INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

EPCE3204

Adama Science and Technology University

School of Electrical Engineering and Computing
Department of Electrical Power and Control Engineering

EPCE3204
 CHAPTER 2:
MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL SYSTEM

2 EPCE3204
Signal Flow Graphs -Mason's Gain Formula
𝑃𝐾 Δ𝐾
𝑇=෍
Δ
𝐾

– Where,
𝑃𝐾 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐾 𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ

Δ = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = 1 − ෍ 𝐿𝑎 + ෍ 𝐿𝑏 𝐿𝑐 − ෍ 𝐿𝑑 𝐿𝑒 𝐿𝑓 + ⋯
𝑎 𝑏,𝑐 𝑑,𝑒,𝑓

෍ 𝐿𝑎 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠

𝑎

෍ 𝐿𝑏 𝐿𝑐 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠

𝑏,𝑐

෍ 𝐿𝑑 𝐿𝑒 𝐿𝑓 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠

𝑑,𝑒,𝑓

ΔK = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝛥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐾 𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ

– Note that the summations are taken over all possible paths from input to output.

3 EPCE3204
Signal Flow Graphs - Exercise

• Obtain the closed loop Transfer Function, by using Mason's gain

formula.

4 EPCE3204
Signal Flow Graphs - Exercise

• Converting to Signal Flow Graphs

• The forward path gain is 𝑃1 = 𝐺1 𝐺2

• There are 3 loops. 𝐿1 = −𝐺2 𝐻2 𝐿2 = −𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐿3 = −𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻3
Δ = 1 − 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 = 1 + 𝐺2 𝐻2 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 𝐻2 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻3 Δ1 = 1
𝐶 𝑠 𝑃1 Δ1 𝐺1 𝐺2
=𝑃= =
𝑅 𝑠 Δ 1 + 𝐺2 𝐻2 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 𝐻2 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻3
5 EPCE3204
 CHAPTER 3:
TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS OF CONTROL SYSTEM

6 EPCE3204
Introduction - Time Response

• A manner in which a dynamic system responds to an input,

expressed as a function of time, is called time response.
• The theoretical evaluation of this response is said to be undertaken
in the time domain, and is referred to as time domain analysis.

• It is possible to compute the time response of a system if the

following is known
– The nature of the input
– The mathematical model of the system

• The steps in analyzing a control system

– Driving mathematical model of a system
– Analysis of system’s performance

7 EPCE3204
Introduction - Time Domain Analysis

• There are several methods used for analysis of systems' performance.

– In analyzing & designing of control system there must be some
basic comparison of performance of various control systems.
– This basis of comparison can be set by specifying particular test
input signals and by comparing the response of various systems
to these input signals.

• Many design criteria are based on

– Response of the system to test input signals or
– Systems response to changes in initial conditions

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Time Domain Analysis - Standard Test Signals

• Usually the input signal to the control systems are not known fully a
head of time.
– Therefore, system dynamics behavior for analysis and design is
judged and compared under application of standard test signals.

• Commonly used test input signals are:

– Step signal
– Ramp signal
– Impulse signal
– Parabola signal

9 EPCE3204
Time Domain Analysis - Standard Test Signals

• These test signals are used to perform mathematical & experimental

analysis of control systems, since the signals very simple functions of
time.
• The kind of input the system will be subjected most frequently under
normal operation determines which test input signal to use to
analyze the systems performance characteristics.
– Step function: this test signal is used if the control system is
most frequently subjected to a sudden disturbance.
– Ramp function: this test input signal is used if the control
system is frequently subjected to a gradually changing input.
– Impulse function: this test input signal is used if the control
system is subjected to shock inputs.

10 EPCE3204
 Time Domain Analysis - Standard Test Signals

• Relations between test signals

11 EPCE3204
 Time Response of Control System

• Control systems performance is usually specified in terms of both transient

response and steady state response.
• Since physical control systems involves energy storage the output of the
system when subjected to an input cannot follow the input immediately but
exhibits a transient response before a steady state can be reached.
– Transient response: goes from the initial state to the final state and
reduces to zero as time becomes very large. It is a function of the
system dynamics and independent of the input quantity.
– Steady state response: The behavior of the system as approaches to
infinity after the transients have died out and it is a function of both the
system dynamics and the input quantity.
• The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped
oscillation before reaching steady state.
• If the output of the system at the steady state doesn’t exactly agree with
input ,the system is said to have steady state error. This error is indicative of
the system accuracy.

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Steady State Error

• Steady-state error (𝒆𝒔𝒔 ): is the difference between the input and the
output for a prescribed test input as time tends to infinity.
• Steady-state error in control system are almost unavoidable. In a
design one of the objectives is to keep 𝒆𝒔𝒔 to minimum or below a
certain tolerable values.
• Steady state error determined by the concept of final value theorem.
Final value theorem: lim 𝑒(𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝐸(𝑠)
𝑡→∞ s→0

• Output 1 has zero steady-state

error
• Output 2 has a finite steady-state
error, 𝑒2 (∞).

13 EPCE3204
Steady State Error - Example

• Steady state error for unit-feedback gain

𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 − 𝐶(𝑠)
𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
• The combination of the first two equation give
𝑅 𝑠
𝐸 𝑠 =
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)
• Apply final value theorem to calculate the steady state error
𝑠𝑅 𝑠
𝑒 ∞ = lim
𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺 𝑠

14 EPCE3204
Steady State Error - Example
1 𝑠𝑅 𝑠
• For a Step Input : 𝑅(𝑠) = 𝑒 ∞ = lim
𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺 𝑠
𝑠
𝑠 1Τ𝑠 1
𝑒 ∞ = 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 ∞ = lim =
𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 1 + lim 𝐺 𝑠
𝑠→0

• The term lim 𝐺 𝑠 is the dc gain of the forward transfer function.

𝑠→0

• In order to have zero 𝑒 ∞ , lim 𝐺 𝑠 must tend to infinity. The

𝑠→0
transfer function 𝐺(𝑠) must contain at least 1 pure integrator.
1
• For a Ramp Input: 𝑅(𝑠) = , we obtain
𝑠2
𝑠 1Τ𝑠 2 1 1
𝑒 ∞ = 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 ∞ = lim = lim =
𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝑠→0 𝑠 + 𝑠𝐺 𝑠 lim 𝑠𝐺 𝑠
𝑠→0

• In order to have zero steady-state error, lim 𝑠𝐺 𝑠 = ∞. The transfer

𝑠→0
function 𝐺(𝑠) must contain at least 2 pure integrators.

15 EPCE3204
Steady State Error - Example
1
• Parabolic Input: 𝑅(𝑠) = , we obtain
𝑠3
𝑠 1Τ𝑠 3 1 1
𝑒 ∞ = 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 ∞ = lim = lim 2 =
𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝑠→0 𝑠 + 𝑠 2 𝐺 𝑠 lim 𝑠 2 𝐺 𝑠
𝑠→0

• In order to have zero steady-state error, lim 𝑠 2 𝐺 𝑠 = ∞. The transfer

𝑠→0
function 𝐺(𝑠) must contain at least 3 pure integrators.

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Static Error Constants

• For a step input, 𝑢(𝑡)

1
𝑒 ∞ =
1 + 𝐾𝑝
position constant 𝐾𝑝 , 𝐾𝑝 = lim 𝐺 𝑠
𝑠→0

• For a ramp input, t𝑢(𝑡)

1
𝑒 ∞ =
𝐾𝑣
velocity constant 𝐾𝑣 , 𝐾𝑣 = lim 𝑠𝐺 𝑠
𝑠→0
1
• For a parabolic input, t 2 𝑢(𝑡)
2
1
𝑒 ∞ =
𝐾𝑎
acceleration constant 𝐾𝑎 , 𝐾𝑎 = lim 𝑠 2 𝐺 𝑠
𝑠→0

17 EPCE3204
Static Error Constants – Example

• Evaluate the static error constants and find the expected error for
the standard step, ramp, and parabolic inputs.

500 𝑥 2 𝑥 5
𝐾𝑝 = lim 𝐺 𝑠 = = 5.208
𝑠→0 8 𝑥 10 𝑥 12
𝐾𝑣 = lim 𝑠𝐺 𝑠 = 0
𝑠→0
𝐾𝑎 = lim 𝑠 2 𝐺 𝑠 = 0
𝑠→0
1
• Thus, for a step input, 𝑒 ∞ = = 0.161
1+𝐾𝑝

1
• for a ramp input, 𝑒 ∞ = =∞
𝐾𝑣
1
• for a parabolic input, 𝑒 ∞ = =∞
𝐾𝑎

18 EPCE3204
System Type

• Both dynamic and steady state errors depend on the form of G(s).
• The numbers of the poles at the origin determines the type of the
system

• Therefore, a system with 𝑛 = 0 is a Type 0 system. If 𝑛 = 1 or 𝑛 = 2,

the corresponding system is a Type 1 or Type 2 system, respectively.

19 EPCE3204
Time Response of First Order System

• Order of a system: The order of the system is the number of

independent energy storage elements in the system, & intuitively the
highest degree of the linear differential equation that describes the
system.
• In a transfer function representation, the order is the highest
exponent in the transfer function.
• In a state-space equation, the system order is the number of state-
variables used in the system.
• Many systems are approximately first-order: that means most
systems had only one energy storage element.
• First order systems can be modeled by first order differential
systems.

20 EPCE3204
Time Response of First Order System

• In the case of the mechanical systems, energy is stored in a spring or

an inertia(mass).
• Electrical systems, energy can be stored either in a capacitance or an
inductance.
• A general form of a first-order system can be represented by the
block diagram.

21 EPCE3204
Time Response of First Order System

• Steps of time response analysis

1. Compute the responses/outputs of first order systems to inputs
such as
– unit- step
– unit-ramp, and
– unit-impulse functions assuming zero initial conditions

2. Draw the response /output curves of first order systems,

assuming zero initial conditions

22 EPCE3204
Response of Second Order Systems

• The dynamic behavior of second order system can be described in

terms of two parameters damping ratio (𝝃) and natural frequency
(𝜔)of a system.

• Natural Frequency, 𝝎𝒏
– The natural frequency of a second-order system is the frequency
of oscillation of the system without damping.

• Damping Ratio,𝝃
– It is the ratio of exponential decay frequency of the envelope to
the natural frequency. This ratio is constant regardless of the time
scale response

23 EPCE3204
Response of Second Order Systems

• A general second-order system is characterized by the following

transfer function and feedback block diagram representation.

• The open-loop transfer function of the system is

𝐶 𝑠 𝜔𝑛2
𝐺(𝑠) = =
𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛
• Where
𝜔𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝜉 = 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
• The closed-loop transfer function of the system with H(s) = 1 is
𝐶 𝑠 𝜔𝑛2
= 2
𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
24 EPCE3204
Response of Second Order Systems

• The characteristic equation of the closed-loop system is obtained by

setting the denominator equal to zero.
Δ 𝑠 = 𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 2 = 0
• The roots of the characteristic equation are given by
𝑠1,2 = −𝜉𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝜉2 − 1
• The dynamic behavior of the second-order system can, therefore, be
described in terms of two parameters of the roots of the
characteristic equation, 𝜉 and 𝜔𝑛 , respectively.
• From the point of view of transient response, four distinct cases are
of interest to us when 𝜔𝑛 is held constant and the damping ratio 𝜉
takes on different values.

25 EPCE3204
Response of Second Order Systems

• Undamped case 𝜉=0

• Underdamped case : 0 < 𝜉 < 1

• Critically damped case : 𝜉=1

• Overdamped case 𝜉>1

26 EPCE3204
Response of Second Order Systems

• Time response of second order system for unit step input

27 EPCE3204
Response of Second Order Systems

• Underdamped case: 𝟎<𝝃<𝟏 𝐶 𝑠 𝜔𝑛2

𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 2 = 0 = 2
𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 , 𝑐 = 𝜔𝑛 2
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 4𝜔𝑛 2 𝜉 2 − 1
• If 0 < 𝜉 < 1, then 𝜉 2 − 1 < 0 → two complex conjugate roots
𝑠1,2 = −𝜉𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜉 2 𝑠1,2 = −𝜉𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑
• which are complex conjugates and lie on the left-half of s-plane.

• Step input response for this case, can be calculated as follows

𝑌 𝑠 𝜔𝑛 2 1
= , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 𝑠 =
𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜉𝜔𝑛 + 𝑗𝜔𝑑 𝑠 + 𝜉𝜔𝑛 − 𝑗𝜔𝑑 𝑠
𝜔𝑛 2 1 𝑠 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛
𝑌 𝑠 = = − 2
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜉𝜔𝑛 + 𝑗𝜔𝑑 𝑠 + 𝜉𝜔𝑛 − 𝑗𝜔𝑑 𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 2

28 EPCE3204
Response of Second Order Systems

• Critically damped case: 𝝃=𝟏

𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 2 = 0
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 4𝜔𝑛 2 𝜉 2 − 1
• If 𝜉 = 1, then 𝜉 2 − 1 = 0 → two same roots
𝑠1,2 = −𝜔𝑛
• Step input response for this case, can be calculated as follows
𝐶 𝑠 𝜔𝑛 2 1
= , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 𝑠 =
𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑠
𝜔𝑛 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐶 𝑠 = = + +
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛
• Taking inverse Laplace transform 𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 1
• The step response is monotonic without any overshoots and
undershoots.

29 EPCE3204
Response of Second Order Systems

• Over damped case: 𝝃>𝟏

𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 2 = 0
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 4𝜔𝑛 2 𝜉 2 − 1

• If 𝜉 > 1, then 𝜉 2 − 1 > 0 → two real and distinct roots

𝑠1,2 = −𝜉𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝜉 2 − 1

• both the roots are lying on real axis

30 EPCE3204
Response of Second Order Systems

• Undamped case: 𝝃=𝟎

𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 2 = 0
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 4𝜔𝑛 2 𝜉 2 − 1
• If 𝜉 = 0, then 𝜉 2 − 1 < 0 → two pure imaginary roots
𝑠1,2 = ±𝑗𝜔𝑛
• both the roots are lying on imaginary axis.
• Step input response for this case, can be calculated as follows
𝐶 𝑠 𝜔𝑛 2 1
= 2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 𝑠 =
𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑠
𝜔𝑛 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐶 𝑠 = = + +
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑠 − 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑠 − 𝑗𝜔𝑛
• Taking inverse Laplace transform 𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − cos(𝜔𝑛 𝑡)
• The transient response is oscillatory in nature and does not die out

31 EPCE3204
Response of Second Order Systems - Example

• The natural frequency of closed loop poles of second order system is

2 𝑟𝑎𝑑/sec and damping ration of 0.5. Determine the locations of
closed loop poles.

𝐶 𝑠 𝜔𝑛2 4
= 2 = 2
𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 4

• Closed loop poles are obtained from the characteristic equation.

𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 4 = 0

−𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑠1,2 = =1±𝑗 3
2𝑎

32 EPCE3204
Transient Response Specifications

• The desired performance characteristics of control system are

usually defined in terms of the unit-step response of the system.
• The transient response of a system often exhibits damped
oscillations before reaching steady state.
• In specifying the transient-response characteristics of a control
system to a unit-step input, it is common to specify the following
parameters associated with the under damped response:
– Delay time, 𝑇𝑑
– Rise time, 𝑇𝑟
– Peak time, 𝑇𝑝
– Percent overshoot (%𝑂𝑆) or Maximum overshoot (𝑀𝑝 )
– Settling time, 𝑇𝑠

33 EPCE3204
Transient Response Specifications

• Unit-Step response

34 EPCE3204
Transient Response Specifications - Definitions

• Delay time (𝑇𝑑 ): it is the time required for the response to reach half
the final value the very first time.

• Rise time (𝑇𝑟 ): it is the time required for the response to rise from
10% to 90%. In other words, to go from 0.1 to 0.9 of the final value.
1 𝜔𝑑
𝑇𝑟 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜉 2 , 𝜎 = 𝜉𝜔𝑛
𝜔𝑑 −𝜎

• Peak time (𝑇𝑝 ): it is the time required for the response to reach the
first peak of the overshoot.
𝜋
𝑇𝑝 =
𝜔𝑑

35 EPCE3204
Transient Response Specifications - Definitions

• Maximum overshoot ( 𝑀𝑝 ): it is the maximum peak value of the

response curve measured from unity. It is also the amount that the
waveform overshoots the final value, expressed as a percentage of
the steady-state value.
− 𝜉𝜋Τ 1−𝜉 2
𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑥 100

• Settling time (𝑇𝑠 ): it is the time required for the transient damping
oscillations to reach and stay within ±2% or ±5% of the final or
steady-state value.
4 3
𝑇𝑠 = 4𝑇 = 2% 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑠 = 3𝑇 = 5% 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝜉𝜔𝑛

36 EPCE3204
Transient Response Specifications - Example

• For the given transfer function obtain the transient response

specifications (𝑇𝑟 , 𝑇𝑝 , %𝑀𝑝 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑠 ) when the system is subjected to a
unit-step input.
25 𝐶 𝑠 𝜔𝑛2
𝐺 𝑠 = 2 = 2
𝑠 + 6𝑠 + 25 𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2

• From the transfer function 𝜉 = 0.6 and 𝜔𝑛 = 5, from this we obtain

𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜉 2 = 4, 𝜎 = 𝜉𝜔𝑛 = 3
1 −1
𝜔𝑑 1 −1
4
𝑇𝑟 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 0.55 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜔𝑑 −𝜎 4 −3
𝜋 3.14
𝑇𝑝 = = = 0.785 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜔𝑑 4
− 𝜉𝜋Τ 1−𝜉 2
𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 𝑥 100 = 9.5%
For 2% criterion → 𝑇𝑠 = 4Τ𝜉𝜔𝑛 = 4Τ𝜎 = 1.33 𝑠𝑒𝑐
For 5% criterion → 𝑇𝑠 = 3Τ𝜉𝜔𝑛 = 3Τ𝜎 = 1𝑠𝑒𝑐
37 EPCE3204
Stability

• BIBO - A system is stable if every bounded input yields a bounded

output. A system is unstable if any bounded input yields an
unbounded output.
• The issue of ensuring the stability of a closed-loop feedback system
is the central to control system design.
• Knowing that unstable closed loop system is generally of no
practical value. Thus we seek methods of help us analyze and design
stable systems.
• Basically the design of linear control system required as a problem of
arranging the location of the poles and zeros of the closed loop
transfer function such that the corresponding system will perform
according to the prescribed specifications.
• For analysis and design purpose, we can classify the stability of the
control system as absolute stability and relative stability.

38 EPCE3204
Stability

• For BIBO stability, a necessary and

sufficient conditions for a system to
be stable is.
– The roots of characteristic
equation or the poles of 𝐺(𝑠) ,
must be all lie in the left-half S-
plane.
– All poles of the system transfer
function must have negative real
part.
• Let 𝑺𝒊 is the poles of 𝐺(𝑠)
– The system is Asymptotically
stable if 𝑅𝑒(𝑆𝑖 ) < 0 for all 𝑖.
– The system is marginally stable if
𝑅𝑒(𝑆𝑖 ) = 0 for all 𝑖
39 EPCE3204
Stability - Example

• Consider the following transfer function and illustrate the stability

conditions
20
𝑇(𝑠) =
𝑠+5 𝑠+4 𝑠+1

𝑠1 = −5, 𝑠2 = −4, 𝑠3 = −1

20 𝑠 + 1
𝑇(𝑠) =
𝑠 − 1 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 1

𝑠1 = 1, 𝑠2,3 = −1 ± 𝑗, 𝑠4 = −1

20
𝑇(𝑠) =
𝑠 + 2 𝑠2 + 4

𝑠1 = −2, 𝑠2,3 = ±𝑗2

40 EPCE3204
Stability - Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

• The Routh-Hurwitz criterion is necessary and sufficient conditions

for stability of linear control systems based on the coefficient of the
characteristic equation.
• The Routh-Hurwitz criterion tests whether any of the roots of the
characteristic equation lies in the right half the S-plane so that we
can check the stability of linear control system.
• This method is for LTI systems with a polynomial denominator.
– It determines if all the roots of a polynomial lie in the open LHP
(left half-plane), or equivalently, have negative real parts.
– It also determines the number of roots of a polynomial in the
open RHP (right half-plane).

• It does NOT explicitly compute the roots.

41 EPCE3204
Stability - Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

• Consider the characteristic equation

𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑠 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0

• The necessary conditions are

– All the coefficients of 𝐹(𝑠) have the same sign
– All power of s must present in descending order.
– The above conditions are not sufficient.

• Routh’s tabulation
– The first step in the simplification of the Hurwitz criteria is to
arrange the coefficients of 𝐹(𝑠) in two rows.

42 EPCE3204
Stability - Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

• A Routh’s Table
𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑠 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛

From given 𝐹(𝑆)

43 EPCE3204
Stability - Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

• How to compute the third row

44 EPCE3204
Stability - Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

• How to compute the fourth row

45 EPCE3204
Stability - Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

• Routh-Hurwitz criterion: states that

– The number of roots in the open right half-plane is equal to the
number of sign changes in the first column of Routh array.
• Two special case when Routh’s tables terminates prematurely.
– Case I : Zeros in the first column.
» If any row of the first column Routh-Array is zero, it should be
replaced by a small 𝜖 positive number in order to complete the array.
» The sign of the elements of the first column is then examined as 𝜖
approaches zero.
– Case II: All Elements in any one row are zero
» The situation with the entire row of zero can be resolved by using
the derivative of the auxiliary equation 𝐴(𝑠) = 0, which is formed
from the coefficients of the row just above the row of zeros in the
Routh's table.

46 EPCE3204
Stability - Routh-Hurwitz Criterion – Example (1)

• For the given control systems with a characteristic equation 𝐹(𝑠),

determine the stability of the system using Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 4 + 2𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 5 = 0

• In this example, the number of changes in sign of the coefficients in

the first column is 2. This means that there are two roots with
positive real parts.

47 EPCE3204
Stability - Routh-Hurwitz Criterion – Example (2)

• For the given control systems with a characteristic equation 𝐹(𝑠),

determine the stability of the system using Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 2 = 0

• The zero term is replaced by a very small positive number 𝜖 and the
rest of the array is evaluated.
• If the sign of the coefficient above the zero (𝜖) is the same as that
below it, it indicates that there are a pair of imaginary roots.
𝑠 = ±𝑗

48 EPCE3204
Stability - Routh-Hurwitz Criterion - Example

• For the given control systems with a characteristic equation 𝐹(𝑠),

determine the stability of the system using Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
𝑠 5 + 2𝑠 4 + 24𝑠 3 + 48𝑠 2 − 25𝑠 − 50 = 0
• The auxiliary polynomial A(𝑠) is
A 𝑠 = 2𝑠 4 + 48𝑠 2 − 50
• The derivative of A(𝑠) with respect to 𝑠 is
𝑑
A 𝑠 = 8𝑠 3 + 96𝑠
𝑑𝑠

• We see that there is one change in sign

in the first column of the new array. Thus,
the original equation has one root with a
positive real part.

49 EPCE3204
Stability - Routh-Hurwitz Criterion - Exercise

• For the given control systems with a characteristic equation 𝐹(𝑠),

determine the stability of the system using Routh-Hurwitz criterion.

a) 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 5 + 2𝑠 4 + 5𝑠 3 + 10𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 + 24 = 0
b) 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 5 + 4𝑠 4 + 8𝑠 3 + 8𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 4 = 0
c) 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠 6 + 4𝑠 5 + 12𝑠 4 + 16𝑠 3 + 41𝑠 2 + 36𝑠 + 72 = 0

50 EPCE3204