Power Factor Improvement

1. Define Power factor? Write down the disadvantages of having low

power factor?
The cosine of angle between voltage and current in an a.c. circuit is known as
power factor. In an a.c. circuit, there is generally a phase difference φ between
voltage and current. The term cos φ is called the power factor of the circuit. If the
circuit is inductive, the current lags behind the voltage and the power factor is
referred to as lagging. However, in a capacitive circuit, current leads the voltage
and power factor is said to be leading. The circuit current I can be resolved into
two perpendicular components, namely ;

(a) I cos φ in phase with V

(b) I sin φ 90 out of phase with V
The component I cos φ is known as active or wattful component, whereas
component I sin φ is called the reactive or wattless component. The reactive
component is a measure of the power factor. If the reactive component is small, the
phase angle φ is small and hence power factor cos φ will be high. Therefore, a
circuit having small reactive current (i.e., I sin φ) will have high power factor and
vice-versa. It may be noted that value of power factor can never be more than
unity.
A power factor in the following disadvantages :
(i) Large kVA rating of equipment: The electrical machinery (e.g.,
alternators, transformers, switchgear) is always rated in *kVA. Now,
kVA = (kW / cos φ)
It is clear that kVA rating of the equipment is inversely proportional to
power factor. The smaller the power factor, the larger is the kVA rating.
Therefore, at low power factor, the kVA rating of the equipment has to
be made more, making the equipment larger and expensive.
 (ii) Greater conductor size: To transmit or distribute a fixed amount of power
at constant voltage, the conductor will have to carry more current at low
power factor. This necessitates large conductor size.
(iii) Large copper losses: The large current at low power factor causes more
I^2 R losses in all the elements of the supply system. This results in poor
efficiency.
(iv) Poor voltage regulation: The large current at low lagging power factor
causes greater voltage drops in alternators, transformers, transmission
lines and distributors. This results in the decreased voltage available at
the supply end.
(v) Reduced handling capacity of system: The lagging power factor reduces
the handling capacity of all the elements of the system. It is because the
reactive component of current prevents the full utilisation of installed
capacity.

2. Write down the function of a power transformer.

A static apparatus that only transfer the energy from one circuit to another without
altering the value of power and frequency is called transformer.

1. A step-up transformer would be a transformer that converts energy from low

voltage to a greater voltage.
2. A step-down transformer is used to convert energy from high voltage
towards lower.

Functions of transformer:

1. A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to

another.
2. Mutual induction connects two circuits.
3. It is also utilized for electrical power transmission via electromagnetic
induction.
4. Electric power is transferred without even any frequency modification.

3. Power factor improvement equipment and their advantages and

disadvantages. (Except Phase advancers)
Normally, the power factor of the whole load on a large generating station is in the
region of 0·8 to 0·9. However, sometimes it is lower and in such cases it is
generally desirable to take special steps to improve the power factor. This can be
achieved by the following equipment :
1. Static capacitors. 2. Synchronous condenser. 3. Phase advancers.
1. Static capacitor. The power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors
in parallel with the equipment operating at lagging power factor.
Advantages:
(i) They have low losses.
(ii) They require little maintenance.
(iii) They can be easily installed.
(iv) They can work under ordinary atmospheric conditions.
Disadvantages:
(i)They have short service life.
(ii) They are easily damaged.
(iii) Once the capacitors are damaged, their repair is uneconomical.
2. Synchronous condenser: An over-excited synchronous motor running on no
load is known as synchronous condenser.

Advantages:
(i) Achieving stepless † control of power factor.
(ii) The motor windings have high thermal stability.
(iii) The faults can be removed easily.

Disadvantages:
(i) There are considerable losses in the motor.
(ii) The maintenance cost is high.
(iii) It produces noise.
(iv) Synchronous motor has no self-starting torque.

4.Why does a power transformer rating in kVA not in kW?

Transformers only transfer the energy from one circuit to another without altering
the value of power and frequency. In different words, it can only step up or step
down the amount of current and voltage while the energy and frequency would
remain the same. An available date on the transformer nameplate is marked for
further details, such as rating in VA, single-phase / three-phase (power or
configuration transformer), step up / step down, connection, etc. When
manufacturers invent a transformer, they have no idea which load will be joined to
the Transformer. The load may be resistive (R), inductive (L), capacitive (C), or
mixed load (R, L, and C). It means, there would be different power factors at the
secondary (load) side on different kinds of connected loads depending on R, L, and
C. This way, they go for VA instead of W in the case of Transformer.
Any transformer introduces core losses and copper losses. Core losses are
dependent on the input voltage. Copper losses are dependent on the current running
through the winding.
Hence, total losses depend on voltage in joining to current but not upon power
factor. Thus, the rating of the transformer is done in kVA, not in kW.

5. What are the causes of low power factor? Its impact.

Low power factor is undesirable from economic point of view. Normally, the
power factor of the whole load on the supply system in lower than 0·8. The
following are the causes of low power factor:
(i) Most of the a.c. motors are of induction type which have low
lagging power factor.
(ii) Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnaces
operate at low lagging power factor.
(iii) The load on the power system is varying ; being high during
morning and evening and low at other times. During low load
period, supply voltage is increased which increases the
magnetisation current. This results in the decreased power factor.

6. How will you measure resistance of a diode?

A multimeter set to the Resistance mode (Ω) can be used as an additional diode
test.
A diode is forward-biased when the positive (red) test lead is on the anode and the
negative (black) test lead is on the cathode.
  The forward-biased resistance of a good diode should range from 1000 Ω to
10 MΩ.
 The resistance measurement is high when the diode is forward-biased
because current from the multimeter flows through the diode, causing the
high-resistance measurement required for testing.

A diode is reverse-biased when the positive (red) test lead is on the cathode and the
negative (black) test lead is on the anode.

 The reverse-biased resistance of a good diode displays OL on a multimeter.

The diode is bad if readings are the same in both directions.

Electric Substation
2. Calculate the load of your own house.
3. What is substation. Mention application of a transformer.
The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristic (e.g. voltage, a.c. to
d.c., frequency, p.f. etc.) of electric supply is called a sub-station.
A static apparatus that only transfer the energy from one circuit to another without
altering the value of power and frequency is called transformer.

Applications of transformer:

1. Transformers are being used in electrical power engineering to transform

power from either a produced voltage of roughly 11kV to higher values
of 132kV,220kV,400kV,500kV, and 765kV.
2. Transformers have been employed at distribution centers to decrease this
high voltage toward a comfortable limit of 400300 volts for usage
throughout households, offices, etc.
3. Transformers are indeed employed in telecommunication as well as
instrumentation circuits, as well as control circuits.
4. Input transformers, interstage transformers, as well as outputting
transformers are commonly used in radio and television circuits.

4. What is meant by burden of measuring instrument?

If measuring instrument acts as an impedence or casuses fault, the model circuit
will give error in output. Therefore, measuring instruements with such connections
are considered as burden for that particular electrical circuit.
5. Draw the internal structure of wattmeter.
6.
(a) Define the following terms:
i. Resistance ii. Inductance iii. Capacitance
(b) Write down the names of measuring instruments to measure
Resistance, Inductance & Capacitance.
(c) When Resistance, Inductance & Capacitance acts burdens?

(a)
i. Resistance: It is the opposition of line conductors to current flow.
ii. Inductance: Inductance is the tendency of electrical conductors for
opposing a change in the electric current that flows through it.
iii. Capacitance: Capacitance is the ability of a component or circuit to
store electric energy.
(b)
1. Resistance can be measured with a multimeter.
2. Inductance can be measured with a LCR meter.
3. Capacitance can be measured with a LCR meter.

(c)
7. What will happen in the circuit if ammeter is connected in parallel
across the circuit and voltmeter is connected in series with the circuit?
8. Explain the forward and reverse biasing of a p-n junction diode.
 Electrical Machine

1. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of AC and DC.

Advantages of AC:
 The generation of AC is cheaper than that of DC.
 It can be step up or step down using transformer.
 AC can easily be converted into DC.
 AC is safer than DC.

Disadvantages of AC:
 The peak value of AC is high and it is dangerous to use.
 An AC is transmitted from the surface of the conductor and hence needs
several strands of thin wires insulated from each other.
 Losses in AC is more than DC.

Advantages of DC:
 DC needs smaller conductor sizes.
 DC is easier to regulate.
 HVDC transmission can enhance system stability

Disadvantages of DC:
 DC is more expensive than AC.
 DC machines are more complex.
 Electric power cannot be generated at high DC voltage.

2. Explain the working principle of DC generator.

A DC generator operates on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic

induction. According to Faraday’s law, whenever a conductor is placed in a
fluctuating magnetic field (or when a conductor is moved in a magnetic field) an
EMF is induced in the conductor. Consider a single loop DC generator (as shown
in the figure), in this a single turn loop ‘ABCD’ is rotating clockwise in a uniform
magnetic field with a constant speed. When the loop rotates, the magnetic flux
linking the coil sides ‘AB’ and ‘CD’ changes continuously. This change in flux
linkage induces an EMF in coil sides and the induced EMF in one coil side adds
the induced EMF in the other.

The EMF induced in a DC generator can be explained as follows

 When the loop is in position-1, the generated EMF is zero because, the
movement of coil sides is parallel to the magnetic flux.
 When the loop is in position-2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the
magnetic flux and hence, a small EMF is generated.
 When the loop is in position-3, the coil sides are moving at right angle to the
magnetic flux, therefore the generated EMF is maximum.
 When the loop is in position-4, the coil sides are cutting the magnetic flux at
an angle, thus a reduced EMF is generated in the coil sides.
 When the loop is in position-5, no flux linkage with the coil side and are
moving parallel to the magnetic flux. Therefore, no EMF is generated in the
coil.
 At the position-6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and
hence the polarity of generated EMF is reversed. The maximum EMF will
generate in this direction at position-7 and zero when at position-1. This
cycle repeats with revolution of the coil.

It is clear that the generated EMF in the loop is alternating one. It is because any
coil side (say AB) has EMF in one direction when under the influence of N-pole
and in the other direction when under the influence of S-pole. Hence, when a load
is connected across the terminals of the generator, an alternating current will flow
through it. Now, by using a commutator, this alternating emf generated in the loop
can be converted into direct voltage. Then we have a DC generator.

3. Explain the working principle of rectifier.

Working Principle of Diode as a Rectifier

As a Half-Wave Rectifier:
A half-wave rectifier comprises a transformer, a P-N junction diode, and a load
resistor. The complete working of a half-wave rectifier needs two cycles, i.e., both
positive and negative cycles.

The diode is connected to the forward bias during the positive half cycle. The
current is conducted to the load resistance and the voltage established across the
diode.
The diode is in reverse bias condition during the negative half cycle. Hence, the
current flows across the circuit are zero, and there is no movement in the circuit.
The net voltage established across the diode is only during the positive half cycle
of the circuit, and we will get pulsating DC voltage across the load resistor.
The below figure shows the half-wave rectifier, AC input voltage, and DC output
voltage.
As a Full-Wave Rectifier:
A full-wave rectifier is made up of a transformer, two diodes, and load resistance.
Four diodes can also be used in full-wave rectifiers, commonly called bridge
rectifiers. A full-wave rectifier uses both halves of AC input. The anodes of the
center-tapped diodes are connected to the load resistor and secondary winding of
the transformer.

Diode D1 will be connected in the forward bias, and diode D2 will be in reverse
bias during the positive half cycle of AC. So, current flows through diode D1 and
is blocked by diode D2.
Diode D2 will be connected in the forward bias, and diode D1 will be in reverse
bias during the negative half cycle of AC. So, current flows through diode D2 and
is blocked by diode D1.
In a full-wave rectifier, DC voltage is obtained for both positive and negative half
cycles of AC input.
The below figure shows the full-wave rectifier, AC input voltage, and DC output
voltage.
4. Write down the names of identical part of DC generator.

Identical part of DC generator:

5. Classify generators. Draw electrical diagram and explain in briefly of

it.
6. Derive the E.M.F equation of a generator.

7. Example 26.8 and 26.9 (Page: 915)

8. Explain Iron Loss in Armature, total loss in a DC generator, Stray
losses, Constant or Standing Losses.
9. Explain different power stages.

10. Example 26.24 (a), (b) and (c). (Page: 928)

 11. Why we use commutation explain it briefly.
Commutation is also used in DC machines to reverse current and convert induced
AC in conductors into a DC output.
12. Write down the main differences between DC and AC generator.

Differentiating
Sl. No. AC Generator DC Generator
Property
DC generator is a mechanical
AC generator is a mechanical device device which converts
1 Definition
which converts mechanical energy mechanical energy into DC
into AC electrical power. electrical power.
In a DC generator, the electrical
Direction of
2 In an AC generator, the electrical current flows only in one
Current
current reverses direction periodically. direction.

3 Commutators AC generator does not have

commutators. DC generators have commutators.
DC generators have split-ring
4 Rings AC generators have slip-rings.
commutators.
Since slip-rings have a smooth and Both brushes and commutators of a
Efficiency of
5 uninterrupted surface, they do not DC generator wear out quickly
Brushes
wear quickly and are highly efficient. and thus are less efficient.
Sparking and short circuit
Short Circuit
6 Short circuit is very unlikely. possibility is high.
Possibility

DC generators produce a low

7 Output Voltage AC generators produce a high voltage. voltage compared to AC
Generator.
The initial cost of a DC generator is
The initial cost of an AC generator is
8 Cost less when compared to AC
high.
generators.
Distribution and The output from AC generators is easy The output from DC generators is
9
Transmission to distribute. difficult to distribute.

13. Which part of DC generator needs to maintenance regularly?

Brushes and commutators are the least expensive components of a DC motor unit,
although they must be replaced frequently.
 Electronics
1. Write down the difference between Electrical and Electronics.
# Content Electrical Electronics
Electronic technology deals
Electrical technology deals
with designing,
with the generation,
amplifying, and switching
01 Definition distribution, storage, and
electrical energy with the
conversion of electrical
help of different electronics
energy/power, etc.
equipment.
In the electrical circuit, In the electronic circuit, the
02 Fundamental Role electrical energy consists of energy consists of the flow
the flow of electron. of electron and hole.
The electrical devices
Device Principle Electronic devices control
03 produce the voltage and
(Voltage & Current) the voltage and current.
current.
Current It works on Alternating It works on Direct Current
04
Function(AC & DC) Current (AC). (DC).
They cannot manipulate It manipulates the data to
05 Function
data. assign.
Transformer, Alternator
Diode, Transistor, Thyristor,
Motor and Generator, Fuse,
Microcontroller, etc. are the
06 Example Circuit breaker and etc. are
example of electronic
the example of electrical
devices.
devices.

2. What is diode? Write a short note on diode.

A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as an one-way switch for
current. It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but severely restricts
current from flowing in the opposite direction.
Diodes are rated according to their type, voltage, and current capacity. Diodes have
polarity, determined by an anode (positive lead) and cathode (negative lead). Most
diodes allow current to flow only when positive voltage is applied to the anode.
When a diode allows current flow, it is forward-biased. When a diode is reverse-
biased, it acts as an insulator and does not permit current to flow. The diode
symbol's arrow points against the direction of electron flow.
 3. Write down the application of diode.
Applications and Uses of diodes

There are various types of diodes and these diodes are used in numerous ways.

 The most basic function would be changing AC current to DC current by

removing some part of the signal. This functionality would make them
rectifiers. They are used in electrical switches and are used in surge
protectors because they can prevent a spike in the voltage.
 Diodes help in performing digital logic.
 They are used for isolating signals from a supply. They are also used in
creating power supplies and voltage doublers. Using a full wave rectifier
will help to deliver a more stable voltage. Combination of a diode with a
capacitor will help to make small AC voltage multiply to create a very high
voltage.
 The light emitting diodes or LEDs are used in sensors and also in laser
devices any many other light illumination devices.
 Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators and varactors are used in
electronic tuning and varistors are used in suppressing AC lines.
 Diodes are the basis of Operational Amplifier and transistors.

4. Define rectifier circuit. Write a short note on rectifier.

The process of converting an AC (sinusoidal) signal into a DC signal is called
Rectification. The electronic circuit which performs the rectification is known as
the Rectifier circuit. In short, we can call it a rectifier. So, by using this circuit, we
can convert the electrical signal, which is of sinusoidal (AC) form, into DC form.
5. Explain rectifier circuit diagram.
Here is a diagram of a commonly used rectifier circuit:

In an AC signal, the current flows in one direction for one-half cycle and the
opposite direction for the other half cycle. Whereas in a DC signal, the current
flows in only one direction. We know that the p-n junction diode is the unilateral
element. Hence, the p-n junction diode is the main electronic component in the
rectifier circuit.

6. What is transistor? Explain parts of a transistor.

A transistor is a type of semiconductor device that can be used to conduct and

insulate electric current or voltage. A transistor basically acts as a switch and an
amplifier.
A typical transistor is composed of three layers of semiconductor materials or,
more specifically, terminals which help to make a connection to an external circuit
and carry the current. A voltage or current that is applied to any one pair of the
terminals of a transistor controls the current through the other pair of terminals.
There are three terminals for a transistor. They are listed below:

 Base: This is used to activate the transistor.

 Collector: It is the positive lead of the transistor.
 Emitter: It is the negative lead of the transistor.

7. Explain types of transistor.

There are mainly two types of transistors, based on how they are used in a circuit.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) : The three terminals of BJT are the base, emitter
and collector. A very small current flowing between the base and emitter can
control a larger flow of current between the collector and emitter terminal.

Furthermore, there are two types of BJT and they include:

 P-N-P Transistor: It is a type of BJT where one n-type material is introduced

or placed between two p-type materials. In such a configuration, the device
will control the flow of current.

 N-P-N Transistor: In this transistor, we will find one p-type material that is
present between two n-type materials. N-P-N transistor is basically used to
amplify weak signals to strong signals.
Field Effect Transistor (FET)
For FET, the three terminals are Gate, Source and Drain. The voltage at the gate
terminal can control a current between the source and the drain. FET is a unipolar
transistor in which N-channel FET or P-channel FET are used for conduction. The
main applications of FETs are in low noise amplifiers, buffer amplifiers and
analogue switches.

Other Types
Apart from these, there are many other types of transistors which include
MOSFET, JFET, (ITFET), (FREDFET), (OFET) etc.

8. Explain the working principle of transistor.

A transistor is an electronic component that is used in circuits to either amplify or

switch electrical signals or power. It consists of three terminals: emitter, base, and
collector. The basic idea behind a transistor is that it lets you control the flow of
current through one channel by varying the intensity of a much smaller current
that’s flowing through a second channel.
The transistor works as a gated device to the electric current. If the gate is open,
there is a flow, and if the gate is closed, there is no flow. The role of the transistor
input signal is to open and close the gate, as desired. The output is, thus, controlled
by the input.

Electrical Circuit
1. What is meant by Series and Parallel Circuits? Explain their
circuit diagram. Write down their advantages and
disadvantages.

In a series circuit, all components are connected end-to-end to form a single path
for current flow. In a parallel circuit, all components are connected across each
other with exactly two electrically common nodes with the same voltage across
each component.

Figure: Example of a series circuit.

Figure: Example of a parallel circuit.

 The advantages and disadvantages of series and parallel circuits are as follows:
Advantages of Series Circuits:

 i) Simple to design and build.

 ii) Components are easy to find and replace.
 iii) Current is the same throughout the circuit.

Disadvantages of Series Circuits:

 i) If one component fails, the entire circuit fails.

 ii) The total resistance of the circuit is the sum of the individual resistances.

Advantages of Parallel Circuits:

 i) Independent operation of components.

 ii) Increased power capacity.
 iii) If one component fails, the others continue to work.

Disadvantages of Parallel Circuits:

 i) Complex to design and build.

 ii) Components are more expensive.
 iii) Voltage is the same throughout the circuit.

2. Explain Kirchhoff’s First and Second Law.

Kirchhoff’s First and Second Laws are two fundamental principles of electrical
circuit theory.

Kirchhoff’s First Law, also known as the Current Law, states that the sum of the
currents entering a node in a circuit is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that
node. This law is based on the principle of conservation of charge.
Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two currents
leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the
equation as;

I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0

Kirchhoff’s Second Law, also known as the Voltage Law, states that the sum of the
voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is zero. This law is based on the
principle of conservation of energy.

Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the
direction of all the voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to
the same starting point.
3. Calculate RMS Voltage using graphical method.
Difference between DC Series Motor and DC Shunt Motor
Parameter DC Series Motor Shunt Motor

Basic In a dc series motor, the field In a dc shunt motor, the field

winding is connected in series with winding is connected in parallel with
the armature winding. the armature winding.

Field current Field current is same as the Field current is not equal to
armature current. armature current.

Voltage across In dc series motors, the voltages In dc shunt motors, the voltage
armature and field across armature and field windings across the armature winding and
windings are different depending on their field winding is same and is equal to
resistance. the supply voltage.

Staring torque A dc series motor develops very A dc shunt motor develops low and
high starting torque. constant starting torque.

Torque-current In dc series motors, the torque is In dc shunt motors, the torque is

relation directly proportional to the square directly proportional to the armature
of the armature current i.e., current i.e.,

Starting current High starting current Lower starting current

Speed Variable Approximately constant

Starter Four-point starter is used. Three-point starter is used.

Speed regulation Poor speed regulation Its speed regulation is better as

compared to the DC Series motor.

Applications Electric locomotives, hoists & Fans, blowers, elevators, centrifugal

cranes, electric bikes and cars, etc. pumps, lath machines, etc.
 DC Series Motor:
 Advantages:
o Highest starting torque for a given power rating .
o Best suited for traction applications .

 Disadvantages:
o Poor speed regulation .
o Require being loaded before starting the motor .

DC Shunt Motor:
 Advantages:
o Best suited for armature control and field control .
o Quick starting, stopping, reversing, and fast acceleration .
o Free from harmonics .

 Disadvantages:
o Unreliable at low-speed operations .
o Large size compared to alternative current motors .

CT Question 3 Solve
The standard unit of electricity is defined in a systematic way. First, the ampere is
defined. After, the ampere comes from the charge and coulomb of an electron. The
SI units to measure the electric expressions of voltage, resistance and current are
Volt (v), Ohm (Ω) and Ampere (A), respectively.

Standard Electrical Units of Measure

Electrical Parameter Measuring Unit Unit/Symbol Formula

Voltage Volt V or E V=I×R

Resistance Ohm R or Ω R=V/I

Current Ampere I or i I=V/R

Capacitance Farad C C=Q/V

Conductance Siemen G G=1/R

Charge Coulomb C Q = C×V

Power Watts W P = V × I or I2�2 × R

Inductance Henry L/H VL = -L(di/dt)

Frequency Hertz Hz f=1/T

Impedance Ohm Z Z² = R²+X²

Armature reaction is the effect on the main field flux of that flux set up by the
currents in the armature winding. The effect is the same for both lap- and
wave-wound machines.

A generator action occurs when mechanical energy is converted into

electrical energy.
A source is a device delivering energy into a system, while a load is a device
extracting energy from a system. Examples of typical electrical sources include
generators, photovoltaic cells, thermopiles, and primary-cell batteries. These
devices create electrical voltage, which in turn motivates electrical current to flow
in a circuit. Examples of typical electrical loads include resistors, lamps, and
electric motors.

Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it,
provided all physical conditions and temperature, remain constant. Mathematically, this current-voltage
relationship is written as,

We transform a voltage source into a current source by using ohm's law. A

voltage source can be changed into a current source by using ohm's formula,
I=V/R.
 What is Faraday’s Law

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction (referred to as Faraday’s law) is a

basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact
with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF). This
phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.

Here are some more examples of electrical machines:

1. Electric transformers
2. Electric motors
3. Electric generators
4. Electric heaters
5. Electric fans
6. Electric pumps

Alternating current (AC) is an electric current that periodically reverses its

direction, in contrast to direct current (DC) which only flows in a single direction.

Periodic current is a type of alternating current that repeats itself at regular

intervals.

Non-periodic current is a type of alternating current that does not repeat itself at
regular intervals.

A series circuit is a type of electrical circuit in which the components are

connected end-to-end, forming a single path for current flow. In a series circuit, the
same current flows through each component, and the total resistance of the circuit
is equal to the sum of the individual resistances of the components.

There are different types of electrical wiring systems and methods of electrical
wiring. Some of the most common types of electrical wiring systems include:
 Cleat Wiring
 Casing and Capping Wiring
 Batten Wiring
 Lead Sheathed Wiring
 Conduit Wiring

An electric circuit is a path through which an electric current flows. It consists of a

source of electrical energy, such as a battery or generator, and various components
that use the current, such as lamps, electric motors, or computers. The connecting
wires or transmission lines complete the circuit 1.

The necessities of electrical circuits are as follows:

Energy source: An energy source, such as a battery or generator, is required to

provide energy to the charged particles constituting the current.

Load: A load is a device that uses the current, such as lamps, electric motors, or
computers.

Conductors: Conductors are materials that allow the flow of electric current
through them. Copper and aluminum are commonly used conductors.

Switches: Switches are used to control the flow of current in a circuit. They can be
used to turn a circuit on or off, or to control the flow of current to different
components.

For example, consider a simple circuit consisting of a battery, a lamp, and a switch.
The battery provides energy to the charged particles constituting the current. The
current flows through the connecting wires and the lamp, which uses the current to
produce light. The switch controls the flow of current to the lamp, allowing it to be
turned on or off.

Functions of Ammeter

An ammeter is an instrument used to measure the current in a circuit. It is

connected in series with the circuit in which the current is to be measured. The
primary function of an ammeter is to measure the current flowing through a circuit.
It can measure both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC).
An energy band is the range of energy of electrons possessed in an atom. According to the
energy band theory, the valence band, conduction band and forbidden band determine the
conductive properties of materials. Valance band can be defined as the last filled energy band of
material at 0K. Valence bands never get empty. The electrons in the valence band are unable to
obtain energy from any external sources of the electric field. A conduction band can be defined
as the first unfilled energy band at 0K. Here, the density of the electrons is very low. The
electrons in this band can gain energy from the external fields. The forbidden band is also known
as the energy bandgap. Since this is the difference in energy levels of conduction and valence
band. In this band, no electrons will occupy. Electrons needed energy for the jumping from the
valence to the conduction band.

Insulator:

This material has a large bandgap. Due to large bandgap, the electrons from the valence band
can’t move into the conduction band. Hence the valence band remains to fill and the conduction
band remains empty. Diamond glass is the example for insulators.

Conductor:

This material has typically zero energy bandgap. Valence electrons can easily move to the
conduction band. This overlapping band diagram shows the availability of a large number of
charge carriers. Metals are in the category of the conductor.

Semiconductor:
In these materials, conduction and valence bands are separated by a small energy gap. So these
materials required some energy for the conduction. Then only the electrons from the valence
band can jump into the conduction band. The semiconductors will behave like an insulator at 0
K. At this time no electrons are not available in the conduction band. Valence electrons will
acquire more energy and thus more electrons can participate in the conduction if we are applying
more temperature. When an electron jumps to the conduction band, then it will create a vacancy
in the conduction band. This vacancy is known as a hole. So we can simply say one thermally
energized electron can make a pair of an electron and a hole. Commonly used semiconductor
materials are silicon and germanium.