Student Name KADIYAM AARK TEJHA

Student Registration Number AUP23SCMCA119 Class & Section: MCA -DS-B

Study Level: UG/PG PG Year & Term: FIRST YEAR & TERM -3
Subject Name COMPUTER NETWORK

Name of the Assessment REFLECTIVE ESSAY

Date of Submission 06-07-2024

REFLECTIVE ESSAY
Computer networks encompass various components and concepts
crucial for communication. Networks can be classified into types such
as LANs (Local Area Networks), WANs (Wide Area Networks), and
MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks), each tailored for specific
geographic scales and purposes. Topologies define how devices are
interconnected, including bus, star, ring, mesh, and hybrid
configurations. The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and
TCP/IP model provide frameworks for understanding network
communication processes, with the OSI model consisting of seven
layers and TCP/IP focusing on four layers. Network protocols like
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol)
govern data transmission rules, while standards ensure
interoperability between different network components. Essential
network devices include routers, switches, hubs, and gateways, each
serving distinct roles in managing and directing data traffic.
Together, these fundamentals form the backbone of modern
communication infrastructures, enabling seamless data exchange
across local and global scales.
MODULE-1:
TYPES OF NETWORKS:
1. Local area network (LAN)
2. Personal area network (PAN)
3. Metropolitan area network (MAN)
4. Wide area network (WAN)
NETWORK TOPOLOGY:
Network topology is the arrangement of a communication network's
elements, which can be depicted logically or physically.
There are six types of network topology which are
1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Tree Topology
4. Star Topology
5. Mesh Topology
6. Hybrid Topology
OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION:
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a
conceptual framework used to describe the functions of a networking
system.
The seven layers of the OSI model:
1. Physical layer
2. Data Link layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer

TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL / INTERNET

PROTOCOL:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a reliable protocol that
ensures data is delivered to its intended destination in the same order
it was sent.
• IP stands for Internet Protocol, and IP addresses are unique
identifiers for devices that connect to the internet
TCP is part of the transport layer of the TCP/IP model, which is made up
of five layers:
1. Application layer
2. Transport layer
3. Network layer
4. Data Link layer
5. Physical layer
NETWORK PROTOCOL:
A network protocol is a standard that defines how data is exchanged between
devices on a computer network.
• Communication
• Network Management
• Security

NETWORK DEVICES:
Network devices are nodes in a wireless mesh network that can transmit
and receive wireless data and support network formation and maintenance.
• Hub
A central concentrating point for a computer network that enables relation
nodes to interact with each other.
• Gateway
Connects two networks together, allowing data to be sent and received
between them.
• Modem
Allows a computer to transfer data from telephone lines to computers and
computers to telephone lines.
• Router
Connects multiple networks together, allowing them to communicate with
each other.
• Access point
Acts as a bridge between devices and the network.
NETWORK COMPONENTS:
A computer network is made up of hardware and software
components that connect devices and ensure data flow.
The primary components of a computer network include devices, network
interface cards (NICs), hubs, switches, routers, servers, modems, bridges,
and repeaters.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA:
• Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the
information from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted
through the electromagnetic signals.
• The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the
information in the form of bits through LAN (Local Area Network).

MODULE-2:
SIGNAL
A signal is a function of one or more variables that indicate some
phenomenon. Signal Serves as Carriers of information between
communication devices. They can Convey Different types of
information depending on the Application required. These signals can
be of different forms.
TYPES OF SIGNALS
• ANALOG SIGNALS
• DIGITAL SIGNALS
• REAL AND COMPLEX SIGNALS
• DETERMINISTIC AND RANDOM SINGNALS
• PERIODIC AND NON-PERIODIC SIGNALS
APPLICATIONS
• Audio recording and reproduction
• Temperature sensors
• Image sensors
• Radio signals
• Telephones
• Control systems
MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing, or muxing, is a method in computer networks that
combines multiple signals into a single transmission medium. This
process is used to share a scarce resource, such as a physical
transmission medium, and is used in a wide range of industries to
facilitate both analog and digital communications.
TYPES OF MULTIPLEXING
There are Five types of Multiplexing:
• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
• Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
• Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
• Space-division multiplexing (SDM)

MODULE-3:
FRAMING
Framing is the process of dividing digital data into smaller units called frames,
which are then sent across a network. Frames are the basic building blocks of
digital transmission in computer networks and telecommunications.
A frame is made up of three components:
• Frame header: Contains the frame's source and destination addresses
• Payload field: Contains the message that needs to be spread
• Trailer: Contains bits for error detection and repair
TYPES OF FRAMING:
• Fixed Size Framing
• Variable Size Framing

TYPES OF ERROR
• Single-bit error
• Multiple-bit error
• Burst error
Simple Parity check, Two-dimensional Parity check, Checksum, and
Cyclic redundancy check are error detection methods. When the data
is sent from the sender side to the receiver's side it needs to be detected
and corrected.
ERROR CONTROL
Error control can be done in two ways
• Error detection − Error detection involves checking whether
any error has occurred or not. The number of error bits and the
type of error does not matter.
• Error correction − Error correction involves ascertaining the
exact number of bits that has been corrupted and the location of
the corrupted bits.
ERROR CORRECTION TECHNIQUES
Error correction techniques find out the exact number of bits that
have been corrupted and as well as their locations. There are two
principal ways
• Backward Error Correction (Retransmission)
• Forward Error Correction
The four main error correction codes are
• Hamming Codes
• Binary Convolution Code
• Reed – Solomon Code
• Low-Density Parity-Check Code
MODULE-4:
MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL (MAC)
Medium access control (MAC) protocols are network data transfer
policies that determine how data is transmitted through a network
cable. They ensure that data packets are transferred between two
computers without collisions or simultaneous data transit.
This network channel through which data is transmitted between
terminal nodes to avoid collision has three various ways of
accomplishing this purpose. They include:
• Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance
(CSMA/CA)
• Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD)
• Demand priority
• Token passing
FLOW CONTROL IEEE 802.X STANDARDS
IEEE 802.3x flow control is a mechanism that allows a station on a
point-to-point link to pause transmission for a specified period of
time. This mechanism is used when a network node becomes
overwhelmed, and the port receives more traffic than it can process.
Flow control mechanisms include:
• Priority-based flow control: A link-level flow control
mechanism that can be controlled independently for each class
of service (Cos)
• Priority flow control extension: Uses 14 bytes of the 42-byte
padding in a regular pause frame.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
• EAP is the tunnel that transfers a user’s identifying information
from client to server.
• EAP tunnels most often use username/password or certificates.
• Not all EAP Tunnels are created the same, man-in-the-middle
attacks are easier to perform with username/password.

MODULE-5:
ROUTING ALGORITHMS
Routing algorithms in computer networks are crucial for determining
the best path for data packets from a source to a destination. These
algorithms help in efficiently directing Internet traffic by calculating
the "least-cost path" for data packets to travel through. In computer
networks, routing algorithms can be broadly categorized into adaptive
and non-adaptive routing algorithms.
 • Adaptive Routing algorithm
An adaptive routing algorithm is also known as dynamic routing
algorithm.
This algorithm makes the routing decisions based on the topology and
network traffic.
The main parameters related to this algorithm are hop count, distance
and estimated transit time.
• Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm
Non-Adaptive routing algorithm is also known as a static routing
algorithm.
When booting up the network, the routing information stores to the
routers.
Non-Adaptive routing algorithms do not take the routing decision
based on the network topology or network traffic.

INTERNET PROTOCOL FRAGMENTATION

IP fragmentation is an Internet Protocol (IP) process that breaks
packets into smaller pieces (fragments), so that the resulting pieces
can pass through a link with a smaller maximum transmission unit
(MTU) than the original packet size. The fragments are reassembled
by the receiving host.
LOGICAL ADDRESSING
Logical addressing in computer networks refers to the use of
IP addresses to assign unique identifiers to devices connected
to a network. These addresses are used for higher-level
network communication, such as routing and addressing.
IP ADDRESSING
• Each device on a network is assigned a unique IP address,
which is a 32-bit number typically expressed in dotted-
decimal format (e.g., 192.168.1.100)
• An IP address consists of two parts: the network address
and the host address
• IP addresses are classified into different classes (A, B, C)
based on the number of hosts they can support.
SUBNETTING
• Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger network
into smaller, more manageable subnetworks (subnets)
• A subnet mask is used to determine which part of an IP
address represents the network and which part
represents the host
 • Subnetting is done by borrowing bits from the host
portion of the IP address to create additional network
addresses
• Subnetting allows for more efficient use of IP addresses,
improved network performance, and enhanced security
by isolating network traffic.
CONGESTION CONTROL
Congestion control in computer networks is a crucial
mechanism that regulates the flow of data packets to prevent
network overload and ensure efficient utilization of resources.

MODULE-6:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) are two of the most fundamental transport
layer protocols used in computer networks.
The main difference is that TCP is a connection-oriented protocol,
meaning it establishes a reliable end-to-end connection before
data is exchanged. It also provides error-checking and guaranteed
delivery of data packets. In contrast, UDP is a connectionless
protocol that does not establish a dedicated connection - it simply
sends data packets without any guarantee they will arrive intact
or in order.
This makes TCP better suited for applications that require
reliable data transfer, like web browsing and file downloads. UDP,
on the other hand, is preferred for real-time applications like video
streaming and online gaming, where some packet loss is
acceptable in exchange for lower latency and overhead.

MODULE-7:
Application Layer Protocols
The application layer of computer networks is responsible for
facilitating communication between applications and the
underlying network infrastructure.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP is the foundational protocol of the World Wide Web,
enabling the transfer of hypertext documents and multimedia
content between web servers and clients (typically web
browsers). It defines the format of requests and responses,
allowing users to access and interact with web pages.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
FTP is a standard network protocol used for transferring files
between computers over a network. It provides a structured
way to upload, download, and manage files on remote servers,
making it a crucial tool for web development, file sharing, and
content distribution.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
SMTP is the primary protocol used for email transmission,
enabling the sending and receiving of electronic messages
across the internet. It defines the format and delivery
mechanisms for email communications, ensuring the reliable
and secure exchange of messages.
Domain Name System (DNS)
DNS is a hierarchical and distributed naming system that
translates human-readable domain names (e.g.,
"www.example.com") into the corresponding IP addresses
that computers use to identify and communicate with each
other on the network.
The World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web, often referred to as the "web," is a
global information system that utilizes the internet as its
underlying network infrastructure. The web is built upon the
HTTP protocol, which allows users to access and navigate a
vast network of interconnected hypertext documents and
multimedia resources. The development of the web, along
with the creation of web browsers and search engines, has
revolutionized the way people access and share information,
transforming the way we communicate, learn, and conduct
business in the digital age.

MODULE-8:
Wireless communication technologies have revolutionized the way we
communicate and access information. One key technology is Mobile
Internet Protocol (Mobile IP), designed to enable seamless
connectivity for mobile devices across different networks. Mobile IP
allows mobile nodes to maintain a constant IP address while moving
between networks, ensuring uninterrupted communication sessions.
Challenges with Mobile IP
Despite its benefits, Mobile IP faces several challenges:
• Handoff Problem: During handoffs, the Home Agent (HA) may
not know the latest Care of Address (CoA) of the Mobile Host
(MH), leading to dropped packets and communication
disruptions.
• Intra-Domain Movement: Frequent intra-domain movements
can generate a large number of registered messages, affecting
network performance.
• Quality of Service (QoS): Providing QoS in mobile environments
is challenging due to varying network topologies, limited
resources, and high error rates.
Other Wireless Technologies
Other wireless technologies have also evolved to support mobile
communication:
• Ad-hoc Networks: These networks are formed dynamically by
mobile devices, enabling communication without a fixed
infrastructure.
• Wireless Sensor Networks: These networks consist of low-
power, low-cost devices that monitor and collect data from their
surroundings.
 • Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs): WLANs provide
wireless connectivity within a limited area, such as homes or
offices.
• 4G and 5G Networks: These next-generation wireless networks
offer faster data rates, lower latency, and greater capacity,
enhancing mobile communication capabilities.

MODULE-9:
Network Management Architecture
Network management architectures enable the design and
implementation of network management functions at a high level of
abstraction. Key architectures include centralized, distributed, and
hierarchical approaches.
Network Monitoring and Troubleshooting
Network monitoring involves continuously observing network
performance metrics to identify issues. Tools like ping, traceroute, and
network scanners can help diagnose connectivity problems. Remote
Network Monitoring (RMON) is a standard that provides advanced
monitoring capabilities.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
SNMP is a widely used protocol for network management. It defines
how network devices (agents) report data to and receive commands
from network management systems (managers). SNMP uses a
Management Information Base (MIB) to store and access
management data.
Configuration, Fault, and Performance Management
Configuration management handles the process of installing,
updating, and removing network components. Fault management
detects, diagnoses, and resolves network issues. Performance
management monitors and optimizes network efficiency. Security
management controls access and protects the network from threats.

MODULE-10:
Cloud Computing and SDN/NFV
Cloud computing has driven the adoption of software-defined
networking (SDN) and network functions virtualization (NFV). SDN
enables centralized control and programmability of networks, while
NFV decouples network functions from hardware. Together, they
provide the flexibility and agility needed to support cloud services.
Internet of Things (IoT) and Edge Computing
IoT devices generate massive amounts of data that needs to be
processed quickly. Edge computing brings computation and data
storage closer to IoT devices, reducing latency and bandwidth
requirements. SDN and NFV play a key role in managing and
orchestrating edge computing resources.
Blockchain and Networking
Blockchain technology can enhance network security and trust in
distributed systems. Blockchain-based networking applications
include secure data sharing, identity management, and distributed
trust models. SDN and NFV enable the flexible deployment and
management of blockchain-based network services.
In summary, emerging technologies like cloud computing, IoT, edge
computing, and blockchain are transforming networking. SDN and
NFV provide the foundation for building agile, programmable, and
virtualized networks to support these new paradigms.