30.3 Ampère’s Law 37.

1 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment

31.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction 37.2 Waves in Interference
31.2 Motional emf
31.3 Lenz’s Law 38.1 Introduction to Diffraction Patterns
31.4 Induced emf and Electric Fields 38.4 The Diffraction Grating
31.6 Eddy Currents 38.6 Polarization of Light Waves
32 Inductance
32.1 Self-Induction and Inductance
32.3 Energy in a Magnetic Field
43.2 Energy States and Spectra of Molecules
32.4 Mutual Inductance
43.3 Bonding in Solids
35.1 The Nature of Light
43.4 Free-Electron Theory of Metals
35.2 Measurements of the Speed of Light
43.5 Band Theory of Solids
35.3 The Ray Approximation in Ray Optics
43.6 Electrical Conduction in Metals,
35.4 Wave Under Reflection
Insulators, and Semiconductors
35.5 Wave Under Refraction
43.7 Semiconductor Devices
35.7 Dispersion
35.8 Total Internal Reflection
1
𝑑
1
𝑑= 𝑐𝑚
𝑛
= 0.25 𝑐𝑚

1
𝑑= 𝑐𝑚
𝑛
= 0.01 𝑐𝑚
1 cm

2
𝜃

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚λ
𝑚λ
sin 𝜃=
𝑑
1
𝜃∝
𝑑

3
30.3 Ampère’s Law
(Lecture # 7)

4
Magnetic moment: It is the magnetic strength and orientation of
a magnet or other object that produces a magnetic field.
Ԧ Ampere-m2
The magnetic moment is typically expressed as a vector. (𝜇Ԧ = 𝐼 𝐴)
Examples of objects that have magnetic moments include loops of electric
current (such as electromagnets), permanent magnets, elementary particles (such
as electrons), composite particles (such as protons and neutrons),
various molecules, and many astronomical objects (such as many planets,
some moons, stars, etc.).
Electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by
an electric current. Electromagnets usually consist of wire wound into a coil. A
current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is concentrated in the
hole in the center of the coil. The magnetic field disappears when the current is
turned off. The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made from
a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic core
concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet.
 30.4 The Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
A solenoid is a long wire wound in the form of a helix. With this configuration, a
reasonably uniform magnetic field can be produced in the space surrounded by
the turns of wire—which we shall call the interior of the solenoid—when the
solenoid carries a current. When the turns are closely spaced, each can be
approximated as a circular loop; the net magnetic field is the vector sum of the
fields resulting from all the turns.
Ampere’s Law and its Applications.
The line integral of 𝑩 ∙ 𝑑𝒔 around any closed path equals 𝜇𝑜 I.
 Figure
30.3 Ampère’s Law 30.9
In figure because of the wire’s symmetry, the magnetic
field lines are circles concentric with the wire and lie in
planes perpendicular to the wire.
Also, the magnetic field line has no beginning and no
end. Rather, it forms a closed loop.
That is a major difference between magnetic
field lines and electric field lines, which begin on
positive charges and end on negative charges.
Oersted’s 1819 discovery about deflected compass needles demonstrates
that a current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field.
Now let’s evaluate the
product 𝑩 ∙ 𝑑𝒔 for a small
length element 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ on the
circular path defined by
the compass needles and
sum the products for all
elements over the closed
circular path.
Vectors 𝐵 and 𝑑 𝑠Ԧ are parallel
at each point, so;
𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑠Ԧ = Bds
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
Where, 𝐵 =
4𝜋𝑟
(Biot–Savart Law)
Therefore, the sum of the products B ds over the closed path,
which is equivalent to the line integral of 𝑩 ∙ 𝑑𝒔 is;
Applications.
30.4 The Magnetic Field of a Solenoid

A solenoid is a long wire wound in the form of

a helix. With this configuration, a reasonably
uniform magnetic field can be produced in the
space surrounded by the turns of wire—which
we shall call the interior of the solenoid—when
the solenoid carries a current.
The external magnetic Fig. 30.17
field lines are as shown
in Figure 30.17a.
This field line
distribution is similar to
that surrounding a bar
magnet (Fig. 30.17b).
• Hence, one end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a
magnet and the opposite end behaves like the south pole.
• As the length of the solenoid increases, the interior field
becomes more uniform and the exterior field becomes weaker.
• An ideal solenoid is approached when the turns are closely spaced
and the length is much greater than the radius of the turns.
Consider the Amperian loops
perpendicular to the page in Figure
30.18.
The “Magnetic Flux” associated with a magnetic field is
defined in a manner similar to that used to define electric
flux. Consider an element of area dA on an arbitrarily
shaped surface as shown in Figure 30.19. If the magnetic
field at this element is 𝑩, the magnetic flux through the
element is 𝑩 ∙ 𝑑𝑨, where 𝑑𝑨 is a vector that is perpendicular
to the surface and has a magnitude equal to the area dA.
Therefore, the total magnetic flux Φ𝐵 through the surface is;

Consider the special case of a plane of area A in a uniform field 𝑩 that makes an angle θ
with 𝑑𝑨. The magnetic flux through the plane in this case is;
If the magnetic field is parallel, then θ = 90o and the flux through the plane is zero.
If the field is perpendicular to the plane, then θ = 0o and the flux through the plane
is BA (the maximum value).
20
 Lecture 8:
Inductance,
Induced Current and their applications.
Faraday’s and Lenz’s Laws,
Eddy Currents.
Experiments conducted by Michael Faraday in England in 1831
and independently by Joseph Henry in the United States that
same year showed that an emf can be induced in a circuit by a
changing magnetic field.
Electromotive force (EMF) is a concept in physics that represents
the energy per unit charge supplied by a source, such as a battery
or a generator, to move electric charges around a circuit.
• Despite its name, EMF is not a force in the traditional sense but
rather a measure of the energy transferred per unit charge.

When a source of EMF is connected to a closed electrical circuit, it

creates an electric field within the circuit, which exerts a force on
the charged particles (usually electrons) within the conductor,
causing them to move and thus creating an electric current.
• In the context of electromagnetic induction, a changing magnetic
field induces an electromotive force across a conductor, which in
turn causes an electric current to flow if the circuit is closed.
• This induced EMF is responsible for generating electricity in
devices such as generators and transformers.

The unit of electromotive force is the volt (V), which is equivalent

to one joule per coulomb (1 J/C).
• It's important to note that EMF is distinct from voltage, although
they are often used interchangeably in colloquial language.
• Voltage refers to the potential difference between two points in a
circuit, while EMF specifically refers to the energy per unit
charge supplied by a source.
Inductance is a fundamental property of electrical circuits, particularly
those containing coils or conductors.

It describes the ability of a circuit element, typically a coil or solenoid, to

generate an electromotive force (EMF) in response to a change in the
current flowing through it or the magnetic field surrounding it.

When a current flows through a conductor, it creates a magnetic field

around it. This magnetic field stores energy.
The inductance of the conductor quantifies how much magnetic energy is
stored per unit of current flowing through it.
Unit of inductance:
Inductance is denoted by the symbol "L" and its unit is the henry (H).
One henry is equal to one volt-second per ampere.

Applications: Inductance plays a crucial role in various electrical

components and systems, such as transformers, motors, generators, and
inductive sensors.
It also affects the behavior of electrical signals in circuits, particularly in
alternating current (AC) circuits, where inductive reactance opposes the
flow of current and affects the phase relationship between voltage and
current.
Induced current,
Electromagnetic induction, occurs when a changing magnetic field
generates an electric current in a conductor.
Discovered by Michael Faraday in the 19th century.

Basic principle:
when there is a change in the magnetic field passing through a
conductor (such as a wire loop), it induces an electromotive force
(EMF) or voltage across the ends of the conductor, causing an
electric current to flow if the circuit is closed.
Faraday’s Laws
Faraday concluded that an electric current can be induced in a loop by
a changing magnetic field.
The induced current exists only while the magnetic field through the
loop is changing. Once the magnetic field reaches a steady value, the
current in the loop disappears.
In effect, the loop behaves as though a source of emf were connected
to it for a short time. It is customary to say that an induced emf is
produced in the loop by the changing magnetic field.
 Faraday’s First Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction states the following:

Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced.

If the conductor circuit is closed, a current is induced, which is called induced current.

Mentioned here are a few ways to change the magnetic field intensity in a closed loop:
• By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.
• By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
• By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field.
• By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil.
Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnetic
Induction
Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction states that
“The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage”.
The flux linkage�=−�Δ�Δ�
is the product of the number of turns in the coil and the flux
associated with the coil.
• The angle θ between 𝑩 and the normal to
the loop can change with time.
• Any combination of the above can occur.
31.3 Lenz’s Law
Faraday’s law (Eq. 31.1) indicates that the induced emf and the
change in flux have opposite algebraic signs. This feature has a
very real physical interpretation that has come to be known as
Lenz’s law:
• As the bar moves to the right, the magnetic flux through the area
enclosed by the circuit increases with time because the area
increases.
• Lenz’s law states that the induced current must be directed so that
the magnetic field it produces opposes the change in the external
magnetic flux.
• Because the magnetic flux due to an external field directed into the
page is increasing, the induced current—if it is to oppose this
change—must produce a field directed out of the page.
• Hence, the induced current must be directed counterclockwise
when the bar moves to the right.
• If the bar is moving to the left as in Figure 31.11b, the external
magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the loop decreases
with time.
• Because the field is directed into the page, the direction of the
induced current must be clockwise if it is to produce a field that
also is directed into the page.
• In either case, the induced current attempts to maintain the
original flux through the area enclosed by the current loop.
 31.6 Eddy Currents
As we have seen, an emf and a current are induced in a circuit by
a changing magnetic flux.
In the same manner, circulating currents called eddy currents are
induced in bulk pieces of metal moving through a magnetic field.
According to Lenz’s law, the direction of the eddy currents is
such that they create magnetic fields that oppose the change that
causes the currents
Eddy currents generate resistive losses that transform some forms of energy, such as
kinetic energy, into heat. This Joule heating reduces efficiency of iron-core
transformers and electric motors and other devices that use changing magnetic fields.
Eddy currents are minimized in these devices by selecting magnetic core materials
that have low electrical conductivity (e.g., ferrite or iron powder mixed with resin) or
by using thin sheets of magnetic material, known as laminations.
32 Inductance
32.1 Self-Induction and Inductance
32.3 Energy in a Magnetic Field
32.4 Mutual Inductance

Lecture-9
Induced Current and their applications

41