suggestions, which ultimately promotes their creativity. On the other hand,
they commit more errors and exhibit complacency: 33 hence, their analytic ability wanes.
Seibt & 34 Forster 2004 35 accumulated some evidence that supported this account.
In their interesting 36 study, psychology students were instructed to complete a series of
cognitive tasks, which assessed both creative and analytic ability. After they received
instructions designed to increase confidence, 37 their creative ability improved but their
analytic ability decayed. These findings might indicate that confidence enhances creativity
and not analytic ability but not necessarily so. 38, 39
In short, previous research implies that confidence should also promote creativity, but
not analytic, ability. 40, 41, 42 The hypothesis of this study is that increases to self-esteem,
which tend to boost confidence, should affect creativity but not analytic ability. 43, 44, 45
160
Method 46
Participants 47
They 48 included 150 individuals 49 from an introductory psychology class at

the University of Higher Education, who performed the experiment as a laboratory exercise.
The age of participants ranged from 18 to 65 (M = 25.84; SD = 3.45) years. Over 15% of the
subjects 50 were taller than 180 cm. 51 All participants received $5 for their contribution. 52
Manipulation of Self-esteem 53
Half of the participants were randomly assigned to complete an exercise that was
intended to boost their self esteem. 54 Specifically, they received a piece of cardboard
that a series of desirable adjectives, such as clever, kind, and fun, 55 appeared on.56 These
participants were asked to transcribe these items onto another piece of cardboard, but
precede each word with the letter I.
The other participants completed the same exercise, except they preceded each
desirable adjective with the letter X rather than I. This exercise does not boost self esteem
(Dijksterhuis, 2004).
161
Apparatus 57
Creativity. 58 The creativity task was developed and validated by Friedman and Förster
(2001). On the top of a single A4 sheet was the instruction to specify as many uses of a
brick as possible. The instructions also provided examples, such as “to flatten clothes” and
“to prevent a car from sliding down a hill while changing a tyre”. Underneath were twenty
blank lines. Two independent judges evaluated each suggestion on a scale from 1, very
uncreative, to 10, very creative. For each participant, a creativity score was calculated by
averaging all the creativity ratings awarded by the two judges.
Analytic ability. To evaluate analytic ability, a short test of 20 analogies, such as “Shore
is to sand as sea is to ___?” and “Pen is to write as book is to ___?” was administered.
According to Meagher (2006) 59 the number of correct responses reflects analytic ability.
Procedure
Participants were informed this study examines the relationship among 60 handwriting
and performance. Participants 61 first completed the exercise that was intended to
manipulate self-esteem. To ensure they could not decipher the goal of this activity, the
participant was informed the task was merely intended to praise his/her handwriting.62
Participants then completed the measure of creativity and the test of analytic ability. 63
Design 64, 65
The study comprised two conditions of self-esteem, which were manipulated between-
participants. In the first condition, participants preceded each adjective with the letter I—
an exercise that boosts self-esteem. In the second condition, participants preceded each
adjective with the letter X, which does not boost self-esteem. 66
162
Results 67, 68
Table 1 69
Summary of creativity and analytic ability scores. 70, 71, 72
Boosted self-esteem Control

M 73
= 7.1 74
M = 3.8
Creativity
SD = 2.5 SD = 2.1
M = 12.5 M = 8.4
Analytic ability
SD = 5.6 SD = 3.9
Creativity differed significantly 75 between the two conditions, t 76 = 9.1623, 77

p 78< 0.001 79, 80. Furthermore, compared to the control group, participants who completed
the activity that boosted self-esteem performed more proficiently on the analytic task,
t(68) = 4.16, p < .01 81, d = 0.25.
Discussion
This study looked at 82 how variations in self-esteem impact 83 mental abilities. To boost
their self-esteem, half the participants transcribed a series of favourable adjectives and
preceded each term with the letter I. The other participants completed the same task, but
preceded each term with the letter X. 84 The findings supported the first hypothesis that
self-esteem promotes creativity. The second hypothesis was not supported. 85
86
The finding that an increase in self-esteem enhances creativity proves the argument that
confidence curbs undue caution and thus promotes the expression of original and creative
suggestions. Alternative arguments, however, could explain this finding. To illustrate, in
contrast to the letter X, the letter I, coupled with a variety of words, could have prompted many
autobiographical memories. 87 These memories themselves could have improved performance
on the test of creativity. In particular, participants might possibly 88 have used these memories to
uncover other uses of a brick. 89 Alternatively, limited power could explain this finding. 90 The
finding that a boost to self-esteem improved performance on the analogies was not predicted.
91
Before accepting that boosting self-esteem improves analytic ability, one methodological
limitation needs to be considered: the sample size was small. 92 Future research should
increase the sample size.
163
Regardless, these findings do suggest that organisations could introduce initiatives that
could elevate the self-esteem of employees to boost the performance of organisations.
Perhaps, each week, employees could be instructed to specify three of their qualities
and strengths. This exercise not only promotes self-esteem (Haddock, 2002), but also
enables managers to assign roles that utilise the unique attributes of their employees.
Furthermore, employees could receive other training to enhance their creativity.
The bottom line 93 of this study is that creativity and even analytic ability improve after
individuals transcribe desirable words that are preceded by the letter “I”. These findings
suggest that exercises that boost self-esteem could subsequently enhance mental ability,
which in turn promotes career success, attracts admiration, and fosters satisfaction (Judge
et al., 2004).
Footnotes 94
Haddock, G. (2002). It’s easy to like or dislike Tony Blair: Accessibility

experiences and the favourability of attitude judgments. British Journal of
Psychology, 93, 257–267.
Seibt, B., & Forster, J. (2004). Stereotype threat and performance: How self-
stereotypes influence processing by inducing regulatory foci. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 38–56.
Zhang, L. (2003). Does the big five predict learning approaches? Personality and
Individual Differences, 34, 1431–1446.
164
Bibliography 95
1 Aspinwall, L. G., & Richter, L. (1999). “ 99 Optimism and self-mastery
96, 97, 98
predict more rapid disengagement from unsolvable tasks in the presence of

alternatives”. Motivation and Emotion, 23 100 , 221–245. 101
2 Clapham, M. M. (2001). The effects of affect manipulation and information
exposure on divergent thinking. Creativity Research Journal, 13, pg.102
335–350.
3 Dijksterhuis, A. 103 I like myself but I don’t know why: Enhancing implicit
self-esteem by subliminal evaluative conditioning. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 86, 2004, 103 345–355.
4 Friedman, R. S., & Förster, J. (2001). The effects of promotion and prevention
cues on creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1001–1013.
5 Haddock, G., Macrae, C. N., & Fleck, S. (2002). Syrian science and smart
supermodels: On the when and how of perception-behavior effects. SOCIAL
COGNITION, 104 20, 461–481.
6 Judge, T. A., Colbert, A. E., & Remus, I. (2004). Intelligence and leadership:
A quantitative review and test of theoretical propositions. Journal of Applied
7 Kierein, N. M. 105 & Gold, M. A. (2000). Pygmalion in work organizations: A
meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 913–928.
8 LeBouf, R. A., & Estes, Z. (2004). “Fortunately, I’m not Einstein”: Comparison
relevance as a determinant of behavioural assimilation and contrast. Social
Cognition, 22, 607–636.
9 Levy, S. R., Stroessner, S. J., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Stereotype formation and
endorsement: The role of implicit theories. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 74, 1421–1436.
10 Mussweiler, T. (2001). “Seek and ye shall find”: Antecedents of assimilation
and contrast in social comparison. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31,
499–509.
165
Explanation of Errors
1 Use APA style to format running heads and page numbers (1.4.1). This running head should be all in capital
letters.
2 Use APA style for the research report’s title (2.3.1). It is too long. The first letter of each major word should
be capitalised. L
3 Provide this sort of information only if your instructor specifically requests it. K
4 Give the omitted Author Note (1.2.5, 2.3). LL
5 Use APA style for the abstract (1.4.1, 1.4.2, 2.4). All lines of the abstract, except its Level 1 heading, should
be left justified.
6 Use formal language with correct word usage (6.2.3). In this case, use “that” when the following
information is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use “which” after a comma and before information
not essential to the meaning of the sentence. K
7 Give the aim(s) of the study in the abstract (2.4). L
8 The abstract should be a single paragraph (2.4).
9 Use APA editorial style (2.11.3). Spell out numbers that begin a sentence.
10 Actually, there were 100 participants (2.12). L
11 Half of 153 does not go. L
12 Enclose linguistic examples in quotation marks (6.3.9).
13 The abstract should give an explicit summary of the main findings (2.4). L
14 The concluding sentence of the abstract should be informative (2.4). This one could apply to any study. L
15 Prefer the active voice (1.3.3, 6.4.2). This one is passive voice (there are many other examples). K
16 If there are three or more authors for a citation, give the first author’s name and “et al.” (1.4.3), unless this
would be ambiguous (4.3.4). K
17 Use correct words (1.3.4). Scientific studies cannot “prove” an argument; they can merely “suggest”,
“indicate”, or “support” an argument. LL
18 The first sentence of a research report should entice readers to read more by leading them to the main issue
of the study somewhere in the first paragraph (2.5.1). The main issue is absent from the paragraph. LL
19 Give only details that are relevant to explaining findings (2.5.2). Without much more information, these are
not. LL
20 Use the fewest, simplest words (6.4.4). This sentence is largely redundant with the previous one. It could be
deleted if the previous sentence included a word or two about confidence. L
21 Provide a citation for every fact you mention (1.2.3) other than those that really are common knowledge. This is
by far the most frequent error students make. LL
In the case, the reader might understand that the citation was in the previous paragraph, but APA style is to
repeat the full citation in each paragraph containing an explicit mention of, or an allusion to, the study. K
22 When more than one citation occurs in parentheses, give them in alphabetical order, separated by
semicolons (4.3.5, Usage Example 4.5).
23 Place the apostrophe before the s to indicate possessive of plurals that do not end in s, such as “people’s” or
“children’s” (6.3.5). K
24 Use only necessary commas (6.3.2). L
25 Ensure you paraphrase fully (1.2.4). In this case, the last 13 words of the sentence are copied from
Aspinwall and Richter (1999, p. 223) without being enclosed in quotation marks—plagiarism. ♠
26 Ensure that each sentence follows logically from the previous one (6.4.5). This sentence does not; its
“therefore” is incorrect. L
27 Specify relational words explicitly (6.4.3). More likely than whom or what? K
28 Paragraphs should contain at least two sentences (6.2.9). K
29 For parenthetical citations, place a comma between the author(s) and year (4.3.5).
30 Avoid repeating the same citation in a paragraph (4.3.1). In this case, there is already a narrative citation.
It is better to refer to that citation with the personal pronoun for the authors (1.2.4) instead of making a
new (incorrectly formatted) parenthetical citation. That is, replace “To demonstrate,” with “They suggested
that”.
31 Ensure it is clear to which part of a sentence a parenthetical citation applies (1.2.4). In this case, it could be
the first clause or the second. Strictly speaking, it is the second, leaving the first cause uncited. Continuing
the narrative citation, as above, would have fixed the problem, because then the context would make it clear
that both ideas belong to Seibt and Forster (2004). L
32 Be precise and informative. The direction of this change should be specified, such as “declines” (6.4.3).
166
33 Use a semicolon, not a colon, to separate related but independent clauses (6.3.3).
34 Write “and”, not “&”, for names outside parenthetical citations (1.4.3; 4.3.5, Usage Example 4.3).
35 Place the year of publication in parentheses (1.4.3, 4.3.1).
36 Be concise (1.3.5, 6.4.4) The word “interesting” is redundant; uninformative studies would not be
included.
37 This study is critical to the rationale of the current experiment; therefore, more information is needed about
the experimental manipulation of confidence (2.5.2).
38 Frame sentences positively (6.4.2). This sentence contains a double negative. L
39 Make all sentences clear and fit into a progression of ideas, in this case towards the hypothesis (2.5.2). The
last part of the sentence undermines both goals, contradicting the first part. L
40 Ditto (2.5.2). In this case, a more explicit argument needs to be developed to demonstrate the link between
the shortcomings of past research and the reasons for conducting the current study (2.5.3). L
41 Ensure that the aim of the study is clearly specified (2.5.4). The aim is still not clear. L
42 Provide a brief outline of how the study addresses the aim (2.5.4). The outline should include how critical
variables, such as self-esteem, were manipulated. L
43 The hypothesis should be clearly linked to a theory or argument (2.5.4). This one is not. L
44 The hypothesis should be clearly operationalised (2.1.1). The predictions should be stated using the
variables of the study (2.5.5). This hypothesis has neither attribute. L
45 Specify the direction of the hypothesis (2.5.5). L
46 Method, Results, and Discussion sections continue without a page break (2.6, 2.7, 2.8).
47 Use Level 2 headings for subsections of the Method (left-justify, capitalise the first letter of each major
word, set in boldface, no italics) (1.4.2, 2.6).
48 All sentences within sections must be complete and intelligible (2.6), standing independently of the
headings. It is not clear to whom “they” refers.
49 Specify the number of men, women, and other genders if gender could conceivably influence the findings
(2.6.1). K
50 Reserve the term “subjects” for animals and people unable to give informed consent, such as babies and
children (2.6.1).
51 Exclude details, such as height, if this information could not conceivably affect the results (2.6.1). L
52 It is usual to include information such as how the study was approved by some committee whose members
assessed whether it is ethical, how participants gave informed consent to participate, and whether the
number of participants or subjects yielded sufficient power (2.6.1). All this is omitted, which would
normally be a serious error, but this might have been a class exercise. Perhaps the instructor did not give
information about these points, lessening the error. K
53 Information provided in this section may be more appropriately presented elsewhere. For example, a
description of the task could be usefully included at the end of the introduction to help operationalise
the hypotheses. A description of the processes in which participants were involved is more appropriately
presented in the Procedure section (2.6). K
54 Use a hyphen for any compound word beginning with “self” (6.3.8).
55 Use quotation marks to show linguistic examples (6.3.9).
56 Keep prepositions away from the end of sentences (6.5.2).
57 The subheading “Apparatus” is not suitable when the study does not include any technical equipment
(2.6.2). The heading “Materials” would be more appropriate. K
58 Use Level 3 headings for subsections within subsections: Left-flush, set in boldface italics, capitalise the
first letter of major words, omit any period, and begin the subsection's text on a new line as an ordinary
paragraph (1.4.2).
59 Meagher (2006) is missing from the reference list. Include all references cited in the research report (2.9,
4.5). L
60 Use “between”, not “among”, to compare two objects (6.2.6).
61 Make all sentences in the paragraph parallel (6.4.2, Box 6.18). Otherwise, at least use “They” to avoid
boringly repeating “Participants” as the first word of adjacent sentences.
62 Use appropriate personal pronouns for individuals’ genders (1.3.2). Using “he/she” (or “his/her”) implies
incorrectly there are only two genders (1.3.2, 6.2.3). K
63 State how participants were debriefed about the deception in the procedure (2.6.3). L
64 Give a “Design” subsection only if the design requires more than a few sentences to describe (2.6.4).
167
65 Give a complete description of the design. Stated as it is it seems simple (see above), but the design (2.12)
is more complex, suggesting that Andrew Student did not understand it. LL
66 Give the planned statistical analyses in the Design paragraph or subsection (2.6.4). L
67 Begin the results by telling the reader what the scores represent, how data were treated, and the results of
any tests of statistical assumptions (2.7.1). L
68 Any figure or table must be referred to in the text (2.7.2). Table 1 is not so referred and is confusingly the
first part of the results, without any preceding text. L
69 Set the table number in boldface text (2.7.4).
70 Set the table title in italics with capitals for the first letter of major words. Omit any final period. (2.7.4).
71 Ensure the table title is informative (2.7.4). This one could be better.
72 Use only horizontal lines to set off the table from the text or notes and to set off the table headers from the
table data (2.7.4).
73 Italicise all statistical symbols that are standard alphabetic letters (2.7.5).
74 Give non-integer numbers, these ones at least, to two decimal places (2.11.3). K
75 Specify the direction of any significant difference (2.7.5). K
76 Give the degrees of freedom for any statistical test (2.7.5). K
77 Give a maximum of three decimal places for any number (2.11.3).
78 Set in italics standard alphabetic letters used as statistical symbols (2.7.5).
79 Omit the zero that comes before the decimal point for any statistic that can take values only between 1 and
–1 (2.7.5).
80 Give the effect size for any inferential statistical test, whether significant or not (2.7.5).
81 Give the exact probability value if it is greater than .001 (2.7.5)
82 Use visual metaphors carefully (6.4.1); attribute humanity only to humans (6.4.3). Studies cannot look at
anything—they don’t have eyes.
83 Avoid clichés (6.4.1). “Impact” has become a cliché, far removed from its original sense of a violent
collision.
84 Use the fewest, simplest words (6.4.4). For some formal writing addressing this and the preceding two
points, try: “To examine the effects of self-esteem on mental abilities, participants either boosted their self-
esteem by writing “I” before each of a series of favourable adjectives or served in a control condition by writing
“X” in otherwise the same task”.
85 Begin the Discussion by reiterating the aim, method, findings, and decisions about the hypotheses (2.8.1).
This sentence omits telling the reader what was the hypothesis. K
86 Provide a paragraph relating the findings to relevant, past research; for example, to the findings of Siebt
and Forster (2004) (2.8.2). L
87 Citation required here (1.2.3)? It would not be required if it was Andrew Student’s original thinking, but
it also might just reflect Andrew Student’s lack of ability to find earlier authors who had the same idea
(1.2.5). K
88 Write economically (1.3.5, 6.4.4). “Might possibly” is a tautology; “might” suffices.
89 Offer suggestions future researchers could follow (2.8.6). Andrew Student makes a good suggestion, but
needs to say how the research could be done.
90 Explain predicted significant findings (2.8.2). Limited power can explain non-significant, but not
significant, findings (2.8.3). L
91 Explain unexpected significant findings (2.8.4). Although Andrew Student says this is such a finding, he
omits to give possible reasons. K
92 In explaining unexpected significant findings, the explanations need to be reasonable (2.8.6). Although it is
possible a significant finding happened by chance, saying that 150 participants is a small sample size needs
some more justification (it is actually a rather large sample size). A marker might think Andrew Student is
simply rounding up the usual suspects. K
93 Maintain formal writing (6.4.1). “The bottom line” is a colloquialism. K
94 Do not include footnotes (2.11.5). These are references, which is where they should appear (1.4.3, 4.4). K
95 Include a reference list—which includes only references cited in a research report (1.4.3, 4.5). A
bibliography contains all the sources read but not necessarily cited. K
96 Give references in alphabetical order (1.4.3, 4.5). Do not number them.
97 Format references with hanging paragraphs (1.4.3, 4.5).
168
98 Provide references only for works cited (1.4.3, 4.4). This and some others are not. L
99 Do not enclose titles of references in quotation marks (1.4.3, 4.5). K
100 Give the issue number for a journal volume (1.4.3, 4.5). K
101 Give the DOI or URL for a reference (1.4.3, 4.5). K
102 Omit “pg.” before pages of a reference (1.4.3, 4.5).
103 Give the year of publication of a reference after the author names, in parentheses (1.4.3, 4.5). K
104 Give journal names with only the first letter of each major word capitalised (1.4.3, 4.5).
105 In references, insert a comma after each author’s initials except the last author’s (4.4.1).
169
Appendix B
Flawed Essay
Here is an example essay you definitely should not use as a model. As a learning exercise we encourage
you to:
• Identify the error marked by each superscript. Superscripts show at least the first instance of each
error. Some show different aspects of repeat errors.
• Check the explanation of each superscript at the end of the appendix. The section numbers in
parentheses point to further information.
• Check whether the explanation also contains an icon, explained in Appendix A, showing how serious
is each error.
• Compare the flawed report with a correct version (3.11).
170
Appendix B: Flawed Essay
1
Running head: Are examinations unfair? 12
A paper on 3 whether or not performance on examinations unfairly depends on the

capacity of an individual to regulate their 4 anxiety 5
Andrew Student 6
University of Higher Education 7
Course: PSY 101: Introduction to psychology A 8
Student number: 111222-333
Course: Bachelor of Science
For: A. N. Instructor
Submitted: 12-Jun-2021 [2021] 9, 10
Abstract 11
12
The level of anxiety that students experience during an examination partly determines
their performance. Although this effect could be ascribed to the impact of suppression
on working memory. 13, 14 Anxiety might merely reflect limited knowledge or study. In
addition, attempts to conceal or suppress 15 this emotion, and not anxiety per se, might
impair performance. Regardless, the finding that anxious individuals perform less
effectively in examination conditions suggests this mode of appraisal might be unfair. The
capacity to effectively 16 regulate anxiety, however, is vital in many work contexts. Students
whom 17 can manage anxiety under examination conditions, therefore, might perform more
successfully in the workplace. Even if anxiety does impinge on performance, these exams
might nevertheless be deemed as fair. Recent research suggests the capacity to withstand
anxiety in examination conditions might not apply to other settings because some students
apply tactics that are irrelevant to the work context. Furthermore, anxiety has been
171
shown to disadvantage the most intelligent individuals disproportionately. Teachers and

administrators, therefore, need to reduce anxiety to ensure that examinations are fair. 18, 19
A paper on whether or not performance on examinations unfairly depends on

the capacity of individuals to regulate their anxiety
20
In this essay, I argue that performance on examinations unfairly depends on the
capacity of individuals to regulate their anxiety, which everyone knows is an emotional
state that involves both arousal as well as pessimistic thoughts. 21 Many authors use the
term “anxiety” to refer interchangeably to trait anxiety and trait fear. Nevertheless, research
consistently shows that fear and anxiety are etiologically separable dispositions and that
measures of these constructs are only modestly correlated (Sylvers et al., 2011). 22, 23
People 24 prefer examinations for a number 25 of reasons. For example, people suggest exam
performance may not merely reflect limited knowledge, but should also measure how well
students manage anxiety because this 26 relates to work performance. 27 In this essay, I will
explore research relating to these issues as well as consider the limitations. 28
Many studies indicate that anxiety does affect exam performance in students (e.g.,
Cassady & Johnson, 2002).29 For example, Elliot & 30 McGregor (1999), in an article that
was published by authors who have been employed as teachers in high schools for over
thirty 31 years, 32, 33, 34 found that anxiety is likely to be inversely related to subsequent
performance on written exams. This finding has been observed in a variety of contexts,
such as in examinations that assess science, music performance, and other 35 humanities. 36
What about alternative perspectives? 37 To illustrate, many of the participants might
have experienced anxiety merely because they had not studied extensively (cf., 38 Baron,
1990). Limited knowledge, rather than escalating anxiety, might have impaired the
performance of these participants (Baron, 1990). 39 Indeed, consistent with this proposition,
no studies have ever demonstrated that anxiety is unrelated to knowledge. 40
Another finding 41 was discovered42 by John 43 Brown 44 in Wisconsin, 45 who
manipulated the level of anxiety immediately “before participants completed an exam.” 46,
47, 48
Nevertheless, the author of this paper is not a psychologist, and hence the validity of
these results should be questioned. 49
172
Other work 50 has shown that anxiety can compromise exam performance. Ciarocco,
Summer, and Baumeisters 51, 52 (2001) study showed that suppression of emotions, such as
anxiety, compromises performance on a variety of tasks. Martjin, Tenbult, Merckebach,
Dreezens, & de Vries (2002) also revealed that SOE 53, 54 compromises performance. 55
In a study conducted by Schmeichel, Vohs, and Baumeister (2003), individuals watched
a disturbing 56 distressing movie. The participants who were asked to pretend they were
unperturbed performed less effectively than other individuals on a later set of activities that
assessed their mental acuity. These observations suggest that individuals who feel anxious
before an exam might occasionally strive to conceal their emotions, and this inclination
might then impair their subsequent performance.
The S.O.E. 57 does not impair performance on all activities, however. It is indisputable
58
that suppression of emotions would disrupt the capacity of individuals to walk. 59
Accordingly, suppression could not compromise performance on all tasks; in other words,60
attempts to conceal emotions do not impair performance. 61
Therefore, 62 the thoughts and concerns that coincide with anxiety, and not merely
the suppression of this emotion, might also use working memory (Baddeley, 1976). 63, 64
Consistent with this suggestion, Beilock and Carr (2005) found the capacity of individuals
to recall a sequence of digits 65 purportedly a reflection of working memory (Baddeley,
1976) 66, 67 tended to deteriorate when their levels of state anxiety were elevated.
The findings of this study imply that working memory, and thus performance, is often
compromised in individuals who experience considerable anxiety, although this finding does
not necessarily imply that examinations are unfair, because, to some extent, whether or not
examinations are equitable depends on the criteria that are used to appraise fairness. 68, 69, 70, 71
Examinations could be fair even if anxiety significantly 72 compromises performance.
Individual’s 73 who experience undue anxiety, and cannot regulate these emotions
effectively, might not only perform modestly in exams but might also fail to thrive in a
work context. ie, 74, 75 the capacity to temper anxiety might be pertinent to work settings,
which are often stressful. Exam performance, while 76 confounded with the ability to curb
anxiety, might predict work success accurately (e.g., Judge, Heller, & Mount, 2002).
173
Several studies have examined the importance of managing anxiety in the workplace
(e.g., Judge et al., 2002; Morewedge et al., 2005). First, 77 individuals who feel particularly
anxious in one setting tend to experience similar concerns in other contexts as well (similar
to other emotions, such as anger). 78 This consistency arises because individuals use a
similar set of techniques to manage their anxiety across all settings (Morewedge et al.,
2005). Morewedge et al. (2005) 79 revealed that, before some individuals engage in any
stressful or harrowing activity, they often spontaneously recall one previous occasion in
which they undertook a similar task. They recollect the most salient instance- 80 which is
usually the most distressing occasion-and thus their anxiety soars. In contrast, an individual
might deliberately recall several occasions in which he 81 undertook a similar task and thus
does not only 82 recollect the most distressing occasions. Their 83 level of anxiety remains
intact (see Morewedge et al., 2005; for similar findings, see 84 Beilock & Carr, 2005).
Second, I feel that 85 individuals who can manage their anxiety effectively would obviously
86
perform more successfully at work or, at least, would be more confident.
This obfuscating 87 study by Morewedge et al. (2005) suggests that individuals who can
moderate their anxiety under exam conditions, and hence perform tests proficiently, are also
more likely to succeed in the workplace. Nevertheless, some strands of research suggest
the capacity to manage anxiety in exam conditions is not applicable in other contexts. For
instance, to alleviate anxiety and to boost performance, some students are instructed 88 to
rely on their first instincts when they complete multiple-choice examinations. In particular,
they are encouraged not to modify their original responses. Recent research suggesting this
tactic actually degrades exam performance. 89 Kruger, Wirtz, and Miller (2005) 90 conducted
a study in which students placed an asterisk alongside each question in which they were
not certain their first response was correct. Modified answers were more likely to be correct
than unmodified 91 answers. This tactic, 92 which is intended to alleviate anxiety but damages
performance, is seldom applied outside the realm of exams.
Anxiety impacts 93 performance most for highly intelligent individuals (Beilock & Carr,
2005). Specifically, gifted 94 individuals might be more likely than are other students to rely
on working memory when they perform cognitive operations. As a consequence, elevated
levels of anxiety, which encumber 95 working memory, are more likely to disadvantage
174
gifted individuals. This argument was supported by Beilock and Carr (2005) who revealed
that anxiety was especially likely to impede the ability of gifted individuals to solve
various intellectual problems. 96
Other research has shown that anxiety can be alleviated by the use of mental imagery.
McGowen (2002) asked participants to imagine a relative or friend who is always supportive or
complimentary. Maintaining this image for several seconds reduced feelings of distress. 97
However, in the real world, few people have the luxury of time, or the desire, to imagine a
description of an important person when faced with a stressful situation (p. 160). 98
In short, individuals who experience considerable anxiety during exams tend to perform
less effectively than do other students. As explored in this essay, there are several reasons
why this might be the case. 99 This phenomena 100, 101 cannot be solely ascribed to the
relationship between anxiety and exam preparation. I have shown that anxiety—or at least
the suppression of anxiety—disrupts exam performance in some domains. Anxiety also
encourages risky behaviour, which might encourage students to socialise rather than study
(e.g., Cooper et al., 2000). 102 I have also shown that some of the skills that students apply
to regulate their anxiety during exams cannot be used in the workplace. As a consequence,
exam performance does not accurately predict job success; anxiety, therefore, might
compromise the equity of examinations. 103
REFERENCES 104
Baddeley, A. D. (1976). The psychology of memory. Basic Books.
S. L., 105 Beilock 106 & Carr, T. H. (2005). When high-powered people fail: Working
memory and “choking under pressure” in math. Psychological Science, Vol. 107
16 108 101–105. 109
Cooper, M. Lynne, 110 Agocha, V. Bede., & Sheldon, Melanie. S. (2000). A
motivational perspective on risky behaviours111: The role of personality and
affect regulatory processes. Journal of Personality, 112 68, 1059–1088.
Ciarocco, 113 N. J., Summer, K. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2001). Ostracism and ego
depletion: The strains of silence. Pers. Soc. Psych. Bull., 114 27, 1156–1163.
175
Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (1999). Test Anxiety And The Hierarchical Model
Of Approach And Avoidance Achievement Motivation. 115 Journal of Personality
& Social Psychology, 7, 628–644.
Harper, 116 F. B. W. (1974). The comparative validity of the Mandler-Sarason Test
Anxiety Questionnaire and the Achievement Anxiety Test. Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 34, 961–974.
Judge, T. A., Heller, D., & Mount, M. K. (2002). Five-factor model of personality
and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 530–
541.
Martjin, C., Tenbult, P., Merckebach, H., Dreezens, E., & de Vries, N. K. (2002).
Getting a grip on ourselves: Challenging expectancies about loss of energy after
self-control. Social Cognition, 20, 441–460.
McGowan, S. (2002). Mental representations in stressful situations: The calming
and distressing effects of significant others. Journal of Experimental Social
Morewedge, C. K., Gilbert, D. T., & Wilson, T. D. (2005). The least likely of times:
How remembering the past biases forecasts of the future. Psychological Science,
16, 626–630.
Schmeichel, B. J., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Intellectual
performance and ego depletion: Role of the self in logical reasoning and other
information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85,
33–46.
176
Explanation of Errors
1 Format running heads according to APA style (1.4.1). In this case, omit “Running head:” and set the text of
the running head in all capital letters. K
2 Format page numbers according to APA style, at the right margin (1.4.1).
3 Give an informative title of fewer than 100 characters including spaces (2.3). This one is too long. “A paper
on” and other words of the title are redundant and can be deleted. K
4 Although the singular “their” has been legitimised by the editors of the APA Manual, we recommend
pluralising to avoid what some readers will regard as a grammatical error (6.2.3). Here is a title that all
readers should find acceptable: “Valid Examinations Should be Fair to Anxious Students”.
5 Use APA style for the essay’s title as a Level 1 heading (2.3.1). The first letter of each major word should
be capitalised and in boldface.
6 Give your name on the title page in ordinary text (2.3).
7 Give the name of your institution in ordinary text too and precede it by your department and school (2.3).
8 Provide the information on this and the next four lines only if your instructor specifically requests it. K
9 Give the omitted Author Note (1.2.5, 2.3). LL
10 The title page should end with a page break (3.3). K
11 Use Times New Roman for all text of the essay, including headings (1.4.1).
12 Format the abstract as a non-indented paragraph (3.5).
13 Write an abstract that is comprehensible to a naïve reader (3.5). This sentence uses baffling technical terms. K
14 All sentences must be complete (6.2.9). Some conjunctions, in this case “although” must join two ideas in
the same sentence (6.2.7). K
15 Communicate your intentions and feelings with words (1.3.2). Use italics only for its APA-style purposes
(2.11.7), not for emphasis. K
16 Keep infinitives intact (6.5.1). Here one has been cruelly split.
17 Use relative pronouns skilfully (6.2.3). Use “whom” when it is the object of a verb or of a preposition. K
18 The abstract should contain fewer than 800 characters (120 words) (3.5). This one is too long. L
19 The abstract should end with a page break (3.3). K
20 Begin an essay by showing that your topic is interesting and important (3.6.1). Write a first sentence that
encourages the reader to read further (2.5.1). Actually, as first sentences go the first clause of this one is not
too bad—direct and to the point. But if you do the same, your marker might not like it.
21 Provide a citation for every fact you mention (1.2.3) other than those that really are common knowledge.
This is by far the most frequent error students make. Markers know “everyone knows” means “I could not
be bothered to find the reference”. L
22 Avoid plagiarism (1.2.4, 1.2.5). Did you notice the abrupt change of style (and improvement in quality) of
the writing in this sentence from the previous one? This is because Andrew Student copied and pasted it,
including the original citation to Sylvers et al., from Lilienfeld et al. (2015, p. 2). ♠
23 Provide a logical order and progression of ideas (3.7.1). The plagiarised part seems not to fit. L
24 Be precise (6.4.3). In this case, who are these “people”? K
25 Be precise (6.4.3). In this case, Andrew Student should have given the number and considered starting a
bulleted list (2.11.6), although to do so he needed to come up with at least three reasons.
26 Specify non-specific referents (6.4.3). “This” could refer to “this research”, “this anxiety”, or many other
possibilities. K
27 Write simple sentences that express one thought (1.3.3). This sentence introduces two distinct issues—
application to work and relationship between anxiety and knowledge. It also needs a citation (1.2.3). It is
unlikely Andrew Student was the first to think of the idea.
28 Give a map of the essay (3.6.4). Andrew Student offers only a general plan to “explore issues” and to
“consider limitations”. K
29 Ensure each citation is accompanied by its reference (1.1, 1.4.3). L
30 Use APA style for citations (1.4.3, 4.3.5). Use “and” when citing two authors in text; use “&” for a
parenthetical citation.
31 Use APA style for numbers (2.11.3). Whole numbers exceeding nine should be written as numerals, not
words, unless they begin a sentence (2.11.3).
32 Use the fewest, simplest words (6.4.4). All the words from after “Elliot and McGregor (1999)” to this
superscript could be deleted.
177
33 Use sound arguments (5.5.1). In this case, Andrew Student seems to be trying to establish the credibility
of Elliot and McGregor by saying they were “teachers in high schools”, committing the error of appeal to
authority. L
34 Show (rather than tell) readers how research you cite produced the findings you describe (3.7.2). L
35 Write clear prose (1.3.4) and use parallel construction (6.4.2, Usage Example 6.18). The problematic word
is “other”. It could be interpreted to imply that science is one of the humanities, which it is not. Perhaps
Andrew Student meant it as “music performance and other humanities” (with no comma), but then the
reader would wonder why he singled out music performance as one of the humanities. The problem could
be solved by the next point.
36 Again, provide a citation for every fact you mention (1.2.3). In this case, the research Andrew Student
alluded to would determine exactly what kinds of examinations to mention in the point above, allowing
parallel construction. L
37 Every sentence requires a verb (6.2.9). This one’s is missing. In any case, the sentence is not clear (1.3.4,
6.2.9). L
38 Make sure all the words you use mean what you think they mean (1.3.4). In parentheses, “cf.” is an allowed
abbreviation of the Latin verb “confere”, which means compare (2.11.4). Unlike other abbreviations (such
as “e.g.”—for example— and “i.e.”—that is) “cf.” is not followed by a comma; read out the examples to
see why. The more serious problem with “cf.” is “compared to what?”. “Cf.” would normally be used when
a previous citation said one thing and the following citation said something different. But there was no
previous citation (1.2.3). And there is the problem. The solution is simple: delete “cf.,”. L
39 Use a narrative citation to avoid repeating a parenthetical citation in the same paragraph (4.3.1). K
40 This sentence demonstrates appeal to ignorance (5.5), a double negative (6.3.2), and a missing citation
(1.2.3). The last is the most serious, because it presupposes that Andrew Student has reviewed all the
relevant literature and can make an authoritative pronouncement on it. From what we have seen so far of
Andrew Student’s scholarship, this is unlikely. L
41 Ensure that each paragraph follows smoothly from the previous one (6.4.5). The best we could say about
“Another finding” is that it presupposes a list of studies, but Andrew Student has not set up such a list. In
any case, a list is a very weak structure for an essay. L
42 Make sure all the words you use mean what you think they mean (1.3.4). One can discover a country, or a
species, or a phenomenon, but not a finding.
43 Use APA style for citations (1.4.3, 4.3.1). Omit given names and give the publication year. KK
44 Each citation should have a reference (1.4.3, 4.4). This one does not. L
45 Include only necessary information in your essay (6.4.4). Place names are not. L
46 Show (rather than tell) readers how research you cite produced the findings, describe the findings, and
describe the conclusions (3.7.2). LL
47 Use quotation only when necessary (4.3.6). In this case, the quoted words seem to be neither those Andrew
Student might dispute nor particularly appropriate. Indeed, if the words were not in quotation marks and
a text-matching program flagged them as matching those of Brown, most markers would not be in the
least concerned, because it is likely there are many similar matches. Even so, it would have been better if
Andrew Student had paraphrased (1.2.4). K
48 Use APA style for quotations (4.3.6). Give the pages on which the original words appear in parentheses
after the closing quotation marks. Move the period from inside the closing quotation marks to the end of the
sentence. K
49 Use only sound arguments (5.5). Andrew Student has used an ad hominem argument in which he criticised
the person rather than Brown’s conclusions. L
50 Again, Andrew Student has failed to provide a smooth transition from the previous paragraph to this one
(6.4.5). The reader has no map and no idea where Andrew Student is going. L
51 Include an apostrophe before the “s” to indicate possession (6.3.5). L
52 Use APA style for citations (1.4.3). If there are three or more authors, give the first author’s surname
followed by “et al.”. K
53 Avoid abbreviations; they make your prose hard to read (2.11.4). Self-defined abbreviations must be
defined on first use (suppression of emotion). L
54 Self-defined abbreviations must be used at least three more times (2.11.4). SOE falls short on this criterion. L
55 Provide a logical order and progression of ideas (3.7.1). Use citation to integrate information concisely and
precisely (4.3.1, Usage Example 4.2; 6.4.5). Andrew Student has just listed studies. L
178
56 Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives (6.3.2).

57 Omit periods from self-defined abbreviations (2.11.4).
58 Use only sound arguments (5.5). With “it is indisputable” Andrew Student is making the bad argument of
appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is Andrew Student. L
59 Use only sound arguments (5.5.3, Usage Example 5.6). Here Andrew Student makes a straw-man
argument—a weak argument that suppression impairs performance. Hence, the rejection of this argument is
unconvincing. L
60 Use the fewest words (6.4.4). Whenever “in other words” appears, this is a sign that the same information
can be communicated more concisely.
61 Use only sound arguments (5.5.3, Usage Example 5.7). Here Andrew Student makes a false dichotomy—
that suppression either impairs performance on all or on no tasks. L
62 Provide a logical order and progression of ideas (3.7.1). The word “Therefore” means the next statement
should follow logically from the previous sentence (6.4.5). It does not. L
63 Ensure it is clear to which part of a sentence a parenthetical citation applies (1.2.4). In this case, it could be
the first clause or the second. Baddeley (1976) is a general citation for working memory. Another citation is
needed for the prior proposition. L
64 Actually, the prior proposition is very difficult to understand. L
65 Use a comma to separate a parenthetical phrase (it begins here) from the rest of the sentence (6.3.2).
66 Here is where the second comma should appear.
67 Although it is better to rewrite to avoid repeating parenthetical citations in adjacent sentences (1.2.4),
written as this sentence is, this repeated parenthetical citation (Baddeley, 1976) is necessary. Andrew
Student did something correctly.
68 Show original ideas (1.2.2). In this case, Andrew Student could have explored how different criteria can be
used.
69 Keep sentences to fewer than 130 characters (20 words; 6.4.2). This one is far too long. L
70 Confine sentences to one idea (1.33). This one is too complicated and difficult to understand. L
71 Paragraphs should contain at least two sentences (6.2.9). L
72 Write clear prose by choosing words that are unambiguous (1.3.4). “Significant” usually refers to statistical
significance. Use other words, such as “considerable” or “important”.
73 Form plurals of most nouns by adding “s” to the end of the word (6.2.2). Use apostrophes only to indicate
possession (6.3.5). L
74 Use standard Latin abbreviations (in this case, “i.e.” for “idem est”—“that is”) only within parentheses
(2.11.4). Outside parentheses, spell them out fully in English—“that is”.
75 Use italics only for foreign words not in the dictionary (2.11.7). Common Latin words and their
abbreviations are in dictionaries.
76 Reserve temporal terms (e.g., “while”) for referring to time (6.4.3). Use logical terms for referring to
logical relations (i.e., “although”).
77 Make sure all the words you use mean what you think they mean (1.3.4). Writing “First” implies that
there will be a “second” and a “third”, and possibly more, such as could be organised into a numbered list
(2.11.6). But the reader will look in vain for the other elements of such an implicit list. If Andrew Student
meant something different, he needed to write something other than “First”, such as “Before considering
[that idea], I need to explain [this idea]”.
78 Write simple sentences that express one thought (1.3.3). This sentence adds an unrelated thought in the
parenthetical material at the end (6.3.6). Both elements of the sentence require citations (1.2.3). L
79 Integrate information to avoid repeating citations in the same paragraph (4.3.1). Citations to Morewedge
et al. (2005) appear three times in this paragraph. Andrew Student should integrate the information from
their paper, perhaps with a single narrative citation, to avoid the repetition. K
80 Use em dashes to set off parenthetical comments from the rest of a sentence (6.3.7). Andrew Student used
hyphens, which have rather different functions.
81 Treat all people you write about with respect and inclusivity (1.3.2). Calling a hypothetical individual
“he” excludes women and other-gendered people. We recommend pluralisation (e.g., “individuals might
deliberately recall several occasions in which they …”. L
82 Locate adverbs close to the words they modify (6.2.5). “Only” should be placed before “the most”;
otherwise, this sentence implies individuals not only recollect the most distressing occasions, but perform
other activities with these memories. K
179
83 Specify non-specific referents (6.4.3). It is unclear to which noun the pronoun “Their” refers. Because it is
plural the most likely noun is “occasions”. But this makes no sense. Although the singular “their” is now
part of APA style, we are sure the editors of the APA Manual would require it to be used consistently in
both this and the previous sentence. As we recommended above, changing “individual” to “individuals” in
the previous sentence satisfies respect for people and for readers concerned with traditional grammar.
84 Give citations in parentheses in alphabetical order (4.3.5, Usage Example 4.5). Although this general rule
can be overridden by words such as “see also” within the parentheses, those words have to be informative.
In this case they are not—they simply point to citations of the same finding—hence all the filler words can
be deleted. K
85 Use personal reference appropriately for your contributions to an essay (1.2.3, 2.11.1). Andrew Student
has used it erroneously to give his opinion. LL
86 Use sound arguments (5.5.2, Usage Example 5.5). In this case, Andrew Student uses the flawed argument
of appeal to emotion; “obviously” implies the argument would be accepted by any informed individual. L
87 Write simply and clearly; make sure all the words you use mean what you think they mean (1.3.4).
Andrew Student has tried to use a complicated adjective, “obfuscating “, but its meaning contradicts his
numerous citations of the study it qualifies. We have no idea what he mistook it for. L
88 Prefer active voice (1.3.3, 6.2.1). Instructed by whom? Passive voice hides the agent of an action. L
89 Each sentence requires a verb (6.2.1). The present participle “suggesting” cannot serve as the main verb of
a sentence. K
90 Each citation must point to a reference (4.5). This one’s reference is also missing from the list. K
91 Write clearly and precisely when using relational terms (6.4.3, Usage Example 6.19). This sentence’s
“than” needs to be followed by “were” to make it clear.
92 Provide a citation for each new fact you mention, even after a narrative citation, unless a pronoun makes
it clear the narrative citation is continuing (1.2.3). The same could be said for the previous sentence,
although it benefits from the context provided by the sentence before that. In this case, Andrew Student
needed to add “Kruger et al. stated” to the beginning of the sentence. K
93 Avoid clichés (6.4.1). “Impact” has become a cliché, far removed from its original sense of a violent
collision.
94 Keep key words the same from sentence to sentence (6.4.2, Usage Example 6.18). In the previous
sentence, Andrew Student referred to “highly intelligent” individuals, a precise term, but went on to refer
to them twice as “gifted”, an imprecise term. K
95 Write simply, avoiding pretentious words (1.3.3). Here “encumber” could be simplified to “reduces”.
96 Use the fewest words (6.4.4). This sentence says the same as the first sentence of the paragraph. This one
can be deleted and replaced with a sentence that leads onto the next paragraph. L
97 Ensure that all paragraphs are relevant to the main argument of an essay (6.4.4). The relevance of this one
is not clear. L
98 Avoid plagiarism (1.2.4, 1.2.5). Here the clue is the page number; it should be given for quotations (4.3.6).
Andrew Student omitted the quotation marks and any other indication that the words were written by
McGowan. Here is how it should appear: “in the real world, few people have the luxury of time, or the
desire, to imagine a description of an important person when faced with a stressful situation” (McGowan,
2002, p. 160)]. ♠
99 Use the fewest words (6.4.4). This sentence is completely uninformative, requiring the reader to remember
the reasons. A better version might be: “I have shown that performance on examinations unfairly depends
on the capacity of individuals to regulate their anxiety”. This rounds out the essay by restating the
argument. L
100 Make sure all the words you use mean what you think they mean (1.3.4). “Phenomena” refers to
occurrences that are readily observable or remarkable. This neither fits, semantically or grammatically,
with the previous sentence. A better word might be “relationship” or “association”. L
101 Use tricky singulars and plurals correctly (6.2.2, Table 6.1). Andrew Student should have used the singular
“phenomenon”. This would have corrected the grammatical error but not the semantic one. K
102 Keep the conclusion for conclusions (3.8). It should be free of evidence or interpretations not already
described in the main text of the essay; these weaken the conclusion. L
103 Follow the last word of the main text of the essay with a page break (3.3). K
104 Use APA editorial style for the reference list (1.4.2). That is, the references have a Level 1 heading,
References.
180
105 Use APA editorial style for author names in references (4.4). Give the surname first, followed by a comma
and the initials.
106 Separate the initials of one author from the surname of the next or from the “&” before the final author
name with a comma (4.4.1).
107 Omit “Vol.” from the volume number of a journal article (4.4.2).
108 Give the issue number for journal articles (4.4.2).
109 Provide a DOI or URL, if available, for references (4.4).
110 Give the initials of authors’ and editors’ given names, not the full names (4.4.1).
111 Honour the original spelling in quotations (4.3.6) and in references (4.4.1). Here it should have been
“behaviors”.
112 Set journal titles in italics (4.4.2).
113 Give references in alphabetical order (4.5).
114 Give journal titles in full, with no abbreviations (4.4.2).
115 Give the title of journal articles like ordinary sentences, with the first letter of the first word and of any
proper nouns in upper case and the remaining letters in lower case. Also capitalise the first letter after a
colon (4.4.1).
116 Include in a reference list only works cited in the essay (4.4). This one was not.
181
Appendix C
Statistical Assumptions
Table C1
Statistical Assumptions and Conditions for Common Statistical Tests Shown With Ticks
Kind of Test Statistical Assumption or Condition
Homogeneity of Covariance
Homogeneity of Variance
Homoscedasticity
Multicollinearity
Normality
Sphericity
Linearity
χ2 test of independence
Most non-parametric tests
Independent and dependent t-tests ü ü
Between-subject ANOVAs ü ü
Repeated-measures ANOVAs ü ü
MANOVAs or discriminant function analysis ü ü ü
Logistic regression analysis ü
Multiple regression analysis ü ü ü ü
Canonical correlation ü ü ü ü
Factor or cluster analyses ü
182
Appendix D
Common Measurement
Abbreviations
Table D1
Some Common SI and Non-SI Units and Their Abbreviations
Quantity Unit Symbol SI Unit

Acceleration metre per second squared m/s 2
same
Angle radian radian same
Area square metre m2 same
Concentration mole per cubic metre mol/m3 same
Density kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3 same
Electric current ampere A same
Electric potential volt V same
Electric resistance ohm Ω same
Force newton N same
Frequency hertz Hz same
Length metre m same
Luminance candela per square metre cd/m2 same
Mass kilogram kg same
Power watt W same
Pressure pascal Pa same
Sound pressure level decibel dB N/m2
Temperature degree Celsius °C °Kelvin
Time second s same
Velocity metre per second m/s same
Visual angle degree ° radian
Volume cubic metre m3 same
Weight see Mass
183
Table D2
Common SI Prefixes
Factor 1x Prefix Symbol Example

billion times 109 giga G Gb gigabyte
million times 10 6
mega M MV megavolt
thousand times 103 kilo k kHz kilohertz
one tenth 10–1 deci d dB decibel
one hundredth 10–2 centi c cm centimetre
one thousandth 10–3 milli m mA milliamp
one millionth 10 –6
micro µ µs microsecond
one billionth 10–9 nano n nm nanometre
184
Appendix E
More Plurals
Table E1
Other Tricky Plurals (With Allowed but Non-Preferred Words in Parentheses)
Singular Plural One brief meaning

abscissa abscissae value on the x-axis
agenda (agendum) agendas (agenda) list
alumna, alumnus alumnae, alumni female, male graduate
analysis analyses break down into parts
apex apices summit
apparatus apparatus (apparatuses) equipment
appendix appendices (appendixes) supplementary material
bacterium bacteria germ
bureau bureaux (bureaus) department
carcinoma carcinomas (carcinomata) malignant tumour
caries caries area of tooth decay
chiasm chiasmata (chiasms) crossing point
clitoris clitorises (clitorides) female genital part
continuum continua continuous whole
corpus corpora body
corpus callosum corpora callosa nerve fibre tract joining brain
hemispheres
corrigendum corrigenda correction
crisis crises emergency
curriculum curricula (curriculums) course
curriculum vitae curricula vitae résumé
degree of freedom degrees of freedom* statistical term
desideratum desiderata desired thing
die dice dotted cube
emphasis emphases importance
erratum errata error
focus foci central point
formula formulae equation
fovea foveas (foveae) retinal area
(continued)
185
Table E1
Other Tricky Plurals (With Allowed but Non-Preferred Words in Parentheses) (continued)

ganglion ganglia group of nerve cells
genus genera group of species
hypothesis hypotheses conjecture
index indices (indexes) guide
kudos kudos acclaim
lacuna lacunae gap
locus loci place
manipulandum manipulanda stimulus object
matrix matrices array
medium mediums communicator with ghosts
(memorabilium) memorabilia mementos
millennium millennia (millenniums) 1,000 years
minutia minutiae trivial detail
nexus nexuses focus
nucleus nucleii centre
octopus octopuses (octopodes) eight-armed mollusc
opus opera (opuses) work
parenthesis parentheses round bracket, aside
penis penises (penes) male copulatory organ
persona personas (personae) apparent personality
phylum phyla taxonomic division
plexus plexuses (plexus) network
prospectus prospectuses summary
quantum quanta indivisible amount
radius radii distance from centre to edge
referendum referendums (referenda) electoral question
retina retinas (retinae) for sensing light
schema schemas (schemata) outline
scotoma scotomata (scotomas) hole in visual field
sequela sequelae bad outcome of disease
soma somata (somas) body
spectrum spectra range
stratum strata layer
syllabus syllabuses (syllabi) outline
synthesis syntheses combination
(continued)
186
Appendix E: More Plurals
Table E1
Other Tricky Plurals (With Allowed but Non-Preferred Words in Parentheses) (continued)

thalamus thalami brain region
thesis theses dissertation
trauma traumas injury
vertex vertices (vertexes) apex
virus viruses germ
* Use the same scheme for plurals such as “sums of squares” and “mothers-in-law”.
187
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American Psychological Association. (2018, May). APA Style Journal Article
Reporting Standards (APA Style JARS). https://apastyle.apa.org/jars
Psychological Association (7th. ed.).
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Anderson, C. A. (2004). An update on the effects of playing violent video
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192
Glossary
Abstract Citation Counterbalancing

A brief summary of a report or essay. A noun describing how you let a reader In within-subject designs,
know the source of information for counterbalancing is a technique of
Adjective something you wrote. The verb is “cite”. equating different possible orders in
A word modifying a noun. A citation contains the surname(s) of which participants are exposed to the
the author(s) and the year of publication. experiment’s conditions.
A citation points the reader to its
Adverb
reference. Dangling modifier
A word modifying a verb or an adjective.
An error in which a modifier is missing
Citation index the words required to clarify what it is
Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
An online resource allowing one to modifying.
A statistical test for factorial designs
search for later sources that cite an
assessing differences among the
earlier source. Data diagnoses
various levels of the independent
variables and any interactions among Examination of collected data to
all the conditions in the experimental Collective noun ensure they are all reasonable, they
design A noun for a collection of things (e.g., are complete, and they meet the
family for all the members of a family). assumptions of the statistical tests used.
Anthropomorphism
When a writer attributes human Collusion Deduction
aspects to something non-human. A serious breach of academic integrity A form of logical reasoning in which a
in which Student A copied the work conclusion follows from two or more
of Student B, either with or without premises.
Argument
permission. If Student B gave permission,
An argument is a proposition you try
then Student B committed a breach of Demonstrative
to convince readers is true about a
academic integrity too. A word showing the item(s) to which
particular topic.
you are referring.
Comparative
Article
An adjective comparing two nouns. Dependent variable
The words “a”, “an”, and “the”.
The variable that is measured by the
Compound word researcher.
Between-subject design
A set of words that denotes a meaning
An experimental design in which some
that diverges from each of the words in Determiner
participants or subjects are assigned to
isolation (e.g., “self esteem”). A word preceding a noun or noun
one condition, and others are assigned
to other conditions, but none to more phrase giving the relationship of the
than one condition. Conceptual hypothesis noun or noun phrase to the context of
A simple statement predicting a the surrounding text.
relationship between at least two
Braces
variables framed broadly as concepts. Digital Object Identifier (DOI)
Punctuation marks, also known as curly
brackets, used to enclose parenthetical A unique, permanent code given to an
text for various purposes {thus}. Confounding variable online source by the International DOI
A variable that is inadvertently Foundation.
correlated with the independent variable
Case
in experiments. Discussion
A noun’s or pronoun’s grammatical role
in a sentence, clause, or phrase. The section of a research report in which
Conjunction you explain your results and consider
A word that joins two nouns, phrases, their implications.
Central tendency
clauses, or sentences.
A value in a numerical set of data
around which each datum is either Effect size
larger or smaller by varying amounts, Correlational design A measure of the size of a relationship
such as the mean (average). Studies in which the researcher does not between two variables.
compare distinct groups but examines
the relationship between numerical Ellipsis (plural ellipses)
variables, such as IQ, height, and age. Three or four dots to indicate that material
has been omitted from a quotation.
193
Em dash Formal writing Literature review (also known as

The longest dash, equal in length to the The language of most psychology a narrative literature review)
letter M, used to set off parenthetical assignments. It is scholarly, respectful, A form of essay in which an author
material in sentences. humane, simple, precise, concise, clear, makes a more comprehensive review of
and scrupulously grammatical. the literature surrounding a topic than
En dash in an essay to acquaint the reader with
The next-longest dash after the em dash, Gender the main issues.
equal in length to the letter N. They are The social aspects that differ among
used as an abbreviation for “to” and for men, women, and various other genders. Major words
minus signs. All words of four or more letters or that
Generality are nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs,
Error bar The degree to which the results of and pronouns (even if fewer than four
An element of a graph showing a one study may be applicable to other letters, such as “Is” and “He”).
vertical line, usually above and below a settings.
point or a bar, showing the variability of Mediation
that mean. Grammar Mediation studies are undertaken to
The set of rules for how parts of speech show whether an independent variable
Essay combine into coherent phrases, clauses, causes changes in another variable,
A type of assignment containing a and sentences. which in turn causes changes in the
review of the literature on a particular dependent variable.
topic, structured by an argument. Grammatical gender
Whether a noun or pronoun is Meta-analysis
Experiment masculine, feminine, or neuter. A particular type of report, in which the
A procedure designed to test a data are effect sizes from primary research
hypothesis about cause and effect. In reports following a systematic review.
Hanging paragraph
psychology, an experiment is a study Format that has the first line left justified,
in which individuals are randomly and every subsequent line indented by a Method
assigned to conditions, in which each specific distance from the left margin. The section of a research report in which
individual performs in all conditions, you describe how you collected the data.
or in which there is some mixture of
Hypothesis (plural hypotheses)
these two experimental designs. In Mind map
A testable conjecture about a cause and
the first case, the procedure differs A diagram containing an item to be
an effect or about a relationship between
between individuals in one aspect—the remembered in the centre of a page,
at least two variables.
independent variable. Everything else linked by lines to related items, which in
in the procedure, including the turn link to other related information.
dependent variable, is identical for all Independent variable
individuals. In the second case, the The variable that is assumed to cause
procedure differs among the conditions a change in the dependent variable. In Mixed design
creating the independent variable; the experiments, the independent variable is An experimental design in which at least
dependent variable is identical for all manipulated by the researcher. one independent variable is between-
conditions. subject and at least one independent
variable is within-subject.
Infinitive
Factorial design The generic form of a verb; the verb
An experimental design in which there preceded by “to” (e.g., “to go”). Mixed-methods research
are more than one independent variable, Research combining quantitative and
qualitative methods.
or factors, each with two or more levels, Introduction
that are combined to produce conditions The section of a research report in which
equal to the product of the number you review the literature and conclude Mnemonic
of levels of the various independent with a statement of your aims and An easily remembered sentence or
variables. hypotheses. poem encoding harder-to-remember
information, such as lists.
Falsification of data Journal
An extremely serious breach of A collection of articles, each written Moderation
academic integrity in which someone by different authors and each with The study of individual characteristics,
makes up data or alters data for a report. its own reference list, that have been conditions, or other factors that modify
approved for publication by the journal’s the relationship between two variables.
Figure editor and have been published by a
Any graph, picture, photograph, or commercial, professional, or scholarly Monograph
diagram. publisher. A single, self-contained, scholarly,
written work on a single topic, usually
by a single author.
194
Glossary
Mortality or to enclose the year in a narrative Present participle

The tendency of some participants citation. 2. Parenthesis: A singular noun A verb made from the infinitive part
to withdraw from a within-subject referring to a part of a sentence that is followed by “ing” (e.g., “going”).
experiment before completing all the not essential to its meaning or to one of
conditions, sometimes biasing the the punctuation marks. Pronoun
outcome. A word that stands for a noun.
Parenthetical citation
Narrative citation A citation comprising the surname(s) of Proper noun
A citation comprising the surname(s) the author(s) and the year of publication A word that is the name of a person,
of the author(s) followed by its year of separated by a comma and all in place, or unique thing.
publication in parentheses. parentheses.
Qualitative research
Non-experiment Participant Research using participants’ talking
Any other psychology study that does not An adult who participates in a study about their experiences (e.g., in
have the characteristics of an experiment. after giving his or her informed consent interviews, focus groups, surveys),
to contribute his or her data. followed by content or discourse
Non-specific referent analyses.
When it is not clear to which noun a Part of speech
pronoun (such as “this” or “that”) refers. A classification of words based on Quantifier
their functions in a sentence. In A word showing how many or how
Normal distribution formal English, it includes verb, noun, much there is of item(s) to which you are
A distribution of data that is symmetrical pronoun, adjective, adverb, preposition, referring.
around the mean and has the shape of conjunction, and determiner.
a bell. Quantitative research
Peer review Research using numerical measurement
Noun Experts (peers) in the topic of a paper of variables followed by statistical
A word for a person, place, or thing. read it before publication and approve it analysis.
for publication.
Number Quasi-experiments
A word showing exactly how many or Period Studies in which participants were not
how much there is of item(s) to which A punctuation mark consisting of a single randomly assigned to the conditions of
you are referring. dot, usually at the end of a sentence. the independent variable. Usually, these
studies compare pre-existing groups
Number Person (e.g., males vs. females; high, medium,
Whether a noun is singular or plural. To whom a noun or pronoun refers, or low socioeconomic status).
whether the speaker, the one spoken to,
or others. Refereed journal
Operational hypothesis
A simple statement predicting a A journal containing articles that have
relationship between at least two Plagiarism been peer reviewed.
variables framed narrowly as what was A serious breach of academic integrity in
manipulated or measured. which an author fails to cite or attribute Reference
the words, work, or ideas of others. 1. The bibliographic information
Outliers a reader needs to find the same
Any data that are unreasonably different Positive skew information. 2. A source of written
from the majority of the data. A property of a distribution of data that information about a topic.
means the values above the mean are
more distant from the mean than values Reference manager
Parallel construction below the mean.
Use of similar grammatical forms and Software that allows you to compile
words for adjacent phrases, clauses, your own database of references, to
or sentences. Possessive add keywords and your own notes to
A word showing ownership of item(s) to each record, to cite records correctly
which you are referring. in your word-processing software, and
Paraphrase
to generate automatically a correctly-
Authors paraphrase when they restate
Power formatted list of references.
another author’s words in their own.
A statistical measure of the ability
Parentheses (the singular is
of a study to give a good test of its Relative pronoun
hypothesis. A pronoun that introduces a clause that
parenthesis)
functions as an adjective.
1. Punctuation marks, also known
as round brackets or brackets, used Preposition
to enclose text that is not vital for Words that show the relationship of
understanding the surrounding text nouns and pronouns to other words.
195
Reliability Sexual orientation Theory

A measure of the consistency of The attraction individuals have for A well-substantiated, organised, general
measures of a variable. Sorts of reliability others based on their sex or gender. explanation of a set of phenomena
include test–retest reliability, inter-rater and facts from which predictions can
reliability, and internal consistency. Social desirability be made.
An inclination of individuals to portray
Replication themselves positively when they Thesis statement
A key element of the scientific method complete psychological measures, An alternative (mainly American) term
with two meanings: First, any researcher sometimes biasing the responses. for an argument.
should be able to repeat the method
of any past study. Second, having Spurious variable Topic sentence
conducted the new study, the research A variable that is correlated with A sentence that summarises the major
should obtain the same results as those both the dependent and independent idea of a paragraph.
of the past study. variables. If not controlled, the
dependent and independent variables Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
Report that are not actually related seem to The address assigned to a specific web
A type of assignment describing be related. page, for example http://www.xxxx.gov.
research you conducted, usually in a au
practical class. Square brackets
Punctuation marks, also known as Validity
Results brackets, used to enclose parenthetical A measure of how well a measure of a
The section of a research report in which text for various purposes [thus]. variable actually measures that variable.
you give summaries of the data (in text, in Sorts of validity include content validity,
figures, or in tables) and of statistical tests. Subject concurrent validity, predictive validity,
An individual who yields data for a study and face validity.
Running head without giving informed consent (such
A short, informative version of the title of as a child or an animal); a participant. Variability
an assignment printed at the top left of The extent to which data differs from the
every page. Summarise central tendency, such as the standard
Authors summarise when they use their deviation.
Run-on sentence own words to give only the relevant
A sentence that needs to be divided into ideas of another author. Verb
two or more sentences. A word denoting the action of a sentence
Suppressor variable or clause.
Scare quotation A variable that, if not controlled, can
When a writer places quotation marks obscure the relationship between two Voice
around a word or words to indicate that other variables. A property of a verb. There are
they are not meant literally. two possibilities: active voice
Systematic review (we recommend it), in which the subject
Scattergram A literature review that is structured like acts on the verb (e.g., “The participant
A graph plotting individual data points a report, with an Introduction, Method, [subject] pressed [active-voice verb]
according to their values on the x and Results, and Discussion. The Method the key [object]”), and passive voice,
y axes. It is also known as a scatterplot gives explicit details of how the author in which the subject is acted on by the
and scatter diagram. It can also show searched the literature; the Results verb, (i.e., “The key [object] was pressed
a best-fitting line, its equation, and its give the details of that search. The [passive-voice verb] by the participant
goodness of fit. Introduction and the Discussion give the [subject]”).
author’s hypotheses or arguments.
Scholarly Within-subject design
Based on well-informed investigation Tense An experimental design in which all
and academic rigour. A grammatical term referring to when participants or subjects are assigned
an action takes place. There are four all conditions. It is also called a
Sex main tenses used in assignments (in repeated-measures design.
The biological aspects that differ among order of how common they are): past
males, females, and various forms of tense, present tense, future tense, and
intersexuality. present perfect tense.
196
Index
‘a’ (article) 134 vacuous support for 122 collective nouns 128
abbreviations 48 articles 134 colloquialisms 139
for measurements 183–4 assignments collusion 4
used in references 95–6 assessable qualities 3–9 colons 137
abstracts 3 deadlines 19, 20 colour (posters) 153
in essays 15, 68, 70, 73 scheduling 19–20 column headers 40
in posters 151 submission 19 combinations of words 135
in research reports 15, 23, 25–6 audience 13–14 commas 136
academic integrity 4–7 author note 15, 24, 68 comparatives 131
accusative case 130 authors compound words 138
acknowledgements 7–8, 151 citation 87–91 conceptual hypotheses 21, 22
active reading 85–6 in references 95 conciseness 13, 72–3
active voice 12, 127, 141 axes (graphs) 36 conclusion
ad hominem argument 122 in essays 73
adjectives 131 bar graphs 37 in posters 151
adverbs 132 best-fitting line 38, 39 in research reports 45
age 10 ‘between’ (preposition) 133 confidence intervals (CI) 35, 36
aim of your research 27, 43 between-subjects experiments 32, 111–12, confounding variables 114–15, 120
almost-verbs 127 114 conjunctions 133
alternative explanations block quotations 93–4 contradictory findings 110
for non-significant findings 118–19 blogs 84, 98 controversies 70–1
for significant findings 117–18 body (essays) 72–3 correlation coefficients 41
‘among’ (preposition) 133 book chapters 98 correlational designs 112
‘an’ (article) 134 books 83, 84 counterbalancing 115
analogies, false 124 referencing 99 critical thinking 107
analysis of variance (ANOVA) 32, 41 bulleted lists 49 about theories 109–10
animals as subjects 11, 29
anthropomorphisms 144 case (grammatical term) 130 dangling modifiers 132
APA editorial style 8 causality 112–13, 120 data diagnoses and analysis
considerations for essays 73–4 central tendency 35 qualitative research 35
considerations for research reports 46–50 character limits 19 quantitative research 32–4
requirements 14–18 χ2 tests of independence 41 data summary 35–6
APA Manual 8, 10, 11, 12, 46, 84, 96 citation indices 85 deadlines 19–20
apostrophes 137 citations 1, 5, 6, 7, 15–16, 87–94 deduction/deductive logic 4
apparatus 31 concentrate citations of the same finding 91 definite article 134
appeal to authority 122 correct grammar for 88 definitions 71
appeal to emotion 122 date/no date issues 92 demonstratives 134
appeal to ignorance 122 distinguishing confusable 91 dependent clauses 135
appendices (research reports) 15, 24, 46 format 90–1 dependent variables 22, 37, 38
‘Are Examinations Unfair? Worrying Effects learning resources 89–90 descriptive statistics 35, 40
of Examination Anxiety’ (example narrative 15, 16, 87–90 design 15
essay) 75–81 parenthetical 15, 16, 87–91 qualitative research 34
arguments personal communication 89 quantitative research 31–2, 33
definition 1 secondary sources 88–9 determiners 134
developing and organising 101–11 types 87–8 dichotomies 123
essays 65, 69, 71 see also references digital object identifier (DOI) 94, 96
false generalisation 124 clarity of writing 13, 142–4 disability 10
flawed 121–4 clauses 135 discussion section (posters) 151
misrepresentation of the opposition 122–3 clichés 139 discussion section (research reports) 15, 23,
vacuous dismissal of opposition 122 collaboration 4 24, 43–5
197
conclusion 45 examinations 148–50 grammatical case 130

future research 120–1 planning during 148–9 grammatical gender 129–30
limitations and future research 45 preparation 148 grammatical person 129
non-significant findings 44 example essay 74–81 graphs 36–9
practical and theoretical importance 44, 121 example research report 50–63 grid method of summarising research 86–7
predicted significant findings 43–4 exclamation mark 135
summary 43 experimenter-constructed materials 30 hanging paragraphs 101
unexpected significant findings 44 experiments 33, 111–12 headings 15, 152
dispassionate writing 139–41 between-subjects 32, 111–12, 114 hyphens 138
DOI (digital object identifier) 94, 96 causality 112 hypotheses 1, 21–2, 28, 43
Duck Duck Go 84 confounding variables 114–15 developing and organising 107–11
generality 116–17 formulating 108
economy (writing style) 144–5 inadequate measures 115–16 incorrect 118
edited books 83, 99 within-subjects 32, 112, 115 preparation for 27
editing 18 see also non-experiments testing 40–2
editorial style 8
editors of a book for a book-chapter refer- F-tests 41 impersonal pronouns 129
ence 95 factorial design 32 inadequate measures 115–16
‘The Effect of a Boost to Self-Esteem on false analogies 124 inclusivity 10–11
Creative and Analytic Ability’ (example false dichotomies 123 indefinite articles 134
research report) 51–63 false etymology 123 independent clause 135
‘The effect of writing the word “I” alongside false generalisation 124 independent, manipulated variables 24–5
a list of desirable adjectives on creative falsification of data 4 independent variables 22, 24, 37, 40
and analytic ability’ (flawed research fewer (adjective) 131 independent-groups experiments 111–12
report) 158–69 figures 36–9 inferential statistics 40–2
effect size 41 findings infinitives 127, 146
‘either’ 133 alternative explanations for 117–19 informal writing 1, 2, 141
electronic sources (references) 94, 96 non-significant 44 information
ellipsis 93 practical and theoretical implications 44, evaluating and refining sources of 85
em dashes 138 121 finding 83–5
embedded quotations 92–3 predicted significant 43–4 scholarly sources 83–4
empirical defence 4 unexpected significant 44, 119 search strategies 84–5
en dashes 138 flawed arguments 121–4 integration 145–6
end marks 135 flawed essay 170–81 internet 84–5
error bars 37 flawed research report 157–69 intersectionality 10
essays 65–81 font 14, 152 introduction (essays) 68, 70–1
abstract 15, 68, 70, 73 footnotes 48 argument 71
APA style considerations 73–4 formal sentences 135 controversies 70–1
argument 65, 69, 71 formal tone 139 definitions 71
before you start 66–8 formal writing 1, 2, 10, 139–41 importance of your study 70
body 72–3 from reading to writing 85–7 map of your essay 71
conclusion 73 future research 45, 120–1 introduction (posters) 15
definition 1 future tense 47, 74, 127 introduction (research reports) 15, 23, 24,
examination questions 150 26–8
example 74–81 gender 10, 12 aim and outline of your study 27
expectations 65–6 gender identity 11 importance of your study 26–7
flawed 170–81 generalisation, false 124 purpose 26
future research 120–1 generality 116–17, 119, 121 invalid measures 116
headings 15 genitive case 130 italics 49–50, 93
introduction 68, 70–1 glossary 193–6
marking criteria 65–6 Google/Google Scholar 84, 85 jargon 141
practical implications 121 grammar 9, 126, 135, 146 journal articles 84, 97–8
references 15, 16–18, 68, 73 in citations 88 journals 3
structure 15, 68–9 combinations of words 135 refereed 83
title/title page 15, 68, 69 parallel construction 142
et al. 16, 88, 90, 91 parts of speech 126–34 layout of posters 152
ethnicity 11 punctuation 135–9 learning resources 89–90
etymology, false 123 grammar checkers 9 legends (graphs) 37
198
Index
less (adjective) 131 non-experiments 22, 112 participants (experimental) 11, 15, 29, 34
lettered lists 49 causality 112–13 parts of speech 126–34
limitations of measures 45, 109, 117–18, generality 116–17 passive voice 12, 47, 127, 141
120 inadequate measures 115–16 past tense 47, 74, 127
line graphs 37–8 spurious variables 114 patients (health contexts) 11
lists 49 non-obviousness 117 peer reviews 83
literature reviews 27 non-SI units and their abbreviations 183 period 135
narrative 154–5 non-significant findings 44 person (grammatical term) 129
logic 4 alternative explanations for 118–19 personal communication 89
non-specific referents 143 personal pronouns 129–30
magazines 83 non-theories, distinguishing from theories personal reference 12, 46–7, 74
main sections (research reports) 15 108 phrases 135
major words 15 ‘nor’ 133 plagiarism 4–7
margins 14 normal distribution 33 avoiding 7–8
marking criteria notes, taking 86 detection software 4, 5, 6–7
essays 65–6 noun phrase 135 planning 18
narrative literature reviews 155 nouns 127–8 plurals 127–8, 185–7
posters 153 number (nouns) 127–8 popular science articles 83
research reports 23 numbered lists 49 positive skew 33
systematic reviews 156 numbers 48, 134 possessive case 130
materials section 15, 30–1 possessives 134, 137
experimenter-constructed materials 30 objective case 130 posters 151–3
psychological tests 30 objectivity 9–10 content 151
qualitative research 35 online assignment submission 19 format 152–3
specialised technical equipment 31 online sources (references) 94, 96, 100 marking criteria 153
measurement (units) 42 only (adverb) 132 power, increasing 118–19
common abbreviations 183–4 operational hypotheses 21, 22 practical implications 44, 121
mediator variables 25 opposition precision
meta-analyses 21, 155 misrepresentation of 122–3 and clarity (writing) 13, 142–4
metaphors 139 vacuous dismissal of 122 and conciseness (describing studies) 72–3
method section (posters) 151 ‘or’ 133 predicted significant findings 43–4
method section (research reports) 15, 23, 24, organisation (essays) 72 prepositional phrase 135
28–35 original thinking 3, 117–21 prepositions 132–3, 146
qualitative research 28, 34–5 alternative explanations for non-significant present participles 127
quantitative research 28–34 findings 118–19 present perfect tense 127
mind maps 148 alternative explanations for significant present tense 47, 74, 127
misrepresentation of the opposition 122–3 findings 117–18 procedure 15
missing values 33 future research 120–1 qualitative research 34–5
mixed designs 32, 112 non-obviousness 117 quantitative research 31
mixed-methods research 21 practical implications 121 pronouns 129–31
mnemonics 148 unexpected findings 119 proper nouns 127
moderator variables 25, 116–17 outliers 33 psychological tests 30
monographs 83 overgeneralising 124 psychology jargon 141, 142
mortality 115 publication date 95
multiple-choice questions 149–50 page limits 19 publisher name 95
Murphy’s Laws 20 page numbers 14 punctuation 9, 135–9
paper assignment submission 19
narrative citations 15, 16, 87–90 ‘A paper on whether or not performance on qualitative research 21, 112
narrative literature reviews 154–5 examinations unfairly depends on the method section 28, 34–5
content 154 capacity of an individual to regulate their results section 42–3
format 154 anxiety’ (flawed essay) 171–81 quantifiers 134
marking criteria 155 paragraphs 135 quantitative research 21, 22
negative skew 33–4 pointing the way between 145–6 method section 28–34
‘neither’ 133 pointing the way within 145 results section 35–42
new variables 35 parallel construction 142 quasi-experiments 112
newspaper articles 98 paraphrasing 5–6, 7, 86 question marks 135
no manipulated variables 25 parentheses 15–16, 137 quotation marks 5, 93, 138–9
nominative case 130 parenthetical citations 15, 16, 87–91 quotations 5, 6, 7, 92–4
199
block 93–4 results section (research reports) 15, 23, 24, split infinitives 146
embedded 92–3 35–43 spurious variables 45, 113–14, 120
lengthy 8, 94 data summary 35–6 square brackets 16
figures 36–9 statistical assumptions 182
race 11 hypothesis tests 40–2 statistical significance 26, 32
reading, active 85–6 new variables 35 statistical tests 32, 33, 34, 40–2, 182
refereed journals 83 qualitative data 42–3 statistics 35–6
reference lists 101–5 tables 39–40 ‘straw man’ argument 122–3
reference manager 86 units of measurement 42 structure
references 1, 16–18, 94–100 reviews essays 15, 68–9
book chapters 98 in psychology 83 research reports 15, 23–46
books 99 see also literature reviews; systematic sub-subsections (research reports) 15
electronic sources 96 reviews subjective case 130
in essays 15, 67, 73 rewriting 18, 86 subjects (experimental) 11, 29
finding information 83–5 round brackets 16 submission (assignments)
general principles 94–6 row headers 40 deadlines 19–20
journal articles 97–8 run-on sentence 136–7 online vs paper? 19
other sources 99–100 running heads 14 subsections (research reports) 15
in posters 151 summarising research 6
in research reports 15, 24, 45 scare quotations 138 grid method 86–7
reiterating theory 117 scattergrams 38–9 summary (Discussion section) 43
relational words 142–3 scheduling (assignments) 19–20 summary statistics 36
relative pronouns 130–1 scholarly sources 83–4 suppressor variables 119
relevant literature 3 Scopus 85 systematic reviews 21, 155–6
reliability 116 search engines 84 content 155–6
repeated measures experiments 112 search strategies 84–5 format 156
replication 28 books and journal articles 84 marking criteria 156
reports, referencing 100 evaluating and refining 85
research internet 84–5 t-tests 40
causality 112–13, 120 search terms 84 tables 38–40
confounding variables 114–15, 120 secondary citations 88–9 temporal words 143–4
experiments vs. non-experiments 111–12 semicolons 136–7 tenses 47, 74, 127
generality 116–17, 119, 121 sentences 135, 141 text-matching software 4, 5, 6–7
hypotheses 21–2, 28, 107–11 run-on 136–7 ‘that’
inadequate measures 115–16 topic sentences 12, 135, 145 versus ’which’ 131
kinds of 21 sex 12 versus ’who’ 130
spurious variables 113–14, 120 sexual orientation 11, 12 ‘the’ (article) 134
see also future research short-answer questions 150 theories 22, 108
research reports 21–63 show rather than tell when describing studies critical thinking about 109–10
abstracts 15, 23, 25–6 72–3 definition 108
APA style considerations 46–50 SI prefixes 184 distinguishing from non-theories 108
appendices 15, 24, 46 SI units and their abbreviations 183 integration of 110–11
definition 1 sic 93 support for 109
discussion 15, 23, 24, 43–5 significant findings 43–4 theses, referencing 100
example 50–63 alternative explanations for 117–18 thesis statement 1
flawed 157–69 unexpected 44, 119 time 143–4
headings 15 signposts in your essay 72 title
introduction 15, 23, 24, 26–8 simplicity (writing style) 12, 141–2 in essays 15, 69
marking criteria 23 singular nouns 127–8, 185–7 in posters 151
method 15, 23, 24, 28–35 slashes 139 in references 95
practical implications 44, 121 social desirability 116 in research reports 15, 23, 24–5
in refereed journals 83 social media 84 title page
references 15, 16–18, 24, 45 socioeconomic status 11 in essays 68, 69
results 15, 23, 24, 35–43 sources of help 8–9 in research reports 24–5
structure 15, 23–46 spacing 14, 152–3 topic sentences 12, 135, 145
title/title page 15, 23, 24–5 specialised technical equipment 31
respect and inclusivity 10–11 spelling 9 underpowered studies 118–19
results section (posters) 151 spelling checkers 9 unexpected significant findings 44, 119
200
Index
uniform resource locator (URL) 94, 96 almost-verbs 127 character limits, word limits and page
units of measurement 42 infinitives 127, 146 limits 19
unpublished works 100 see also tenses; voice essays 65–81
voice 12, 127 planning before 18
vacuous dismissal of opposition 122 for psychology 1–2
vacuous support for arguments 122 Web of Science 85 and the reader’s journey 126
validity 116 websites 84 research reports 21–63
variability 35 ‘which’ versus ’that’ 131 rewriting 18
variables ‘who’ versus ’that’ 130 writing style 9–14, 146
confounding 114–15 ‘who’ versus ’whom’ 131 audience 13–14
dependent 22, 37, 38 Wikipedia 84, 85 conciseness 13
independent 22, 24, 37, 40 within-subjects experiments 32, 112, 115 dispassionate 139–41
independent, manipulated 24–5 word limits 19 economy 144–5
mediator 25 words formal writing 1, 2, 10, 139–41
moderator 25, 116–17 best words 139–41 informal style 1, 2, 141
new variables 35 combinations of 135 integration 145–6
no manipulated variables 25 compound 138 interest 13
spurious 45, 113–14 major 15 objectivity 9–10
suppressor 119 problem pairs 139–40 precision and clarity 13, 142–4
verb phrase 135 relational 142–3 respect and inclusivity 10–12
verbs 126–7 temporal 143–4 simplicity 12, 141–2
agreement with nouns 128 writing your own style 146
201
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National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Cengage Learning Australia

Cengage Learning New Zealand

For learning solutions, visit cengage.com.au

Printed in China by 1010 Printing International Limited.

Chapter 2 Writing Research Reports 21

Chapter 3 Writing Essays 65

Chapter 4 Finding and Using References 83

Chapter 5 Thinking Critically and Developing Ideas 107

Chapter 6 Writing Correctly and With Style 126

Chapter 7 Writing for Other Forms of Assessment 148

To the Instructor xiii

About the Authors xvi

Guide to the text xvii

Guide to the online resources xix

Chapter 1 Read This First! 1

Chapter 2 Writing Research Reports 21

2.11 Finer Points of APA Style 46

Chapter 3 Writing Essays 65

Chapter 4 Finding and Using References 83

Chapter 5 Thinking Critically and Developing Ideas 107

5.4.3 Alternative Explanations for Non-Significant Findings 118

Chapter 6 Writing Correctly and With Style 126

6.6 Your Own Style 146

Chapter 7 Writing for Other Forms

Appendix A Flawed Research Report 157

Appendix B Flawed Essay 170

Appendix C Statistical Assumptions 182

Appendix D Common Measurement Abbreviations 183

Appendix E More Plurals 185

00_OShea_7e_sb_41124_pre.indd 12 08/09/21 5:09 PM

Structure of a Paper and Formatting

Structure and Formatting of Figures and Tables

Citation and Referencing

Guide to the text

chapter designed to enhance

and what makes

APA Example 2.9

from a list of low to medium frequency words (Corpus of Contemporary American

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

Self-Esteem and Ability 2 Running head: Are examinations unfair? 1

in normal prose as complete sentences. Hypotheses do not need to be presented

with explanations of what makes better writing indicate the direction of a

Relevance Exhibit 4.1

language for easy identification and understanding.

4.2.1 Active Reading

xviii 3.1.2 Marking Criteria

Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources

WORD-BASED TEST BANK

ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

STUDENT DOWNLOADS: CHECKLISTS AND WRITING GUIDES

1.1 Writing for Psychology

chapters. Formal writing: The

1.2 Excellent Assignments

1.2.1 Relevant Literature

1.2.2 Original Ideas

Avoid Best practice

1.2.3 Logical and Empirical Defence

Robert O'Shea_ Wendy McKenzie - Writing for Psychology-Cengage Learning Australia (2021)

Robert O'Shea_ Wendy McKenzie - Writing for Psychology-Cengage Learning Australia (2021)

Robert O'Shea_ Wendy McKenzie - Writing for Psychology-Cengage Learning Australia (2021)