Chapter(2)

Atoms, Elements and Compounds

2.1 Elements Solids, liquids and gases

2.2 Compounds
2.3 Mixtures
2.4 Inside atoms

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Focus points
1. How are elements, molecules, ions, compounds and mixtures
different from each other?
2. How do the properties of the particles in an atom lead to an
atom’s structure?
3. What do oxidation and reduction mean?
4. What is an isotopes?

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 The universe is made up of a very large number of substances and our

own part of the universe is no exception.

 When the vast array of substances more closely, it is found that they are

made up of some basic substances which were given the name elements

in 1661 by Robert Boyle.

 In 1803, John Dalton suggested that each element was composed of its

own kind of particles, which he called atoms.

 Atoms are much too small to be seen. (about 20 × 106 over a length of
only 1 cm)

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2.1 Elements
 El ement s a re subst a nces t ha t ca nnot be broken down i nto ot her
substances. They are made of a single type of atom.
Each element has a chemical symbol.
For example, gold (Au), iron (Fe), hydrogen (H), sodium (Na), oxygen (O),
and carbon (C).
 The word atom comes from the Greek word atomos meaning ‘unsplittable’.
For example, aluminium is an element which is made up of only aluminium
atoms.
 It is not possible to obtain a simpler substance chemically from the
aluminium atoms.
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 An element s combines wit h ot her element s to ma ke more complex
substances (aluminium oxide, aluminium nitrate, aluminium sulfate).
 One hundred and eighteen elements have now been identified.
 Twenty of these do not occur in nature and have been made artif icially by
scientists. They include elements such as curium and f le rovium. (The
synthetic elements are those with atomic numbers 95-118)
 Ninety-eight of the elements occur naturally and range from some very
reactive gases (fluorine, chlorine) to, unreactive elements (gold, platinum).

 A physical property is any characteristic of a substance that can be

measured. All elements can be classif ie d according to their various
properties (metals or non-metals).
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Table. Physical data for some metallic and non-metallic elements at
room temperature and pressure

Many metals have high

densities, high melting
points and high boiling
points, and that most non
-metals have low
densi t i es, l ow mel t i ng
points a nd low boiling
points.

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 Some Metals

Gold is very decorative These coins contain nickel

Aluminium has many uses in

the aerospace industry

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 The elements also have chemical properties, which are characteristics or
behaviors that may be observed when the substance undergoes a
chemical change or reaction.
Table. How the properties of metals and non-metals compare

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 Some Non-metals

Neon is used in advertising signs Artists often use charcoal (carbon) to

produce an initial sketch

A premature baby needs oxygen

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Test yourself
1. Using Tables 2.1 and 2.2, pick the ‘odd one out’ in the following group
and explain why it is different from the others.
zinc copper oxygen lead
2. Using Tables 2.1 and 2.2, pick the ‘odd one out’ in the following group
and explain why it is different from the others.
carbon nitrogen iron sulfur
3. Using Tables 2.1 and 2.2, pick the ‘odd one out’ in the following group
of properties of metals and explain why it is different from the others.
– high melting point
– high density
– soft or brittle
– good electrical conductivity

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 Atoms (the smallest particles)
 Everything is made up of billions of extremely small atoms. The smallest
atom is hydrogen, and each hydrogen atom as a sphere having a diameter
of 0.000 000 07 mm (or 7 x 10−8 mm) . Atoms of different elements have
different diameters as well as different masses.
Table. Sizes of atoms

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 Chemists use shorthand symbols to label the elements and their

atoms.

e.g., C is used for carbon, Ca for calcium and Cl for chlorine.

Some symbols seem to have no relationship to the name of the

element, for e.g., Na (Natrium) for sodium and Pb (Plumbum) for lead.

 Some common elements and their symbols. The Latin names of

some of the elements are given in brackets.

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 Molecules
 The atoms of some elements are joined together in small groups. These
small groups of atoms are called molecules. The atoms of some elements
are always joined in pairs. For example, hydrogen (H 2 ), oxygen (O 2 ),
nitrogen (N2), f luorine (F2), , chlorine (Cl 2), bromine (Br2), and iodine (I2)).
They are known as diatomic molecules.

Cl Cl
a letter-and-stick model

a space-filling model

 The atoms of some other elements join in larger numbers, four and eight
respectively. (e.g., phosphorus, P4 and sulfur, S8. (polyatomic molecules)
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5 How would you use chemical shorthand to write a representation of
the molecules of iodine and fluorine?
6 Using the Periodic Table on p. 135, write down the symbols for each
of these elements and give their physical state at room temperature.
a. chromium b. krypton c. osmium

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2.2 Compounds
 Compounds are pure
substances (when two or
more elements
chemically combine
together)
 pure substance =
material with constant
composition and
properties

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 Water = two atoms of
hydrogen
and one atom of oxygen
 chemical formula = H2O

 Elements other than hydrogen will also react with oxygen to form
compounds called oxides.
For example, magnesium reacts violently with oxygen gas to form the
white powder magnesium oxide (basic oxide).
This reaction is accompanied by a release of energy as new chemical
bonds are formed. 19
 When a new substance is formed during a
chemical reaction, a chemical change has
taken place.
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

Figure: Magnesium burns brightly in oxygen to

produce magnesium oxide

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 When substances such as hydrogen and magnesium combine
with oxygen. It said to be oxidized, and this process is known as
oxidation (addition of oxygen to a substance or gain of oxygen)
 Reduction is the opposite of oxidation. In this process oxygen is
removed rather than added ( removal of oxygen from a substance
or loss of oxygen).

 Any chemical process that involves reduction and oxidation is

known as a redox reaction (Redox reactions involve simultaneous
oxidation and reduction).
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 Iron is reduced from +3 to 0. Carbon is oxidized to +2 to
 +4.
Carbon monoxide is the reducing agent. (donar of electrons)
A reducing agent is a substance that reduces another
substance and is itself oxidized during a redox reaction.

 Iron(III) oxide is the oxidizing agent. (acceptor of electrons)

An oxidizing agent is a substance which oxidizes another
substance and is itself reduce during a redox reaction.
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Test yourself
8. Zinc is extracted from its ore zinc blende in a furnace by a redox
reaction.
What does the term ‘redox reaction’ mean?
9. Identify the oxidising and reducing agents in each of the following
reactions:
a. copper(II) oxide + hydrogen → copper + water
b. tin(II) oxide + carbon → tin + carbon dioxide
c. PbO(s) + H2(g) → Pb(s) + H2O(l)).

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Formulae
 The formula of a compound = symbols of the elements and numbers that
show the ratio of the different atoms the compound is made from.

 The ratio of atoms within a chemical compound is usually constant.

Compounds are made up of f ixed proportions of elements: they have a
fixed composition. [Law of constant composition]

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 Balancing chemical equations
 Word equations are a useful way of representing chemical
reactions.
 A balanced chemical equation is used to describe what
happens during a chemical reaction .
 Balanced equations often include symbols that show the
physical state of each of the reactants and products:
(s) = solid (l) = liquid
(g) = gas (aq) = aqueous (water) solution
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The word equation to represent this reaction is:

iron + sulfur heat iron(II) sulfide

Fe(s) + S(s) heat FeS(s)

11 Write the word and balanced chemical equations for the reactions which take
place between:
a calcium and oxygen: calcium + oxygen → calcium oxide
2Ca (s) + O2 (g) → 2CaO (s)
b copper and oxygen.
O 2 (g ) 2 C u O (s)

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2.3 Mixture
 A combination of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds)
that are not chemically combined.
 Mixtures can be separated by physical methods such as f il tration or
evaporation.
Examples of common mixtures are:
» sea water
» air, which is a mixture of elements such as oxygen, nitrogen and neon, and
compounds such as carbon dioxide
» alloys such as brass, which is a mixture of copper and zinc (for a further
discussion of alloys)
e.g. sand and water, oil and water, sulfur powder and iron filings
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 If the mixture of iron and sulphur is heated, a chemical reaction
occurs and a new substance is formed. The product of the reaction
is iron (II) sulphide.
Iron + sulphur iron (II) sulphide

 During the reaction, heat energy is given out as new chemical

bonds are formed. This is called an exothermic reaction.
 Some chemical reactions take in heat during the reaction, which
is called an endothermic reaction.
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Table 2.6 Different Properties of iron, sulfur, iron/sulfur mixture and iron (II) sulfide
Substance Appearence Effect of a magnet Effect of dilute
hydrochloric acid
Iron Dark grey Attracted to it Very little action
powder when cold. When
warm, a gas is
produced with a
lot of bubbling
(effervescence)
Sulfur Yellow powder None No effect when
hot or cold
Iron/sulfur Dirty yellow Iron powder Iron powder
Mixture powder attracted to it reacts as above
Iron (II) Black solid No effect A foul-smelling
sulfide gas is produced
with some
effervescence
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Table 2.7 The major differences between mixtures and compounds
Mixture
It contains two or more
substances.
The composition can vary.
No chemical change takes place
when a mixture is formed.
The properties are those of the
individual elements/
compounds.
The components may be
separated quite easily by physical
means.
Compound
It is a single substance.
The composition is always the
same.
When the new substance is
formed it involves chemical
change.
The properties are very different
to those of the component
elements.
The components can only be
separated by one or more
chemical reactions.
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Other types of mixtures
Gels, sols, foams and emulsions

a This jelly is an example of a

‘gel’

b Emulsion paint is an
example of a ‘sol’

c These foams have been

formed by trapping bubbles of
gas in liquids

d Emulsions are formed by

mixing immiscible liquids
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Test yourself
12 Make a list of some other common mixtures and then use your
research to find out and state what they are mixtures of.

13 Which of the following are not mixtures:

milk, tin, sulfur, cough linctus, brass, gold?

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2.4 Inside atoms
 All substances are made of tiny particles of matter called
atoms which are the building blocks of all matter.
 When John Dalton developed his atomic theory, over 200 years
ago, he stated that the atoms of any one element were identical
and that each atom was ‘indivisible’.
 Scientists in those days also believed that atoms were solid
particles, like marbles.

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Atomic Structure
 Each atom is made up of even smaller ‘sub-atomic’ particles: electrons,
protons and neutrons.
 The protons and neutrons are located at the centre of the atom, which
is called the nucleus.
 The electrons move very fast around the nucleus in orbital paths called
shells or energy levels.
 The electrons are held in the shells within the atom by an electrostatic
force of attraction between themselves and the positive charge of
protons in the nucleus.
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Sub-atomic particles (Protons, Neutrons & Electrons)

•The mass of the electron is negligible, hence the mass of an atom is

contained within the nucleus where the protons and neutrons are located.
•Number of protons = Number of electrons
•The overall charged of the atom is neutral.
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Proton number and mass number
** Proton number (Atomic number ) = number of protons
(The number of protons define the identity of an element )
**Atomic mass/Mass number (nucleon number) = number of (protons +
neutrons)
number of neutrons = Mass number - number of protons
**Outermost shell electrons = valence electrons/ energy level

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 Atomic mass Atomic mass
Atomic number
Atomic number
Where, X = an atom of an
element
A = mass number (or)
atomic mass
Z = atomic number

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Ions
Loss of electrons = positive charge/ ion
Gain of electrons = negative charge/ ion

 Net charge
Example: sodium (Na), atomic number = 11
Number of protons = 11, Number of electrons = 11
Loss of an electron from sodium atom,
Number of protons = 11+
Number of electrons = 10-
Overall charged = 1+ [ ]
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Isotopes
**Same atomic number = different mass number
**same number of protons = different number of neutrons
two types of isotopes = stable and unstable isotopes
Radioactive isotopes = unstable isotopes

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Relative atomic mass
Relative atomic mass, Ar, is the average
mass of the isotopes of an element
compared to 1/12th of the mass of an
atom of 12C.

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The arrangement of electrons in atoms
 The nucleus of an atom contains the heavier subatomic
particles – the protons and the neutrons.
 The electrons, the lightest of the sub-atomic particles, move
around the nucleus at great distances from the nucleus relative
to their size.
 They move very fast in electron shells, very much like the planets
orbit the Sun.
 It is not possible to give the exact position of an electron in an
electron shell.
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 Electronic Configuration
The structure of the atom in two ways: using diagrams called
electron shell diagrams or by writing out a special notation
called the electronic conf iguration (or electronic structure or
electron distribution)

Number of electrons.
» First shell holds up to two electrons.
» Second shell holds up to eight electrons.
» Third shell holds up to 18 electrons

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 The maximum number of electrons in each shell = 2n2
where n = number of shell (i.e; n = 1,2,3,…)
For the first shell = 2 x 12 = 2 electrons
For the second shell = 2 x 22 = 8 electrons
For the third shell = 2 x 32 = 18 electrons , etc.
Distribution of electrons in each shell = Electronic conf ig uration or
electronic structure
electronic structure = 2. 8. 8. 2 (for the first 20 elements)

Sub-shells
s = sharp (2 electrons) p = principle (6 electrons)

d = diffuse (10 electrons) f = fundamental (14 electrons)

1 → 1s 2 → 2s 2p 3→ 3s 3p 3d 4 → 4s 4p 4d 4f 47
Complete electronic structure

Order of filling up sub-shell with electrons

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s ……

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Test yourself
19 How many electrons may be accommodated in each of the first three electron
shells?
20 What is the same about the electronic configurations of:
a lithium, sodium and potassium? b beryllium, magnesium and calcium?
21 An element X has a proton number of 13. What is the electronic configuration of
X?

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Page 12
1. Oxygen – it is a non-metal
2. Iron – it is a metal
3. Soft or brittle – metals are hard or ductile
Page 14
4. 14,285,714
5. I—I, F—F
6.(a) Cr, solid
(b) Kr, gas
(c) Os, solid
7. CH4
Page 16
10. Ammonia = NH3 = 1N:3H
Calcium hydroxide = Ca(OH)2 = 1Ca:2O:2H
Carbon dioxide, CO2 = 1C:2O
Copper sulfate, CuSO4 = 1Cu:1S:4O
Ethanol (alcohol), C2H5OH = 2C:5H:1O:1H
(2C:6H:1O)
Glucose = C6H12O6 = 6C:12H:6O
Hydrochloric acid = HCl = 1H:1Cl
Nitric acid = HNO3 = 1H:1N:3O
 Sodium carbonate = Na2CO3 = 2Na:1C:3O
Sodium hydroxide = NaOH = 1Na:1O:1H
Sulfuric acid = H2SO4 = 2H:1S:4O

11.(a) calcium + oxygen → calcium oxide

2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)
(b) copper + oxygen → copper oxide
2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)
12. Any examples of common mixtures are acceptable,
• Air – gases (oxygen, nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium,
krypton and xenon, plus minute amounts of other gases
• Petroleum (Crude oil) – hydrocarbon gases (such as methane, ethane,
etc.) and hydrocarbon liquids (such as octane, decane, dodecane, etc).
• Alloys (mixtures of metals)such as:
(i) brass – copper, zinc (ii) bronze – copper, tin
(iii) pewter – lead, tin, antimony (iv) solder – lead, tin
(v) Sea water – a solution of many metal salts such as those based on
sodium, calcium and magnesium as chlorides, bromides, sulfates
and carbonates.
 Emulsions, such as mayonnaise – a mixture of immiscible liquids,
e.g. oil, egg white, an emulsifier and vinegar;
 foams – a mixture of gas trapped in a liquid or solid, e.g. soda
water, where carbon dioxide is trapped in water, or bread dough,
where carbon dioxide is trapped in a solid matrix that is cooked to
give us bread;
 gels, such as sweet jelly and hair gel – a mixture of a solid in a
liquid, e.g. gelatine in water

13. Tin, sulfur, gold

Exam-style questions
1 a Define the terms: i proton [3] ii neutron [2] iii electron.
Proton A sub-atomic particle that has a positive charge equal in magnitude to that
of an electron. Protons occur in all nuclei.
Neutron An uncharged sub-atomic particle present in the nuclei of atoms.
Electron A sub-atomic particle that has a negative charge equal in magnitude to
that of a proton. Electrons are found in electron shells which surround the nucleus
of the atom.

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Element A substance which cannot be further divided into simpler
substances by chemical methods.
Metals A class of chemical elements which have a characteristic
lustrous appearance and are good conductors of heat and electricity.
Non-metals A class of chemical elements that are typically poor
conductors of heat and electricity.
Molecule A group of atoms covalently bonded together.
Mixture Two or more substances mixed together that can be separated
by physical means.
Compound A substance formed by the combination of two or more
elements in fixed proportions.
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4 State which of the
substances listed below are:
a metallic elements
b non-metallic elements
c compounds
d mixtures.
5 State, at room temperature
and pressure (r.t.p.), which of
the substances listed below
is/are:
a a solid element
b a liquid element
c a gaseous mixture
d a solid mixture
e a liquid compound
f a solid compound.
silicon, sea water, calcium, argon,
water, air, carbon monoxide, iron,
sodium chloride, diamond, brass,
copper, dilute sulfuric acid, sulfur,
oil, nitrogen, ammonia [17]
bromine, carbon dioxide,
helium, steel, air, oil,
marble, copper, water,
sand, tin, bronze,
mercury, salt [11]
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6 a How many atoms of the different elements are there in the formulae of these
compounds?
i nitric acid, HNO3 [3] ii methane, CH4 [2]
iii copper nitrate, Cu(NO3)2 [3] iv ethanoic acid, CH3COOH [3]
v sugar, C12H22O11 [3] vi phenol, C6H5OH [3]
vii ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4 [4]
b Balance the following equations.
i Zn(s) + O2(g) → ZnO(s) [2] ii Fe(s) + Cl2(g) → FeCl3(s) [3]
iii Li(s) + O2(g) → Li2O(s) [2] iv H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O(g) [2]
v Mg(s) + CO2(g) → MgO(s) + C(s) [2]

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6 a How many atoms of the different elements are there in the formulae of these
compounds?
i nitric acid, HNO3 [3] ii methane, CH4 [2]
iii copper nitrate, Cu(NO3)2 [3] iv ethanoic acid, CH3COOH [3]
v sugar, C12H22O11 [3] vi phenol, C6H5OH [3]
vii ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4 [4]

b Balance the following equations.

i Zn(s) + O2(g) → ZnO(s) [2] ii Fe(s) + Cl2(g) → FeCl3(s) [3]
iii Li(s) + O2(g) → Li2O(s) [2] iv H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O(g) [2]
v Mg(s) + CO2(g) → MgO(s) + C(s) [2]
Practice questions
1. Which statement explains why isotopes of the same element have the same
chemical properties?
A. They have the same electronic structure.
B. They have the same relative mass.
C. They have the same nucleon number.
D. They have the same proton number.

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2. X and Y are two different elements. X and Y have the same
number
of nucleons. Which statement about X and Y is correct?
A. They have the same physical properties.
B. Their atoms have the same number of electrons.
C. They are in different groups of the Periodic Table.
D. They have different relative masses.
3. Which statement about the atoms of all the isotopes of carbon is correct?
A. They are all radioactive.
B. They have the same mass.
C. They have the same number of neutrons.
D. They have the same number of electrons in the outer shell.
4. Element X has 7 protons. Element Y has 8 more protons than X.
Which statement about element Y is correct?
A. Y has more electron shells than X.
B. Y has more electrons in its outer shell than X.
C. Y is in a different group of the Periodic Table from X.
D. Y is in the same period of the Periodic Table as X. 62
6. Which description of brass is correct?
A. alloy B. compound C. element D. non-
metal
7. In which atom is the number of protons equal to the number of neutrons?
A. 40Ar B. 19F C. 23Na D. 16O

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9. Which pair of atoms contains the same number of neutrons?

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10. Element X has 7 protons. Element Y has 8 more protons than X.
Which statement about element Y is correct?
A. Y has more electron shells than X.
B. Y has more electrons in its outer shell than X.
C. Y is in a different group of the Periodic Table from X.
D. Y is in the same period of the Periodic Table as X.

11. Which information is needed to calculate the relative atomic mass of

an element?
A. The total number of protons and neutrons in the most
abundant
isotope.
B. The nucleon numbers and the total number of isotopes.
C. The mass number and abundance of each of its isotopes.
D. The atomic number and abundance of each of its isotopes

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12.

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13.

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14. Two naturally occurring isotopes of oxygen are 16O and 17O.
Which statement is correct?
A. Both isotopes react with iron to form rust.
B. Neither isotope reacts with iron to forms rust.
C. Only 16O reacts with iron to form rust.
D. Only 17O reacts with iron to form rust.

15. Which species undergoes a loss of electrons?

Fe(s) + Cl2(g) → Fe2+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

A. Fe B. Fe2+ C. Cl2 D. Cl-

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16.

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