INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

EPCE3204

Adama Science and Technology University

School of Electrical Engineering and Computing
Department of Electrical Power and Control Engineering

EPCE3204
 CHAPTER 2:
MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF PHYSICAL SYSTEM

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 Introduction - Mathematical Model

• To understand and control complex system, one must obtain

quantitative mathematical model of these systems.
• It is necessary to analyze the relationship between the system
variables and obtain a mathematical model.
• Mathematical model: is a set of equations that represents the
dynamics of the system accurately or at least fairly well.
• This model is based upon the fact that the dynamic system can be
completely described by known differential equations.
• Differential equations relating the input to the output quantities for
the control systems.
• The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical,
electrical, thermal, economic, biological, and so on, may be
described in terms of differential equations.

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 Introduction - Mathematical Model

• The component a control system are diverse in nature and may

include Electrical, Mechanical, Thermal or Hydraulic devices.

• Differential equations describing the dynamic performance of a

physical system are obtained by utilizing the physical laws governing
a particular system, for example, Newton’s laws for mechanical
systems and Kirchhoff's laws for electrical systems.

• Deriving reasonable mathematical models is the most important part

of the entire analysis of control systems.
• For most physical systems are classify the variables as either
‘through’ or ‘cross’ variables in the sense that
– Through refers to a point
– Across refers Between two point
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 Introduction - Mathematical Model

• A list of analogous variable for different system

System Through variable Across variable

Electrical Current, i Potential difference
or voltage, V
Mechanical Force, F Relative Velocity, v
(Translational)
Mechanical Torque, T Relative angular , 𝜔
(Rotational)
Thermal Rate of flow of heat Difference in
energy, q temperature, ∆𝑇
Fluid Volumetric rate of Difference in
fluid flow, Q pressure, ∆𝑃

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 Transfer Function

• The transfer function of a linear system is defined as the ratio of the

Laplace transform of the output variable to the Laplace transform of
the input variable, with all initial conditions assumed to be zero.

𝑟(𝑡) 𝑐 𝑡 𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠)

𝑔(𝑡) 𝐺(𝑠)

𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝑪 𝒔

𝑮 𝒔 = =
𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝑹 𝒔
• A transfer function may be defined only for a linear, stationary
(constant parameter) system. It represents the relationship describing
the dynamics of the system.
• It is an input-output description of the behavior of a system. Thus,
the transfer function description does not include any information
concerning the internal structure of the system.

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 Transfer Function

• When a general 𝒏𝒕𝒉 -order, linear, time-invariant differential equations

are written

𝑑 𝑛 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑𝑚−1 𝑟(𝑡)

𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑟 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1

• Where 𝑐(𝑡) is the output, 𝑟(𝑡) is the input and the 𝑎 and 𝑏 and the
form of the differential equations represents the system.
• Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, then the solve for the
input output ratio.

𝐶 𝑠 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0
=𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑅 𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0

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 Transfer Function

• Advantage
– it gives the gain of the system.
– Since Laplace transform is used, the terms are simple algebraic
expressions and differential terms are not present
– the response of the system to an input can be determined easily.
– Poles and zeros of a system can be determined from the
knowledge of the transfer function of the system.
• Disadvantage
– Transfer function can be defined for linear systems only.
– Initial conditions lose their importance since transfer function
does not take into account the initial condition.
– No inferences can be drawn about the physical structure of a
system from its transfer function.

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Transfer Function

Example
1. Find the transfer function represented by
𝑑𝑐 𝑡
𝐶 𝑠 1 𝐶 𝑠 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 3
a. + 2𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡) = = 3
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑠 𝑠+2 𝑅 𝑠 𝑠 + 3𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 5
𝑑 3 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝐶(𝑡) 𝑑𝑐 𝑡 𝑑 2 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑𝑟 𝑡
b. + 3 + 7 +5𝑐 𝑡 = +4 +3𝑟 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 2 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝐹 𝑠
c. 𝑓(𝑡) = + 5 +10𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 10
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑋 𝑠
2. Find the differential equation corresponding to the transfer
function.
2𝑠 + 1
𝐺(𝑠) = 2
𝑠 + 6𝑠 + 1

𝑑 2 𝐶(𝑡) 𝑑𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑡
+6 +𝑐 𝑡 = 2 +𝑟 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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 Electrical system - Modeling

• To model electrical systems, we use Kirchhoff’s laws to form

differential equations for the systems.
• These two laws can be very simply stated:
– Law 1 – The total current flowing into a node in the circuit is
equal to the total current flowing from that node. (i.e. there is
no residual current at nodes)
– Law 2 – In a closed loop of the network, the algebraic sum of
the potential differences across each part of the circuit is equal
to the applied voltage within that loop.

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 Electrical Systems Modeling

• Electrical System elements modeling by applying basic laws,

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
– The law of a capacitor 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉 ⇒ =𝐶 ⇒𝐼=𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉
– Ohm’s Law 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 or =𝑅
𝐼
𝑑𝐼
– Faraday’s law 𝑉 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡

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 Electrical System Modeling - Example

• Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage 𝑉𝑐 𝑠 to the

input voltage, 𝑉(𝑠)
𝑑𝑖
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 + 𝐿 + 𝑣𝑐 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝑣𝑐
𝑣𝑐 𝑡 = න 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑐 𝑑 𝑑𝑣𝑐
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 +𝐿 𝐶 + 𝑣𝑐 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑐 𝑑 2 𝑣𝑐
= 𝑅𝐶 + 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

• Taking the Laplace transform

2
𝑣𝑐 𝑠 1
𝐿𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1 𝑣𝑐 𝑠 = 𝑣 𝑠 ⇒ =
𝑣 𝑠 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1

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 Electrical System Modeling - Example

• Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage 𝐸0 𝑠 to the

input voltage, 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠)

1
𝑒𝑖 = 𝑅1 𝑖1 + න(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝐶1

1
𝑒0 = න 𝑖2 𝑑𝑡
𝐶2

1 1
න(𝑖2 − 𝑖1 ) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑅2 𝑖2 + න 𝑖2 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝐶1 𝐶2

• Taking the Laplace transform and rearranging

𝐸0 𝑠 1
=
𝐸𝑖 𝑠 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 2 + (𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑅1 𝐶2 )𝑠 + 1
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 Electrical System Modeling - Exercise

• Find the transfer function relating the current 𝐼2 (𝑠) to the input
voltage, 𝑉(𝑠), (𝐶 = 1, 𝑅1 = 1, 𝑅2 = 1, 𝐿1 = 2, 𝐿2 = 4, 𝐿3 = 3)

• Find the transfer function relating the resistor voltage 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) to the
input voltage, 𝑉(𝑠)

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 Modeling of Mechanical System

• Mechanical system is classified into two

1. Translational Mechanical system
2. Rotational Mechanical system
• The general procedure for mechanical systems is as follows.
i. Adopt a suitable coordinate system with an appropriate sign
convention.
» For linear motion, up is positive and left to right is positive.
» For rotation anticlockwise is positive and clockwise is negative.
ii. Identify inputs and outputs of the system)
iii. Draw a free body diagram for each mass showing all the forces
and moments acting on it.
iv. Apply Newton's Law to each free body diagram
v. Rearrange the equation(s) into a suitable form for solution.
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 Translational Mechanical System

• Translational Mechanical system

– Mechanical system obey the basic law that the sum of the forces
must equals to zero.
Newton’s 3rd Law
‘The sum of the applied force must be equal to the sum of the
reactive force’
• The three quantities characterizing elements in mechanical
translational system are:
– Mass,
– spring,
– damper

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 Translational Mechanical System

• The mass, spring and damper are the basic elements of a

mechanical translational system.
• The mass is an inertial element and if a force is applied to the mass,
a reaction force is produced which acts in a direction opposite to
that of acceleration and this force is given by Newton’s law

• Where 𝑓(𝑡) is the force in Newtons, M is the mass in Kilograms,

𝑣(𝑡) is the velocity of the mass in m/s, 𝑥(𝑡) is the displacement of
the mass in 𝑚.

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 Translational Mechanical System

• The spring provides a restoring force and if a force is applied to a

spring, a reaction force is produced which tries to bring it back to
its free length.
• For small deformation, the force equation for the spring is

• Where
– 𝑓(𝑡) is the spring force in Newtons
– 𝐾 is the spring constant called stiffness in N/m
– 𝑥(𝑡) is the deformation of the spring in meters
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 Translational Mechanical System

• In control systems viscous friction is linear in nature

• Where 𝑓𝑣 is viscosity in N-s/m

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 Translational Mechanical System

• Linear mechanical systems

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 Translational Mechanical System - Exercise

1. Find the transfer function, 𝑋(𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠), for a given mechanical system

consisting of 𝑀, 𝐾 and 𝑓𝑣 as shown in the figure below

• We assume the mass is traveling toward the right. Thus, only the
applied force points to the right; all other forces impede the motion
and act to oppose it. Hence, the spring, viscous damper, and the
force due to acceleration point to the left.
• First draw the free body diagram. Then, make the sum of forces
acting on the system is equal to zero

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 Translational Mechanical System - Example

• We now write the differential equation of motion using Newton’s

law to sum to zero all of the forces shown on the mass in F
• First draw the free body diagram. Then, make the sum of forces
acting on the system is equal to zero.

𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑖 + 𝑓𝑑 + 𝑓𝑠
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 =𝑀 + 𝑓𝑣 + 𝐾𝑥 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
2
𝑋 𝑠 1
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑀𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑋 𝑠 ⇒ 𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐹 𝑠 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾
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 Translational Mechanical System - Exercise

• Find the transfer function, 𝑋2 (𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠), for the mechanical system

• This system has two masses. For the system containing two or more
masses, we use superposition principle. i.e
– Treat mass one fixed and the other moving.
– Draw the free body diagram for fixed mass.
– Treat the fixed one moving and the moving mass fixed.
– Draw the free body diagram for the moving.
– Draw the free body diagram sum on targeted mass.
•
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 Translational Mechanical System - Exercise

• Equation of motion (for simplicity let 𝑓𝑣1 = 0 and 𝑓𝑣2 = 0 frictionless

surface)
𝑚1 𝑥ሷ 1 + 𝑘1 𝑥1 + 𝑘2 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑥ሶ 1 − 𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑓 𝑡
𝑚2 𝑥ሷ 2 + 𝑘3 𝑥2 + 𝑘2 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑥ሶ 2 − 𝑥ሶ 1 = 0
• Taking Laplace transform and simplify
[𝑚1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ]𝑋1 𝑠 = 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝑘2 𝑋2 𝑠 + 𝐹 𝑠
[𝑚2 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 ]𝑋2 𝑠 = 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝑘2 𝑋1 𝑠
𝑋2 𝑠 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑘2
=
𝐹 𝑠 𝑚1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑚2 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 − 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑘2 2

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 Rotational Mechanical System

• There are many similar between translational and rotational

mechanical systems

Translation Rotational

Mass (m) Inertia (J)

Damper (𝑓𝑣 ) Damper (𝑓𝑣 )

Spring (K) Spring (K)

Force (F) Torque (T)

Displacement (x) Angular Displacement (𝜃)

Velocity (v) Angular Velocity (𝜔)

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 Rotational Mechanical System

• Moment of inertia , a torsion spring and viscous friction are the

three basic elements of mechanical rotational system.

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 Rotational Mechanical System - Exercise

• Find the transfer function 𝜃2 (𝑠)/𝑇(𝑠) , for the rotational system

shown in figure below.

• For 𝐽1
𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇 𝑠
• For 𝐽2
𝐽2 𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃2 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃1 𝑠 = 0

𝜃2 𝑠 𝐾
=
𝑇 𝑠 𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝐽2 𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾 − 𝐾 2

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 Analogous Mechanical and Electrical system elements

• An analogous electrical and mechanical system will have differential

equations of the same form.
• We can use Force – Current analogs to go between electrical and
mechanical systems.

Electrical Quantity Mechanical Analogs

Voltage (V) Velocity (v)

Current (i) Force (F)

Resistance (R) Inverse Damper (𝑓𝑣 )

Capacitance (C) Mass (m)

Inductance (L) Inverse Spring (K)

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 Analogous Mechanical and Electrical system elements

• Dashpots and resistors are both energy dissipation devices. Take

current in electrical circuit to be analogous to force in mechanical
𝑣𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∶ 𝑖 = , 𝐷𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑝𝑜𝑡 ∶ 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑣 𝑣
𝑅
– Gives velocity analogous to potential difference and viscous
damping constant, 𝑓𝑣 , to reciprocal of resistance, 1/𝑅.

• Continuing the analogy yields equivalence of inductors and springs.

1 𝑡 𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∶ 𝑖 = න 𝑣𝐿 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∶ 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘 න 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝐿 0 0

• Finally equivalence of capacitors and masses

𝑑𝑣𝑐 𝑑𝑣
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∶ 𝑖 = 𝐶 , 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∶ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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Analogous Mechanical and Electrical system elements

F = Net force applied to mass, m

+ Spring force + Dashpot force

i = Current through capacitor +

Current through inductor +
Current through resistor

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 Fluid System Components

• The basic building blocks of fluid systems are the volumetric rate of
flow q and the pressure difference.

Input Output

Volumetric rate of flow Pressure difference

• Fluid system can be divided into two Hydraulic and Pneumatic.

• Hydraulic resistance (R) is the resistance to flow of liquid as the
liquid flow through valves or changes in pipe diameter takes place.

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑞

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 Fluid System Components

• Hydraulic capacitance is the term used to describe energy storage

with a liquid where it is stored in the form of potential energy.
– Rate of change of liquid volume V in the container (dV/dt) is
𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = =𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
– Pressure difference
𝑝 = 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑝
𝑑ℎ 𝑑 𝐴 𝑑𝑝
𝜌𝑔
𝑞1 − 𝑞2 =𝐴 =𝐴 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑡
– Hydraulic capacitance, 𝐶, is defined by:
𝐴 𝑑𝑝
𝐶= ⇒ 𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 𝐶
𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑡
𝑝 = න 𝑞1 − 𝑞2 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0
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 Fluid System Components

• Hydraulic inertance refers to the energy stored within a fluid by

virtue of its kinetic energy.

𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝐴 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑣
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝐴 = 𝜌𝐴𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑞
𝑑 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑞 = 𝑣𝐴 , 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝐿 𝐴 = =𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝐴 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Hydraulic inertance, 𝐼, is defined as
𝜌𝐿
𝐼=
𝐴
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 Fluid System Components - Example

• Consider a system represents liquid entering and leaving a container.

– It can be considered to be made up of hydraulic capacitance and
resistance. Inertance can be neglected - flow rates change
slowly.

– Inlet and outlet are at atmospheric pressure (zero gauge) whilst

pressure at bottom of container will be 𝜌ℎ𝑔.
– The hydraulic capacitance describing equation is:
𝑑𝑝
𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡

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 Fluid System Components - Example

• The hydraulic capacitance equation is:

𝑑𝑝
𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
• The pressure drop across the valve is given
by the hydraulic resistance equation:
𝑝 = 𝑅𝑞2
• First-order differential equation relating an input, 𝑞1 to an output, 𝑝:
𝑑𝑝 𝑝
𝑞1 = 𝐶 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
• Differential equation can be written in terms of height, ℎ,
𝐴
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶=
𝜌𝑔
𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑑ℎ 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑞1 = 𝐶 + =𝐴 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅

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 Thermal System Components

• There are two basic components for thermal systems: Resistance

and Capacitance.
– There is a net flow of heat between two points if there is a
temperature difference between them.
• Thermal resistance, 𝑅, is concerned with relationship between rate
of heat flow 𝑞 , and temperature difference of two points, (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ).
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑞=
𝑅
• The value of the resistance depends on the mode of heat transfer.
– Conduction through solid in one direction:
𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴𝑘
– 𝑙, 𝐴, 𝑘 are the length, cross-sectional area and the thermal
conductivity of solid materials separating points

36 EPCE3204
 Thermal System Components

• The value of the resistance depends on the mode of heat transfer.

– Convection through gases and liquids::
1
𝑅=
𝐴ℎ
– where 𝐴 is the surface area across which temperature difference
exists and ℎ is the coefficient of heat transfer of fluid.

• Thermal capacitance is a measure of internal energy stored in

system by virtue of its temperature. If rates of heat flow in and out
of system are 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 and respectively then
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = (𝑞1 − 𝑞2 )
– Increase in internal energy means increase in temperature
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 𝑚𝑐 =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
– (𝑚: mass, 𝑐: specific heat capacity, 𝐶: thermal capacitance)
37 EPCE3204
 Thermal System Components - Example

• Consider a room with electric heater.

Heater emits heat at rate 𝑞1 but the
room loses heat through walls (thermal
resistance 𝑅) at a rate 𝑞2 .
• Air in room has uniform temperature 𝑇
and thermal capacitance 𝐶.
• Outside temperature is 𝑇𝑜
• Thermal capacitance relationship for system is:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
• Rate of heat loss is dependent upon thermal resistance of walls
and temperature difference
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 𝑑𝑇
𝑞2 = ⇒ 𝑅𝑞1 + 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑅𝐶 +𝑇
𝑅 𝑑𝑡

38 EPCE3204
 Electro Mechanical System

• Electromechanical system: are systems which have both electrical and

mechanical variable.
• It has different application areas: robot control, trackers, computer
tape & disk driver, different servo applications.

– Motor: is one of the electro mechanical system which yields a

displacement output taking voltage as an input.
» For example armature controlled DC motor: the desired speed is
obtained by varying the armature and the field circuit but for
analysis purpose, only the armature circuit considered because the
field is excited by a constant voltage.

39 EPCE3204
 Electro Mechanical System - Exercise

• Determine the transfer function of an armature controlled DC motor

40 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Representation

• For a complicated system it is easy to find the transfer function of

each and every element, and output of a certain block may act as an
input to the other block or blocks.
• Therefore, the knowledge of transfer function of each element is
not sufficient in this case.
• The interaction between the element is required to find the overall
transfer function of the system

• There are two methods to represent this interaction:

– Block diagram
– Signal flow graph

41 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Representation

• A control system may consists of a numbers of components to show

the function performed by each component, in control engineering,
we commonly use a diagram called block diagram.
• Block Diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the
functions performed by each component and of the flow of signals.
– Such a diagram depicts the interrelationships that exist among
the various components.
• The signal can pass only in the direction of the arrows.
– Thus, a block diagram of a control system explicitly shows a
unilateral property.

Input Transfer Function Output

𝐺(𝑠)

42 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Representation

• Any linear control system may be represent by a block diagram

consists of different elements including
– Blocks
– Summing points
– Branch-point (also called pick-off point)

• Summing points: The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead

indicates whether that signal is to be added or subtracted. It is
important that the quantities being added or subtracted have the
same dimensions and the same units.

43 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Representation

• Branch-point: is a point from which the signal from a block goes

concurrently to other blocks or summing points.

• Example: Consider this closed loop system with unity feedback gain
block

44 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Representation

• Consider a closed loop system given below,

– the ratio of the feedback signal 𝐵(𝑠) to the actuating error signal
𝐸(𝑠) is called the open-loop transfer function.

𝐵 𝑠
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
𝐸 𝑠
𝐶 𝑠
𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 𝐺(𝑠)
𝐸 𝑠
• Closed-Loop Transfer Function
𝐶 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠
=
𝐸 𝑠 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
45 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Representation

• Positive feedback control system

– Has negative impact on system performance
– Add system disturbance
– Results diverging oscillatory response
• Negative feedback control system
– Effects on reducing output disturbance
– Subtracts output signal from the input
– Feedback is negative, gain 𝐺(𝑠) reduces by a factor 1/[1+𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)]

46 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Representation

• Forward path:- elements through which signal passes in input-

output direction – transfer functions usually designated 𝐺(𝑠).

• Feedback path:- elements through which signal is being fed back in

output-input direction – transfer functions usually designated 𝐻(𝑠).

47 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Representation

• Procedure for drawing a block diagram (from its mathematical

model(transfer function)

1. Write the equation that describes the dynamic behavior of each

component.
2. Take the Laplace transform of the above equation by assuming the
initial conditions zero.
3. Represent each Laplace transformed equation individually in block
form
4. Finally, assemble the elements into complete block diagram.

48 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Representation

• Example: Consider series RC circuit, draw the block diagram

representation.
𝑒𝑖 − 𝑒𝑜 1
𝑖= 𝑒𝑜 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑅 𝐶

𝐸𝑖 𝑠 − 𝐸𝑜 𝑠 𝐼 𝑠
𝐼 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑜 𝑠 =
𝑅 𝐶𝑠

49 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Reduction

• A complicated block diagram involving many feedback loops to be

simplified by a step by step rearrangement.
• In simplifying a block diagram remember the following.
– The product of the transfer function in the feed forward direction
must remain the same.
– The product of the transfer function around the loop must
remain the same.
• Rearrangement of the block diagrams is done using the rule of
block diagram algebra.
• To reduce the block diagram a proper logic should be used such
that output of that system and the value of any feedback signal
should not get disturbed.

50 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Reduction

• Rule 1: For blocks in series: The transfer functions of the blocks

which are connected in series get multiplied with each other.

• Rule 2: For blocks in parallel: Transfer functions of the blocks

connected in parallel get added algebraically (considering the sign).
The direction of signals through the blocks in parallel must be same.

51 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Reduction

• Rule 3: Shifting a Branch point behind the block

• Rule 4: Shifting a Branch point beyond the block

52 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Reduction

• Rule 5: Shifting a summing point behind the block

• Rule 6: Shifting a summing point beyond the block

53 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Reduction

• Rule 7: Associative law: is applicable to summing points which are

directly connected to each other. The output is the same even with
the change of the position of two summing points.

• Rule 8: Removing feedback loop

54 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Reduction

• Steps for block reduction

1. Combine all cascaded blocks
2. Combine all parallel blocks
3. Eliminate all minor feedback loops
4. Shift summing points to the left and take off points to the right
of the major loop
5. Repeat step 1 to 4 until canonical form has been achieved for a
particular point.
6. For multiple input, repeat 1 to 5 for each input as required.

55 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Reduction - Example

• Reduce the block diagram show below

• Internal Feedback loops

𝐺1 𝐺2
𝑎𝑛𝑑
1 + 𝐺1 𝐻1 1 + 𝐺2 𝐻2
• Combining blocks in cascade and finally the feedback loop
𝐺1 𝐺2
𝐶 𝑠 1 + 𝐺1 𝐻1 1 + 𝐺2 𝐻2
=
𝑅 𝑠 𝐺1 𝐺2
1 + 𝐻3
1 + 𝐺1 𝐻1 1 + 𝐺2 𝐻2
56 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Reduction - Example

• Determine the transfer function C(s)/R(s) of the system

• blocks 𝐺2 and 𝐺3 are in parallel so combining them 𝐺2 + 𝐺3

• blocks 𝐺2 and 𝐺3 are in series get multiplied 𝐺1 𝐺4

57 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Reduction - Example

• Reducing Blocks in series and Minor feedback loop

• Major feedback loop will be reduced finally

𝐺1 𝐺4 (𝐺2 + 𝐺3 )
𝐶 𝑠 1 − 𝐺1 𝐺4 𝐻1
=
𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝐺 𝐺 + 𝐺3 𝐻2
1+ 1 4 2
1 − 𝐺1 𝐺4 𝐻1

58 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Reduction - Example

• Consider the system shown in Figure. Simplify this block diagram.

• By moving the summing point of the negative feedback loop

containing 𝐻2 outside the positive feedback loop containing 𝐻1

59 EPCE3204
 Block Diagram Reduction - Example

• Eliminating the positive feedback loop we have

• The elimination of the loop containing 𝐻2 /𝐺1 gives

𝐶 𝑠 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
=
𝑅 𝑠 1 − 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 + 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻2 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3

60 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs

• For complicated systems, Block diagram reduction method becomes

tedious & time consuming. An alternate method is that signal flow
graphs developed by S.J. Mason.
• A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of
simultaneous linear algebraic equations.
• A signal flow graph consists only of branches which represent a
system and nodes which represent signals. Each node represents a
system variable & each branch connected between two nodes acts
as signal multiplier.
• The direction of signal flow is indicated by an arrow placed on the
branch, and the multiplication factor is indicated along the branch.
• The signal flow graph depicts the flow of signals from one point of a
system to another and gives the relationships among the signals.

𝑹 𝒔 𝑮 𝒔 𝑪 𝒔 𝑮 𝒔
𝑹 𝒔 𝑪 𝒔

61 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs

• Elements of signal flow graphs

1. Nodes: A node is a point that represent a variable or signal.
2. Branches: is a directed line segment joining two nodes. The
signal travels from one node to other node along these
branches.
3. Input node or source: the node which has only outgoing
branches. This corresponds to an independent variable.
4. Output node or sink: the node which has only incoming
branches. This corresponds to a dependent variable.
5. Mixed node: It is a node which has both incoming & outgoing
branches (signals).
6. Path: It is the traversal of connected branches in the direction
of branch arrows. Such that no node is traversed more than
once.

62 EPCE3204
Signal Flow Graphs

7. Forward Path: It is a path from input node to the output node

which doesn’t cross any node more than once.
8. Forward Path Gain: It is a product of branch gains encountered
in traveling forward path.
9. Loop: it is a closed path which originates and terminates at
same node.
10. Loop Gain: It is the product of the branch gains encountered
in traveling a loop.
11. Self loop: loop with only one branch is called self loop.
12. Non-touching loops: Loops are non-touching if they do not
possess any common node.

63 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs

• Properties of Signal Flow Graphs.

– A branch indicates the functional dependence of one signal on
another. A signal passes through only in the direction specified
by the arrow of the branch.
– A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits
this sum to all outgoing branches.
– A mixed node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches,
may be treated as an output node (sink) by adding an outgoing
branch of unity transmittance.
» Note, however, that we cannot change a mixed node to a source by
this method.
– For a given system, a signal flow graph is not unique. Many
different signal flow graphs can be drawn for a given system by
writing the system equations differently.

64 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs

• Converting Block Diagram To Signal Flow Graphs

– Step1: Identify and label all signals on the block diagram
– Step2: Place a node for each signal
– Step3: Connect nodes with branches in place of the blocks
» Maintain correct direction Label
» Branches with corresponding transfer functions
– Step4: simplify

65 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs - Example

• Convert the following block diagrams to signal flow graph.

66 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs - Exercise

• Convert the following block diagrams to signal flow graph.

67 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs

• Mason's Gain Formula

– The relation between the input variable & the output variable of
a signal flow graphs is given by the net gain between the input
& the output nodes and is known as overall gain of the system.
– Mason’s gain formula for the determination of overall system
gain is given by,
𝑃𝑘 Δ𝑘
𝑇=෍
Δ
𝐾

68 EPCE3204
Signal Flow Graphs
𝑃𝐾 Δ𝐾
𝑇=෍
Δ
𝐾

– Where,
𝑃𝐾 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐾 𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ

Δ = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = 1 − ෍ 𝐿𝑎 + ෍ 𝐿𝑏 𝐿𝑐 − ෍ 𝐿𝑑 𝐿𝑒 𝐿𝑓 + ⋯
𝑎 𝑏,𝑐 𝑑,𝑒,𝑓

෍ 𝐿𝑎 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠

𝑎

෍ 𝐿𝑏 𝐿𝑐 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠

𝑏,𝑐

෍ 𝐿𝑑 𝐿𝑒 𝐿𝑓 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠

𝑑,𝑒,𝑓

ΔK = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝛥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐾 𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ

– Note that the summations are taken over all possible paths from input to output.

69 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs

• Steps to calculate Transfer Function using Mason’s Gain Formula

– Step 1: Determine number of forward path and find its gain
– Step 2: Determine number of non-touching loops and find it’s
gain
– Step 3: Determine Two non touching loops with it’s gain
– Step 4: Determine Higher order non touching loops with it’s gain
– Step 5: Calculate determinant Δ
– Step 6: determine Δ𝐾 → The value of the Δ for that part of the
graph not touching the 𝐾 𝑡ℎ forward path.
– Step 7: T → Determine overall gain of the system.

70 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs - Example

• Obtain the closed loop Transfer Function, by using Mason's gain

formula.

71 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs - Example

• In this system there is only one forward path between the input R(s)
and the output C(s). The forward path gain is
𝑃1 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺5
• There are three individual loops. The gains of these loops are
𝐿1 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 𝐿2 = −𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻2 𝐿3 = −𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
• Note that since all three loops have a common branch, there are no
non touching loops. Hence, the determinant Δ is given by
Δ = 1 − 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 = 1 − 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 + 𝐺2𝐺3𝐻2 + 𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3

72 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs - Example

Δ = 1 − 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 = 1 − 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 + 𝐺2𝐺3𝐻2 + 𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3
• The cofactor Δ1 of the determinant along the forward path
connecting the input node and output node is obtained from Δ by
removing the loops that touch this path. Since path P1 touches all
three loops, we obtain
Δ1 = 1
𝐶 𝑠 𝑃1 Δ1 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
=𝑃= =
𝑅 𝑠 Δ 1 − 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 + 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻2 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3

73 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs - Example

• Consider the system shown in Figure. Obtain the closed-loop

transfer function C(s)/R(s) by use of Mason's gain formula.

• There are three forward paths between the input 𝑅(𝑠) and the
output 𝐶(𝑠) The forward path gains are
𝑃1 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝑃2 = 𝐺1 𝐺6 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝑃3 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺7

74 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs - Example

• There are four individual loops,

The gains of these loops are
𝐿1 = −𝐺4 𝐻1 𝐿2 = −𝐺2 𝐺7 𝐻2
𝐿3 = −𝐺6 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐻2 𝐿4 = −𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐻2

• Loop 𝐿1 does not touch loop 𝐿2 . The determinant Δ is given by

Δ = 1 − 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + 𝐿4 + 𝐿1 𝐿2
• The cofactor Δ1 , is obtained from Δ by removing the loops that
touch path 𝑃1 resulting Δ1 = 1. Similarly, cofactor Δ2 is Δ2 = 1
• Δ3 is obtained by removing 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 , 𝐿4 , and 𝐿1 𝐿2 , giving Δ3 = 1 − 𝐿1
𝐶 𝑠 1
= 𝑃 = 𝑃1 Δ1 + 𝑃2 Δ2 + P3 Δ3
𝑅 𝑠 Δ
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺5 + 𝐺1 𝐺6 𝐺4 𝐺5 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺7 (1 + 𝐺4 𝐻1 )
=
1 + 𝐺4 𝐻1 + 𝐺2 𝐺7 𝐻2 + 𝐺6 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐻2 + 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐺5 𝐻2 + 𝐺4 𝐻1 𝐺2 𝐺7 𝐻2
75 EPCE3204
 Signal Flow Graphs - Exercise

• Obtain the closed loop Transfer Function, by using Mason's gain

formula.

76 EPCE3204