Electrical Measurements & Instrumentation

Course Code: EEE 374

Lecture 13
Course Instructor: Dr. Hammad Omer (Assistant Professor)
(PhD, MS, MCS, PGD (IT) B.Eng.)

Transducers
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
COMSATS University, Islamabad
June 2020

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 Capacitive Transducers: Capacitive Displacement Transducers
• The equation for the capacitance between two plates separated by
air or another dielectric is:
ℇ ℇ 𝐴
• 𝐶= 𝑟 𝑜 (Equation-1)
𝑑

• Equation-1 gives the Capacitance C in farads when ℇ𝑟 is the relative

permittivity of the dielectric, ℇ𝑜 is the permittivity of free space
(8.84x10-12), A is the cross-sectional area of the plates in m2, and d is
the distance between the plates in m

• Figures on next slide show different parallel-plate capacitors, and

how they might be adjusted when used in a displacement transducer

• Adjustment of the distance (d) between the plates gives a

capacitance variation (ΔC) inversely proportional to Δd

• Adjustment of facing plate area gives ΔC proportional to ΔA

2
Capacitive Transducers: Capacitive Displacement Transducers

Capacitance varied by adjusting overlap area between plates

3
 Capacitive Transducers: Capacitive Displacement Transducers
• Movable dielectric between plates gives two separate plate areas
with an air dielectric and a solid dielectric. In this case, there are two
different capacitances in parallel, and increasing the area of one
reduces the area of the other; again ΔC is proportional to ΔA

• Similarly, an air dielectric capacitor can be constructed on a half-disc

shaped plates. The movable plates may be rotated, thus adjusting
the facing plate area, and giving a capacitance variation proportional
to ΔA

• In the case of capacitive displacement transducer which varies the

distance between the plates (Δd), the sensitivity is ΔC/Δd; possibly
expressed in pF/um

• For a transducer which varies the capacitor area, the sensitivity is

(ΔC/ΔA), and this can further be reduced to ΔC/Δ𝑙
4
 Capacitive Transducers: Example-1
• A parallel plate capacitive transducer has a plate area
(lxw)=(40mmx40mm) and plate spacing(d)=0.5mm. Calculate the
device capacitance and the displacement (Δd) that causes the
capacitance to change by 5pF. Also determine the transducer
sensitivity.
• Solution:
ℇ𝑟 ℇ𝑜 𝐴 8.84𝑥10−12 𝑥(40𝑥40𝑥10−6 )𝑚2
• We know 𝐶 = = = 28.3𝑝𝐹
𝑑 0.5𝑚𝑚

ℇ𝑟 ℇ𝑜 𝐴
• Also, 𝐶 − Δ𝐶 =
𝑑+Δ𝑑

ℇ𝑟 ℇ𝑜 𝐴 8.84𝑥10−12 𝑥(40𝑥40𝑥10−6 )𝑚2

• Giving, 𝑑 + Δ𝑑 = = = 0.61𝑚𝑚
𝐶−Δ𝐶 28.3𝑝𝐹−5𝑝𝐹

• Δ𝑑 = 0.61𝑚𝑚 − 0.5𝑚𝑚 = 0.11𝑚𝑚

Δ𝐶 5 𝑝𝐹
• Sensitivity, = = 45.4 𝑝𝐹/𝑚𝑚 5
Δ𝑑 0.11 𝑚𝑚
 Capacitive Transducers: Example-2
• For the capacitive transducer of Example-1, calculate the change in
length (Δl) that produces the same (5pF) capacitance change. Also
determine the new transducer sensitivity.
C+ΔC = (A + ΔA) * ℇrℇo/d
• Solution:
ℇ𝑟 ℇ𝑜 Δ𝐴
• We know Δ𝐶 =
𝑑

𝑑Δ𝐶 0.5𝑥10−3 𝑥5𝑝𝐹

• Giving, Δ𝐴 = = = 283𝑚𝑚2
ℇ𝑟 ℇ𝑜 8.84𝑥10−12

Δ𝐴 283 𝑚2
• and Δ𝑙 = = = 7.1 𝑚𝑚
𝑤 40 𝑚𝑚

Δ𝐶 5 𝑝𝐹
• Sensitivity, = = 0.7 𝑝𝐹/𝑚𝑚
Δ𝑙 7.1 𝑚𝑚

6
 Capacitive Transducers: Capacitive Displacement Transducers

• Any of the capacitor plate arrangements shown may be used to

construct a displacement transducer

• However, a transducer that displaces d is much more sensitive than

the one that changes length. So the one that displaces d is most
suitable for measurement of very small displacements, and the one
that displaces length is suitable for larger displacements

• Also note that, the relationship between C an length (l) is linear over
the whole range of l, except for a portion near l=0

• The relationship between C and d is approximately linear only for

small variations in d

7
 Capacitive Transducers: Capacitive Pressure Transducer

• The figure below shows the cross section of a pressure transducer

which consists of a flat fixed plate and a plastic diaphragm with a
metal film as a movable plate

• This is a capacitive microphone designed to receive sound waves as

a pressure variation on its diaphragm

• The gap between the plates changes when the diaphragm is

pressured, consequently the transducer capacitance changes

8
 Capacitive Transducers: Capacitive Pressure Transducer
• A circuit for extracting the microphone signal is illustrated below. The
capacitance becomes charged to the level of supply voltage (eC=E)

• In the absence of pressure variation on the diaphragm, there is

normally no current flow and no resistance voltage drop (eR)

• The capacitor charge equation is (Q=CE), so as C varies with the

varying pressure, the charge on C must also vary, and this produces
a varying current from the supply

• The current has the same

waveform as the pressure
wave, and it causes a
varying voltage drop across
R which can be amplified
and further processed
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 Capacitive Transducers: Capacitive Pressure Transducer
• The response of this type of transducer to varying frequencies of the
input pressure wave is very important. Typically, it frequency range is
40Hz to 15KHz, which approximately matches the human hearing
range

• Capacitive transducers can be used for the measurement of very

small displacements, and they can be much more sensitive than
other transducer types

• Because small capacitance values are usually involved, stray

capacitance and the capacitance of connecting cables can be
sources of error

10
 Thermal Transducers: Resistance Thermometer
• The resistance of all pure metals tends to increase as their
temperature increases, and so metals are said to have a positive
temperature coefficient

• Some materials e.g. semiconductors exhibit a decrease in resistance

with increasing temperature, they have a negative temperature
coefficient

• Over the normal range of operating temperatures, most metals show

a nearly linear relationship between the resistance and temperature

• The resistance temperature coefficient (⍺) of a metal defines how the

resistance changes with temperature change; and it has to be
specified for a given reference temperature usually 0Co or 20Co

11
 Thermal Transducers: Resistance Thermometer
• For a resistance of R1 Ω, the resistance change (ΔR) for a given
temperature change (ΔT) is: Δ𝑅 = 𝑅1 ⍺ Δ𝑇

• And the new resistance value is: 𝑅2 = 𝑅1 + Δ𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅1 ⍺ Δ𝑇

• So, 𝑅2 = 𝑅1 1 + ⍺ Δ𝑇 (Equation 2)

Metal ⍺ at 0Co ⍺ at 20Co

Platinum 0.00391 0.00373

Copper 0.00426 0.00393

Nickel 0.0068 0.006

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 Thermal Transducers: Example-3
• The resistance of a coil of nickel wire is 25Ω at 20Co. This rises to
37Ω when the coil has been submerged in a liquid for some time.
Calculate the temperature of the liquid.

• Solution:

• Temperature coefficient of nickel at 20Co is ⍺=0.006

1 𝑅2 1 37Ω
• From Equation-2, Δ𝑇 = −1 = − 1 = 80𝐶 𝑜
⍺ 𝑅1 0.006 25Ω

• 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 + Δ𝑇 = 20 + 80 = 100𝐶 𝑜

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 Thermal Transducers: Resistance Thermometer
• The basic construction of a resistance thermometer, also known as a
resistance temperature detector (RTD) is shown below

• The RTD is in the form of a coiled wire held in position inside a

protective sheath; which might be of glass or stainless steel etc.

• The wire may have some type of high temperature insulation such as
enamel, or ceramic spacers to keep in place and avoid short circuits

• The material used for resistance-sensing element is pure platinum

• Insulated connecting leads must have a much lower resistance than

the sensing element

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 Thermal Transducers: Resistance Thermometer
• An RTD is usually connected in a Wheatstone bridge circuit, as
shown below. This allows for the detection of very small changes in
the resistance of sensing element and a meter is used (connected at
Output) to measure the bridge unbalance voltage calibrated to
indicate temperature

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 Thermal Transducers: Resistance Thermometer
• Resistance thermometers can be employed over a wide temperature
range; from -200Co to over +650Co

• They are tough and extremely accurate

• A disadvantage is that the need for a power supply and bridge make
RTDs more expensive than other types of temperature-measuring
devices

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 Thermal Transducers: Thermistor
• The term thermistor is a combination of thermal and resistor. So a
thermistor is a resistor with important thermal characteristics

• Most thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient, but

positive temperature coefficient devices are also available

• Thermistors are widely applied for measurement and control of

temperature, liquid level etc.

• In the manufacturing of thermistors, various mixtures of metallic

oxides are pressed into the desired shapes and sintered(baked) at a
high temperature

• Electrical wire contact leads are deposited after sintering

• Thermistors are produced in the shape of beads, probes, discs etc.

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 Thermal Transducers: Thermistor
• The typical thermistor resistance/temperature characteristics shown
below show that the device resistance (R) decreases substantially
when its temperature is raised

• Current flow through a thermistor produces power dissipation that

can raise its temperature and change its resistance, and thus
introduce error; so device currents are normally kept to a minimum

18
 Thermal Transducers: Thermistor
• Partial specifications of two thermistors with different resistance
values are given in table below

• Both devices have the resistance at 25Co identified as the zero

power resistance. This means that, for the specified resistance, there
must be effectively zero power dissipation in the thermistor

• Table-1
Thermistor Zero Power Resistance Β (0Co to Maximum Dissipation
resistance ratio 50Co) working constant
at 25Co 25Co/125Co temperature
44002A 300Ω 15.15 3118 100Co 1mW in still
air 8mW in
moving
liquid
44008 30kΩ 29.15 3810 150Co

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 Thermal Transducers: Thermistor
• The dissipation constant is the device power dissipation that can
raise its temperature through 1Co

• An indication of how much the thermistor resistance changes is given

by the resistance ratio at 25/125Co

• With the ratio specified at 15.15, the resistance at 25Co is divided by

15.15 to determine its resistance at 125Co

• The resistance change with temperature is also defined by the

constant beta (β), in this case for the range 0Co to 50Co

• Beta is used in an equation that relates resistance values at different

𝑅1 1 1
temperatures: ln =β − Equation-3
𝑅2 𝑇1 𝑇2
• In equation-3, R1 is the resistance at temperature T1 and R2 is the
resistance at T2. Also, T1 and T2 are Kelvin temperature values 20
 Thermal Transducers: Thermistor
• A thermistor connected as a feedback resistor in an inverting
amplifier is shown below
• The thermistor is supplied with a constant current determined by R1
and V1
• The output voltage is directly proportional to the thermistor
resistance, and so Vout varies with temperature change
• Thermistors can respond relatively quickly to temperature changes
compared to other thermal devices
• Sensitivity is good, and the device high resistance means that the
connecting leads do not introduce significant errors
• Low cost and small size are further advantages

R1

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 Thermal Transducers: Example-4
• Calculate the resistance of the 300Ω thermistor specified in the
previous Table-1 at temperatures of 20Co and 30Co

• Solution:

• For T=20Co: 𝑇1 = 25𝐶 𝑜 + 273 = 298 𝐾

• And 𝑇2 = 20𝐶 𝑜 + 273 = 293 𝐾
𝑅 300Ω
• From Equation-3: 𝑅2 = β(1Τ𝑇11−1Τ𝑇2) = 3118(1Τ298−1Τ293) = 358Ω
𝑒 𝑒

• For T=30Co: 𝑇1 = 25𝐶 𝑜 + 273 = 298 𝐾

• And 𝑇2 = 30𝐶 𝑜 + 273 = 303 𝐾
𝑅 300Ω
• From Equation-3: 𝑅2 = β(1Τ𝑇11−1Τ𝑇2) = 3118(1Τ298−1Τ303) = 252Ω
𝑒 𝑒

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