Block 5 Guidelines by MSS-1

MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS
GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

BLOCK 5
Module 8
PHYSIOLOGY
Module: Endocrinology and Reproduction
(FOR PHYSIO GUIDELINES SOURCE: GUYTON AND HALL EDITION 14TH

+ AYESHA BATOOL SHORTLISTING NOTES)
Endocrinology
EnR-P-001
Chapter 76
Category A:
• MOA of growth hormone (imp UQ)
• Action of GH on carbs, protiens and lipids (UQ)
• Effect of GH on skeletal growth and age (inc in bone growth. mechanisms 2 hain read
ayesha batool shortlisting. age ka bhi graph bana hua hai api ki shortlisting main pg 21)
• Somatedins def + significance (v.v..v.v.imp UQ)
• Regulation of GH (Factors stimulating and inhibiting GH ayengy is main UQ)
• MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS
Panhypopituitarism in adults and childhood (in dono ka difference achy se ana chahye
imp UQ hai)
• Sheehan syndrome (v.v..v..vimp UQ)
• Types of dwarfism and their difference is often asked in prof (v.v.vimp UQ)
• Gigantism and acromegaly features and difference (v. imp UQ)
• MOA of ADH (most imp UQ)
• Regulation of ADH (imp UQ)

• Diabetes insipidus, Diabetes mellitus, SIADH (ye topics apk LOs main nhi hain as
such written but they're related to hormones and its clinical significance so apne ye
bht achy se krny hain UQs hain ye)
• Treatment difference between Central and Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (UQ, MCQs,
viva)
• MOA of oxytocin (UQ)
• Actions of oxytocin (imp)
Category B:
• Hormones of Hypothalamus (UQ)
• Hormones of Anterior pituitary
• Hormones of Posterior Pituitary
• ( Dono basic points hain viva main koi bht hi asaan sawal dena ho k check kren basics ati
hain bachon ko ya nhi tou ye aa jata hai)
• Functional relationship between Hypothalamus, Anterior and Posterior Pituitary gland
(concept acha hona chahye)
• Hypothalamic pituitary tract (concept)
Chapter 77:
EnR-P-002
Category A:
• Transport of thyroid hormone (v.imp UQ + viva Q)
• MOA of thyroid (imp for biochem as well)
• Actions of thyroid on carbs, proteins and fats
• Non-metabolic functions of thyroid (effects on CVS, BP, GIT, respiratory, nervous,
muscular, system, sexual functions, sleep, etc {systems pr effect imp Uq hai}
• Grave's disease (thyrotoxicosis)
• Thyroid function test to investigate hypo and hyperthyroidism (UQ v.v.vimp)
• Hashimoto Hypothyroidism UQ
• Endemic Colloid Goitre (UQ)
• Non- Toxic colloid Goitre UQ
• Causes of Cretinism UQ
Pathophysiology of Cretinism UQ
Category B:
• Regulation of thyroid hormone
• Antithyroid substances and explain their MOA (ayesha batool Shortlisting)
• Causes of hyperthyroidism
• Myoedema

Chapter 78
EnR-P-003
Category A:
• Effects of Mineralocorticoid hormones (UQ)
• Regulation of aldosterone secretion (UQ)
• Metabolic and non metabolic functions of cortisol (v.v.v.v.vimp UQ)
• Interconversion of active and inactive cortisol (IMP VIVA Q)
• Mechanism of regulation of glucocorticoid secretion by hypothalamus
• Name and functions of Adrenal Androgens
• Addison's disease UQ
• Causes of hyperadrenalism
• Cushing's syndrome UQ
• Disease between Cushing's syndrome and Disease (vvv.imp UQ)
• Dexamethasone test importance UQ
• Conn's syndrome UQ
• Androgenital Syndrome UQ
• Aldosterone escape is imp UQ, viva Q
• AME is Uq (apparent mineralocorticoid excess syndrome)
• Adrenal crisis is imp too
Category B:
• Hormones of adrenal cortex
• Physiological anatomy of Adrenal Cortex
Chapter 79
EnR-P-004
(the compiled notes i shared in the group, present in the drive link in description of your
group as well)
• Types of pancreatic cells with their hormones
•
•
MOA of insulin (PPUQ + VIVA Q)
Effects of insulin on carbs, proteins, lipids (UQ)
• Actions of insulin on liver, adipose tissue and skeletal muscles (UQ)
• Factors increasing and decreasing insulin (UQ)
• Role of insulin (and other hormones) in switching between carbs and lipid (UQ)
• Effects of glucagon on carbs and lipid (UQ)
• Factors regulating secretion of glucagon
• 24- hr regulation of glucose
• Importance of blood glucose regulation

• Actions of somatostatin
Category B:
• Synthesis and mechanism of release of insulin
Chapter 79
EnR-P-005
Category A:
(Diabetes is imp, har jagah pucha jayega har question iska imp hai)
• Types of diabetes mellitus (UQ)
• Causes of type 1 and 2 (UQ)
• Features and pathophysiology of Diabetes mellitus (UQ)
• Role of insulin resistance, obesity and metabolic syndrome in developing type 2 diabetes
mellitus
• How to diagnose Diabetes Mellitus
• Treatment of Type 1 and 2 of diabetes mellitus
• Insulinoma imp.
Chapter 80
EnR-P-006 + 007 + 008
• Physiological anatomy of parathyroid gland
• Rapid and Slow Resorption of bone
• Actions of PTH (UQ)
• Control of PTH secretion by Ca+2 ion conc. (UQ)
• Effects of vitamin D imp
• Effects of Ca+2 on calcitonin imp
• Regulation of Ca+2 imp
• Hypoparathyroidism imp
• Primary and Secondary Hyperthyroidism imp
Causes and features of Osteoporosis imp
• Functions of Adrenal Medulla imp
• Pheochromocytoma (imp in biochem as well)
Chapter 81
EnR-P-009

(read guyton first using Ayesha Batool shortlisting and then in prof you might do firdous)
Category A:
• Factors affecting spermatogenesis (UQ)
• Maturation and storage of sperm (UQ)
• Functions of prostate and seminal vesicles in the formation of semen (UQ)
• Capacitation + significance (UQ)
• Acrosome Rex. and its significance UQ
• Effect of sperm count on fertility (IMP UQ)
• Functions of testosterone in intrauterine life and after life (UQ)
Category B:
• Regulation of male sexual functions by hormones from hypothalamus and anterior
pituitary (guyton page 1021)
• Site of secretion of testosterone
• Active form of Testosterone (viva Q)
Category C:
• Structure and physiology of mature sperm (Guyton pg 1014)
• Composition of sperm
• Intracellular MOA of testosterone (Guyton pg 1021)
• Role of pineal gland (Guyton pg 1024)
Chapter 82:
Category A:
• Phases of ovarian cycle with hormonal changes (UQ)
• Cycle graph Figure 82.4 (UQ)
• Mechanism of Ovulation fig 82.6 {Guyton page 1031} (UQ)
•
•
Formation and involution of corpus luteum (UQ)
Endometrial cycle + structural and hormonal changes (UQ)
• Role of Progesterone on female sexual organs (UQ)
• Functions of estrogen on different organs (UQ)
• Menopause (UQ+viva Q)
• Physiological changes in the body at menopause (imp)
Category B:

• Production of estrogen
• Ovarian hormones
• Synthesis of estrogen and progesterone (MCQs)
• Regulation of female monthly cycle
Category C:
• Physiological basis of puberty, menarche
• Interaction of follicular theca and granulosa cells for production of estrogens
Chapter 83:
Category A:
• Non hormonal functions of placenta (vv.imp)
• Hormonal factors in pregnancy (hormones of placenta) {IMP UQ}
• Non placental hormones during pregnancy (v.imp UQ)
• Mechanical and hormonal factors that inc uterine contractions during parturition (v.imp
UQ)
• Actions of Prolactin (guyton page 1057 2nd paragraph 7th line se start ho raha hai
secretion of milk requires hormones like GH, INSULIN, CORTISOL, PTH it's a UQ)
• Suppression of ejection of milk during pregnancy (UQ)
Category B:
• Physiology of lactation
BIOCHEM
⭕ Endocrinology & Reproduction⭕

🟤NOTE
Your biochemistry syllabus is scattered. When studying such topics, make sure to place
sticky notes in your books (including the book name and page number). This way, during
the final exam, you won't have to search repeatedly. Just glance through the sticky notes
and quickly access the relevant topics."

⚫ Endocrinology & Reproduction⚫
• ◇◇◇ First of All Your Whole Endocrinology & Reproduction for Biochemistry is
Covered completely by doing it in Physiology
• Like agr ap Physiology mein achay se sb kr letay hain to apki Biochemistry done ho
jayegi
• ◇◇◇ Additional things, you have to do separately are :-
■■ Lippincott
◇◇Chapter 21
Is main from " Other Nitrogen-Containing Compounds " till end of Chapter (ye do pages
catecholamines wly achy se ghol kr pi jayen )
◇◇Chapter 17
• Fig 17.8 ( v.v.v.vimp )
• For Cell Signaling
◇◇Chapter 8
• Fig 8.7 ( v.v.Imp )
• Membrane Receptors
◇◇◇ Thirdly the Topic
" Role of Steroid Hormones in Oral Contraception " you have to do this from the (Slides of
Your College)
⚫Genetics⚫
☆☆ EnR-B-009 ☆☆
Definitions...
■■ Mushtaq 1
◇◇Chapter 17 MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS
Chromosome, Allele ( Dominant, Recessive ) Heterozygote, Homozygote, Genotype, Phenotype,
Autosome and Sex Chromosomes, Co-Dominance (in sab ki definitions achy se krlijiyega)
■■ KLM Embryology
◇◇Chapter 20
• Definitions of Haploid, Diploid, Aneuploidy, Polygenic
◇◇From Slides of Your College or Chatgpt...

• Proband
• Proposita
• Pedigree
• Propositus
• Penetrance
• (these things are important for viva and ospe and MCQs as well, must give a read)
☆☆ EnR-B-010 ☆☆
◇◇From Slides of Your College or Chatgpt.
• Structure of Genes, How they are organised and regulated
(not that imp, one read should be enough)
☆☆ EnR-B-011 ☆☆
◇◇From Slides of Your College or Chatgpt
Mendelian Law of Segregation and Independent Assortment (achy se krlen, agar syllabus main
include hai tou chance hai isk UQ any ka cuz it's important)
☆☆ EnR-B-012 ☆☆
■■ Satya
◇◇Chapter 43
• Patterns of Inheritance
• (achy se read krna hai)
☆☆ EnR-B-0013 ☆☆
◇◇From Slides of Your College or Chatgpt.
• Interpretation of Genetics Symbols as they appear in Pedigrees
(not that imp)
☆☆ EnR-B-014 ☆☆
• Analyse Pedigree to determine mode of Inheritance in :
• Duchene Muscular Dystrophy
• Rickets
• Xeroderma Pigmentosa

• Hutington's Disease
• Mitochondrial Diabetes
• (v.v..v.vimp disease tou jahan aa jayen wo imp hain so inko apne jahan se krna hai bht
achy se prepare krna hai)
☆ EnR-B-015 ☆☆
■■ Langman Embryology
◇◇Chapter 2
• Structural and Numeric Chromosomal Abnormalities
• ( Clinical Correlates_Blue Boxes, just before Diagnostic Techniques )
• Important Points are :-
• Turner Syndrome
• Down Syndrome
• Klinefelter Syndrome
• Prader Willi Syndrome
• Angelman Syndrome
(all are imp so you've to have these all on your fingertips)
☆☆ EnR-B-016 ☆☆
• Interpretation of Normal Human Karyotype in Structural and Numeric Chromosomal
Abnormalities
(just read)
☆☆ EnR-B-017 ☆☆
■■ Lippincott:
◇◇Chapter 32:
• Point Mutation (vv..vvimp UQ)
Frameshift Mutation (v.v.v.imp UQ)
■■ Langman Embryology:
◇◇Chapter 2:
• Deletions
• Insertions
• Inversions
• Robertsonian Translocations
• Mosaicism

( For more Details see these topics from " Structural Abnormalities, Chapter 20, KLM
Embryology " )
(ALL OF THESE ARE IMP UQs)
☆☆ EnR-B-018 ☆☆
■■ Lippincott
◇◇Chapter 30
• Replication_Complete (imp Uq)
• □ Imp. Questions....
• Supercoils (viva)
• Primosome (imp viva+Uq)
• Proof-reading newly synthesised DNA
• Eukaryotic DNA Polymerases
• Reverse Transcriptases (imp)
• DNA Repair ( v.v.v.vimp )
◇◇Chapter 31
• Transcription_Complete (imp UQ)
• Termination of Transcription
• Post-Transcriptional Modification ( v.v.v.vimp )
• Various types of RNA polymerases and their functions (Imp UQ)
• tRNA structure draw (IMP UQ)
• Splicing ( Imp UQ )
◇◇Chapter 32
• Translation_Complete
• This Chapter is v.v.imp for Your Proff Written and Vivas
• Genetic Code ( Imp. )
Mutations ( v.v.v.vimp )
• Woble Hypothesis ( Imp. )
• Fig. 32.13 ( v.v.v.v.Imp ) ( Whole Chapter is summarised here, isko bht achay s krna ap
log )
• Co & Post-Translational Modifications ( v.v.v.vimp )
[ Acha ap logon ny in Chapters my se specifically in mentioned topics ko Details se aur

achy se krna hai, I mean Replication, Transcription and Translation.

Incase Jo Jo extra topics hain
Solely stick rahen apny asal topics pr hi ]
☆☆ EnR-B-019 ☆☆
■■ Lippincott
◇◇Chapter 33
• Regulation of Gene Expression
• Especially :-
• ( do this mainly )
• Lac Operon ( v.v.imp )
• Tryptophan Operon ( v.v.Imp )
☆☆ EnR-B-020 ☆☆
■■ Lippincott
◇◇Chapter 33:
• Regulation of Eukaryotic Gene Expression
• Especially:
• ( do this mainly )
• Iron Metabolism
• RNA Interference
☆☆ EnR-B-021 ☆☆
■■ Lippincott
◇◇Chapter 34:
• Polymerase Chain Reaction ( v.Imp. )
• Cloning (viva Q)
• Blotting Techniques ( v.Imp. )
• Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (Imp UQ+viva Q)
■■ Satya MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS
◇◇Chapter 28:
• Human Genome Project
◇◇Chapter 27
• DNA Sequencing

EnR-B-009
Proposita
Pedigree
Propositus
Penetrance
EnR-B-010
EnR-B-011
EnR-B-013
EnR-B-016
I'm adding notes for the following TOS.

Just give them a thorough Read and it's done.

Genetics Portion Of
Biochemistry(Missing points):
1.Understanding Genetics Terms with Examples:
1. Propositus (or Proposita):
Imagine a family where several members have a rare form of night blindness. One
member, Sarah, is the first to seek medical attention for the condition. In this case,
Sarah would be the proposita. Doctors use the propositus as a starting point to trace
the inheritance pattern of the night blindness within Sarah's family.
2. Pedigree:
A pedigree is like a family tree, but it focuses on genetic traits. It uses symbols to
represent individuals and their relationships, and shades or shapes to indicate the
presence or absence of a particular trait.

Here's an example of a pedigree chart for a dominant genetic condition like Huntington's
disease:
• Squares represent males, circles represent females.

• Filled-in symbols indicate individuals with the disease.
• Open symbols represent individuals without the disease.
• Horizontal lines connect spouses or partners.
• Vertical lines connect parents and children.
• Roman numerals (I, II, III) represent generations.
• Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3) represent individuals within a generation (e.g., II-1 is
the first child in generation II).
3. Penetrance:
Penetrance describes the likelihood of someone with a specific genetic mutation

actually developing the associated trait or disease. It's expressed as a percentage.
Example:
• High Penetrance (over 90%): In a disease like Achondroplasia (a form of

dwarfism), most individuals with the responsible gene mutation will develop the
characteristic short stature.
• Low Penetrance (less than 50%): BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutations are
linked to an increased risk of breast and ovarian cancer. However, not everyone
with these mutations will develop cancer. Penetrance for these genes is
estimated to be around 65% for breast cancer by age 70. This means other
factors like environment or lifestyle can also play a role.
• Incomplete Penetrance: This occurs when some individuals with the same
genetic mutation have different levels of expression of the trait. For example, a
family might have a gene for a skin condition that causes freckles. Some
members with the gene might have many freckles, while others might only have
a few.
By understanding these terms, you can better grasp how genetic traits are passed down
through families.
MEDICOS
2.The structure and STUDYING
organization of genes:SKILLS
These are fundamental concepts in molecular biology and biochemistry. Here’s a detailed
discussion based on standard biochemistry texts such as "Biochemistry" by Voet & Voet,
"Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry," and "Molecular Biology of the Cell" by Alberts et al.
Gene Structure:

Genes are segments of DNA that contain the necessary information to produce
functional products, typically proteins or RNAs. The structure of a gene can be divided
into several key regions:
1. Promoter Region:
- Located upstream (5' end) of the coding sequence.
- Contains specific DNA sequences where RNA polymerase and transcription factors
bind to initiate transcription.
- Includes the TATA box, a core promoter element found in many eukaryotic genes.
2. 5' Untranslated Region (5' UTR):
- The segment of DNA transcribed into RNA that lies between the promoter and the
start codon (AUG).
- Plays a role in the regulation of translation and mRNA stability.
3. Coding Sequence (CDS):
- The portion of the gene that is transcribed into mRNA and translated into a protein.
- Includes exons (coding regions) and introns (non-coding regions) in eukaryotic

genes.
- Exons are spliced together during RNA processing to form the mature mRNA.
4. Introns:
- Non-coding sequences interspersed among exons in eukaryotic genes.
- Removed from the pre-mRNA during RNA splicing.

5. 3' Untranslated Region (3' UTR):
- The segment following the stop codon in the mRNA.
- Involved in regulating mRNA stability, localization, and translation efficiency.
- Contains regulatory elements such as the polyadenylation signal.
6. Termination Sequence:
- Signals the end of transcription.
- Involves specific sequences recognized by the transcription machinery.
Gene Organization:
Genes are organized differently in prokaryotes and eukaryotes:
Prokaryotic Genes
- Typically organized into operons, which are clusters of genes transcribed as a single
mRNA molecule.
- Each operon has a single promoter and terminator.
- Example: The lac operon in E. coli.
Eukaryotic Genes MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS

- Usually have their own promoters and are transcribed individually.
- Genes may be spread across large distances on the chromosomes.
- Include extensive non-coding regions and introns.

- Organized into chromatin, with nucleosomes as the fundamental unit (DNA wrapped
around histone proteins).
Gene Regulation
Gene regulation is a complex process involving multiple mechanisms that control the
expression of genes at various levels:
1. Transcriptional Regulation:
- Involves regulatory proteins (transcription factors) that bind to specific DNA

sequences (enhancers, silencers, promoters).
- Example: The binding of activators to enhancers increases the rate of transcription.
2. Post-Transcriptional Regulation:
- Control mechanisms acting on RNA after transcription.
- Includes RNA splicing, editing, transport, and degradation.
- Example: Alternative splicing generates multiple mRNA variants from a single gene.
3. Translational Regulation:
- Controls the efficiency and rate at which mRNA is translated into protein.
- Involves factors that affect the initiation and elongation stages of translation.
- Example: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) binding to mRNA to inhibit translation.
4. Post-Translational Regulation:
- Modifications after protein synthesis that affect protein function and stability.

- Includes phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and proteolytic processing.
- Example: Phosphorylation of proteins can alter their activity and interactions.
5. Epigenetic Regulation:
- Heritable changes in gene expression without altering the DNA sequence.
- Involves DNA methylation, histone modification, and chromatin remodeling.
- Example: Methylation of cytosine residues in DNA can repress gene expression.
Key Concepts from Standard Biochemistry Texts
- Voet & Voet emphasizes the biochemical pathways and molecular interactions
involved in gene regulation.
- Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry provides a detailed explanation of the central

dogma of molecular biology (DNA to RNA to protein) and the regulatory mechanisms at
each stage.
- Molecular Biology of the Cell by Alberts et al. discusses the cellular context of gene
expression and regulation, including the role of chromatin structure and nuclear
architecture.
These textbooks collectively provide a comprehensive understanding of gene structure,

organization, and regulation, crucial for understanding cellular function and the
molecular basis of diseases.
3.Mendelian Laws:
Mendelian genetics forms the foundation of our understanding of inheritance. Gregor
Mendel, through his experiments with pea plants, established two fundamental
principles that are now known as Mendel's Law of Segregation and Mendel's Law of
Independent Assortment. Here’s a detailed discussion based on standard genetics and
biology texts:

Mendel's Law of Segregation
Definition:
The Law of Segregation states that during the formation of gametes (eggs or sperm),
the two alleles responsible for a trait separate from each other. Consequently, each
gamete carries only one allele for each trait.
Key Points
- Alleles: Different forms of a gene. For example, in pea plants, the gene for flower color
has two alleles: one for purple (P) and one for white (p).
- Homozygous and Heterozygous: An organism with two identical alleles for a trait (PP
or pp) is homozygous, while an organism with two different alleles (Pp) is heterozygous.
- Gamete Formation: During meiosis, homologous chromosomes (and thus the alleles
they carry) separate, ensuring that each gamete receives only one allele of each gene.
- Phenotype and Genotype: The phenotype is the observable trait (e.g., purple flowers),
while the genotype is the genetic makeup (e.g., PP, Pp, or pp).
Experimental Evidence
Mendel crossed pure-breeding pea plants (homozygous) with different traits and
observed the offspring:
- In a cross between pure-breeding purple-flowered (PP) and white-flowered (pp) plants,

all the F1 (first filial generation) offspring were purple-flowered (Pp), indicating that
purple is dominant.
- When the F1 generation was self-pollinated, the F2 (second filial generation) showed a
3:1 ratio of purple to white flowers, illustrating the segregation of alleles.
Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

Definition:
The Law of Independent Assortment states that the alleles of different genes segregate,
or assort, independently of each other during the formation of gametes. This means the
inheritance of one trait generally does not affect the inheritance of another trait.
Key Points
- Dihybrid Crosses: Mendel studied plants differing in two traits to observe how the
alleles for these traits assort.
- Phenotypic Ratios: In a dihybrid cross (e.g., crossing plants with yellow round seeds
(YYRR) with plants with green wrinkled seeds (yyrr)), the F1 generation is all
heterozygous (YyRr). The F2 generation shows a phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 (yellow
round : yellow wrinkled : green round : green wrinkled).
- Meiosis: During meiosis, homologous chromosomes (and thus the genes they carry)
assort independently if they are on different chromosomes or far apart on the same
chromosome.
Experimental Evidence
Mendel's dihybrid crosses, where he tracked two traits simultaneously (e.g., seed color
and seed shape), supported the principle of independent assortment. He found that the
traits combined in the offspring in ways that suggested the alleles for each trait
segregated independently into gametes.
Modern Understanding and Exceptions

While Mendel's laws form the basis of classical genetics, there are exceptions and
extensions in the context of modern molecular genetics:
- Linkage: Genes located close together on the same chromosome tend to be inherited
together and do not assort independently.
- Recombination: Crossing over during meiosis can separate linked genes, allowing for
new allele combinations.

- Epistasis: Interaction between different genes where one gene can mask or modify the
expression of another gene.
References to Standard Texts
- "Principles of Genetics" by Snustad and Simmons: Provides a detailed explanation of

Mendel’s experiments, the derivation of the laws, and their significance in classical
genetics.
- Genetics: Analysis and Principles" by Brooker: Offers comprehensive coverage of

Mendelian genetics, including modern modifications and the molecular basis of
inheritance.
- "Molecular Biology of the Cell" by Alberts et al.: Discusses the cellular and molecular
mechanisms underpinning Mendel’s laws.
These fundamental principles elucidated by Mendel's work provide the foundation for
understanding genetic inheritance and variation, critical for fields ranging from
agriculture to medicine.
4.Interpret Genetic Symbols as they appear in pedigrees:

Pedigree charts use a standardized set of symbols to represent individuals, their
relationships, and their genetic traits. Here's a breakdown of some common symbols
and how to interpret them:
Individuals:
• Square: Represents a male individual.

• Circle: Represents a female individual.
Relationships:
•
Horizontal line: Connects a male and female symbol, indicating a marriage or
partnership.
• Vertical line: Connects parents to their offspring.
Genetic Traits:
• Solid or filled symbol: Indicates an individual who expresses the trait under
study (affected individual).

• Open or unfilled symbol: Indicates an individual who does not express the trait
(unaffected individual).
• Half-filled symbol: Sometimes used to represent a carrier, someone who has
one copy of a recessive gene for a trait but doesn't show symptoms themselves.
• Diagonal line through a symbol: Represents a deceased individual.
• Dot in the center of a female symbol: Often used for X-linked traits, indicating
a carrier female who has one copy of the trait on one of her X chromosomes.
Additional Symbols:
• Roman numerals (I, II, III): Represent generations in the pedigree (e.g., I =
parents, II = children, III = grandchildren).
• Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3): Represent individuals within a generation (e.g., II-1 is
the first child in generation II).
• Arrow pointing to an individual: Indicates the propositus (or proposita) - the
individual who brought the family to the attention of a geneticist due to a
particular trait.
Important Points:
• The specific shading or shape used to represent the trait can vary depending on
the pedigree chart.
• Not all pedigrees show carrier status, especially if the carrier status is unknown.
• Some pedigrees might use additional symbols to represent specific traits or
conditions.
By understanding these symbols, you can effectively interpret the information presented
in a pedigree chart and gain valuable insights into how a particular trait is being
inherited within a family.



5.Interpret the normal human karyotype in terms of number
and structure of chromosomes:
A normal human karyotype refers to the complete set of chromosomes found in a typical
human cell. Here's how to interpret it in terms of number and structure:

Number:
• Humans have 46 chromosomes in total.

• These 46 chromosomes are arranged into 23 pairs.
• The first 22 pairs are called autosomes. These are not sex-determining
chromosomes and are present in both males and females. They are numbered
from 1 (largest) to 22 (smallest) based on their size.
• The last pair determines sex and are called sex chromosomes.
o Females typically have two X chromosomes (XX).
o Males typically have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY).
Structure:
• Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of DNA and protein.

• Each chromosome is duplicated before cell division, resulting in two
homologous chromosomes (identical copies) within each pair.
• After a special staining technique (often G-banding), chromosomes display a
characteristic banding pattern of light and dark regions. This pattern helps
distinguish individual chromosomes.
• The banding pattern is not related to function, but it allows scientists to identify
specific chromosomal abnormalities like deletions, duplications, or
rearrangements.
Key Points:
• A normal karyotype signifies that the individual has the correct number and
structure of chromosomes for their sex.
• Any deviation from this pattern can indicate a chromosomal abnormality, which
can potentially lead to various health conditions.
Additional Notes:
• Karyotypes are used in prenatal diagnosis and other genetic testing to identify
chromosomal abnormalities.
• While XX and XY are the most common sex chromosome combinations, there
are rare variations like Turner syndrome (X) or Klinefelter syndrome (XXY).
Regards: Team MSS
Edited by:Umair Ashraf(Slmc’27)

GROSS ANATOMY
⚔️Book:---> BD
🎯 Head and Neck portion
☠️ Ch.8:
• ☃️ Thyroid gland (situation and extent, capsules, parts and relations, 🔥 mnemonic for
medial surface:--> 222, arterial supply, venous drainage, lymphatic drainage, Nerve
supply) (vvvvvvvvv.imp)
•
• ☃️ Parathyroid gland (location and vascular supply, Nerve supply) (vvvvvv.imp)
• 🥲🔥 Why removal of thyroid gland causes hypoparathyroidism?
_____________________________________________________
☠️ Ch.13
• ☃️ Pituitary gland (location, relations, parts, hormones produced, Arterial supply,

hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system) (vvvvv.imp)
• 🥲 Pituitary tumors (vvvvv.imp)
•
=====================================

🎯 AP portion:
🙆 Ch.15:
• 🦸 Sacrum (read)
• 🦸 Table 15.1 (read)
• 🦸 Morphological classification of pelvis (vvvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Sex differences in pelvis (vvvvv.imp)
_____________________________________________________
🙆 Ch.17:
• 🦸 External features of testis (read)

• 🦸 Coverings of testis (vvvvvvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Arterial supply, venous drainage, Nv. supply, lymphatic drainage (vvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Epidydimis (parts + Arterial supply)
_____________________________________________________
🙆 Ch.25:
• 🦸 Suprarenal gland (cortex and medulla)

• 🦸 Table 25.1 (v.imp)
•
🦸 3 zones of cortex (vvvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Arterial supply (vvvvvvvvvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Venous drainage (vvv.imp)
• 🦸 Lymphatic drainage + Nerve supply (vvv.imp)
_____________________________________________________

🙆 Ch.27:
• 🦸 Common iliac artery (read)
_____________________________________________________
🙆 Ch.28:
• 🦸 Superficial and deep boundaries of perineum (vvv.imp)

• 🦸 Divisions of perineum + contents (vvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Perineal body + muscles forming it (vvvvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Ischioanal fossa (boundaries, spaces, contents and pudendal canal) (vvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Table 28.1 (vvvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Perineal membrane attachments (vvv.imp)
• 🦸 Table 28.2 (vvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Table 28.3 (from KLM)
_____________________________________________________
🙆 Ch.29:
• 🦸 Formation of Bony pelvis

• 🦸 Lesser pelvis (bony walls, ligaments and membranes, muscles)
• 🦸 Know about pelvic inlet and pelvic outlet
• 🦸 Pelvic floor (muscles from KLM)
•
🦸 Contents of pelvic cavity (vv.imp)
• 🦸 Structures crossing the pelvic inlet (vvvvv.imp)
_____________________________________________________
🙆 Ch.30:

• 🦸 Male urethra (parts + arterial supply + lymphatic drainage)
_____________________________________________________
🙆 Ch.31:
• 🦸 Ovaries (situation, position,external features, peritoneal and visceral relations, arterial

supply, venous drainage, Nv. Supply, lymphatic drainage) (vvv.imp)
•
• 🦸 Uterine tube (subdivisions, course, relations, blood supply, nerve supply) (v.imp)
• 🦸 Uterus (Normal position) (vvvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Parts, relations, ligaments, arterial supply, venous drainage, Nv. supply, lymphatic
drainage, supports of uterus (names) (vvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Fornices of vagina (read)

• 🦸 Relations, Arterial supply, Venous drainage, Lymphatic drainage, Nv. Supply (v.imp)
_____________________________________________________
🙆 Ch.32:
• 🦸 Ductus deferens (read)

• 🦸 Seminal vesicle (read)
•
🦸 Prostate (Structure, Gross features, Surfaces) (v.imp)
• 🦸 Zones of prostate (vvvvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Structures within the prostate
• 🦸 Blood supply, Lymphatic drainage, Nerve supply (v.imp)
• 🔥 Read lobes of prostate from KLM
_____________________________________________________

🙆 Ch.34:
• 🦸 Internal iliac artery (course + branches) (Flow chart 34.1) (vvvvvvvvv.imp)

• 🦸 Internal iliac vein (read)
• 🦸 Lymph nodes of Pelvis (also from KLM) (vvvvvvvv.imp)
• 🦸 Nerves of pelvis (read)
• 🦸 Pelvic fascia (parietal and visceral parts) (v.imp)
• 🦸 Pelvic muscles (from KLM)
• 🦸 Lumbo-sacral joint, Sacro-iliac joint and pubic symphysis (vvv.imp)
EMBRYO
Module
ENDO PLUS REPRO MODULE
Chap 16+18
Urogenital + CNS
Category A:
• Dev of testes (Ayesha api flowchart)
• Development of ovaries (Ayesha api flowchart)
• Descent of testes (v.v..vv.imp UQ)
• Indifferent gonads (Ayesha api flowchart imp UQ)
• Cryptorchidism v.v.v.impUQ
• Hydrocele
• Hematocele
(in dono ka difference viva main pucha tha humari internal ne so do it from T.H. clinicals
translumination wala point)
• Hypospadias viva + UQ
• Epispadias UQ + viva
• Dev. of adrenal glands. (Ayesha api flowchart)
• Dev of pituitary gland + anomalies
• Development of thyroid v.v.vimp UQ
• Thyroglossal cyst v.v..vimp UQ (is saal brachial cyst ka Q tha which students confused
with thyroglossal cyst, in dono ka difference dekhna khud)

Category B:
• Histogenesis of thyroid (KLM)
• Klinefelter's + Turner syndrome (imp)
• Dev of parathyroid gland (KLM)
• Histogenesis of adrenal gland
Category C:
• Dev. of male + female genital ducts
• Dev of ext. genitalia male + female
• Anomalies of parathyroid gland
• Factors influencing indifferent gonads + sec determination and differentiation
Histology (Laiq Hussain)

🟣🟣🟣🟣🟣
{USE ARC HISTOLOGY NOTES, THEY COVER LAIQ PROPERLY)
Unit 18 ( Digestive Tract):
CAT A
• + Entero-endocrine cells on the basis of type, location, hormones produced and
actions (ARC NOTES)
CAT B
• + Histological basis and manifestations of Gastric Carcinoid tumors

Unit 21 ( Male Reproductive System)
CAT A
• + Light microscopic structure of Testes
• + Structure and function of Sertoli cells (imp UQ)
• + Blood- Testis Barrier (imp UQ)

• + Light microscopic structure of epididymis,vas deferens,seminal vesicles and prostate
gland
• + Lobes of prostate gland and link it with pathologies of prostate (v.imp UQ)
CAT B
• ▫️Histological basis and manifestations of Orchitis (KLM embryo)
• Cryptorchidism (KLM embryo)
IMP DIAGRAMS
• Testes
• Blood testes barrier
• Prostate Gland
• Epididymis
• (vas deferens and else aren't that imp just see them once)
Unit 22 (Female Reproductive System)
CAT A
• + Light microscopic structure of ovaries
• + Light microscopic structure of ovarian follicles at different stages of menstrual
cycle (UQ)
• + Light microscopic structure of uterus (UQ)
• + Light microscopic structure of different stages of menstrual cycle
• + Light microscopic structure of fallopian tube,vagina and cervix
• + Identify the slides of different phases of uterus (UQ)
CAT B
• + Light microscopic structure of Mammary gland (UQ)
• + Poly cystic ovary syndrome
• + Endometriosis
• + Cervical carcinoma
+ Breast cancer (BD UL wala hi dekhlena ek baar)
IMP DIAGRAMS
• Uterus
• Ovary
• Fallopian tube
• (cervix vagina just see their diagrams, not that imp)

Unit 16 (Endocrine system)
CAT A
• + Microscopic structure of pituitary gland
• + Classify pituitary gland on basis of cell type, hormone produced and functions (UQ)
• + Microscopic structure of Adrenal gland (imp UQ)
• + Light microscopic structure of Thyroid and Parathyroid (diagram is v.v.v.imp)
Category B
• Components and functions of neuroendocrine system
• + Microscopic structure of Pineal gland
• + Histological basis and manifestations of Addison's disease (physio main cover
hojayega)
• + Histological basis and manifestations of Pituitary Adenomas
IMP DIAGRAMS
• Pituitary Gland
• Thyroid and Parathyroid Gland
• Adrenal Gland*** imp
Unit 19 (Organs associated with digestive tract)

CAT A
• + Light microscopic structure of Pancreas
• + Classify the pancreatic islets on the basis of cell type, hormone produced and functions
Category B
Unit 19 (Digestive Tract)
• + Histological basis and manifestations of Diabetes Mellitus (physio covers)
IMP DIAGRAMS
• Pancreas
• Liver
___________

Block 5
Module 9
HISTOLOGY
🛑🛑🛑🛑🛑
Unit 18 (Digestive Tract)
Cat A
• + Microscopic structure of tongue including lingual papillae and tast buds
IMP DIAGRAMS
• Taste bud (iski diagram alag se draw krny aa jati hai, must do)
• Tongue
Unit 19 ( Organs Associated with Digestive Tract)

Cat A
• +Compare and contrast histological structures of parotid,submandibular and
sublingual glands
• +Difference between serous and mucus acini
• + Structure and location of serous demilunes
Imp Diagrams
• Parotid gland
• Submandibular Gland
Serous acini
• Mucous Acini
• (Sublingual gland dia isn't imp)
Unit 23 (Eye)
Cat A
• + light and electron microscopic

• structure of cornea
• Cat B
• +histological structure of layers of
• eyeball, eyelid and retina
***IMP DIAGRAMS***
• Retina***(imp diagram)
• Cornea (bs ani chahye ye ziada imp nhi hai)
• Eyelid (not imp)
Unit 24( Ear)
Cat A
• + histological and ultramicroscopic
• structure of internal ear with special reference to
• Organ of Corti.
•
***Imp diagrams***
• Internal ear diagram isn't that imp bs dekhlena.
Module
HEAD AND NECK
Special SENSES
🔺EMBRYO🔺
Chap 12 MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS
head and neck
Cat A
• Pharyngeal apparatus
• -components
• -arches
• -pouches

• -clefts/grooves
• Everything is imp.
• Derivatives of pharyngeal arches table
• Derivatives of pharyngeal pouches table
• Brachial cyst (2024 prof UQ)
• Clinicals of 1st pharyngeal arch (v.v.v.vimp).
• Cleft face, Cleft palate
• Oblique facial cleft (imp KLM)
Cat B
• Intermaxillary segment derivatives (FAQ viva Q).
• Dev. of face (table of derivatives from Ayesha Batool Shortlisting)
Cat C
• Dev of nasolacrimal duct.
• Dev of nose + paranasal sinuses.
Chap 18+19
Eye and Ear (Special senses)
Cat A
• Dev of retina + lens (imp)
• Dev of tubotympanic recess (imp)
• Eye clinicals (KLM)
Cat B
• Dev of tympanic cavity
• Clinicals of ear
🟣 BIOCHEM🟣
Module no.9
⭕ Head & Neck, Special Sciences⭕

⚫ Metabolism of Mono & Di Saccharide⚫
☆☆ HNSS-B-001 ☆☆
■■ Lippincott:
◇◇Chapter 12
• Disaccharide Metabolism
• ( Complete )
• □ Imp. Questions
• Whole Chapter is Imp. Specifically learn the diseases caused by defects in
Metabolism
• Sorbitol Metabolism ( v.v.imp )
• Lactose Intolerance (Prof 2022 UQ)
◇◇Monosaccharide Metabolism
• ( Glucose Metabolism )
[ U have Already Done it in Block 4 ]
◇◇Chapter 28
• Vitamin A (v.imp)
• Read it Thoroughly
• □ Imp. Questions
• Visual Cycle
• Fig. 28.19 ( v.imp )
• Clinical Indications
☆☆ HNSS-B-002 ☆☆
■■ Lippincott
◇◇Chapter 28
Vitamin Riboflavin
[ Acha mentioned Vitamins wgra k liyay at the end of Chapter in Lippincott jo
Table hai na wahan se us Vitamin ko zaroor achay se kr lena ap ]
☆☆ HNSS-B-003 ☆☆
■■ Lippincott
◇◇Chapter 18

• Zinc & Fluorine
(both are imp for viva, mcqs, UQs)
🛑 PHYSIOLOGY 🛑
HNSS-P-001
Chapter 50
Cat A
• Visual Acuity (UQ+viva Q)
• Emmetropia (viva Q)
• Errors of refraction (v.v.vimp UQ prof 2023)
• Cause, features, physiological basis, correction of Hyperopia (UQ) (ayesha api ki
shortlisting ya firdous main ye sab points cover ho rhy hain)
• Myopia (UQ)
• Astigmatism (v.v.vimp UQ)
• Pathophysiology and Treatment of Cataract (imp)
HNSS-P-002
• Treatment for Refractive Errors (imp)
• HNSS-P-003
• Formation and Outflow of Aqueous Humor (ayesha batool flow chart) (imp Uq)
• Normal value of IOP and its regulation (imp viva Q)
• Causes and Pathophysiology of Glaucoma (Ayesha api ka flowchart bana lijiyega
as it is)(UQ)
• Accomodation Mechanism + Regulation (UQ)
• Presbyopia (UQ)
Cat B: MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS
HNSS-P-004
Open angle and Close angle Glaucoma (ayesha api ki shortlisting se zarur dekh len
ye viva main sunty hain, MCQs bhi is concept se aty hain)
• Components of near response in accomodation (focus, convergence and miosis)
• Methods for measuring IOP
• Reduced eye (ye imp concept hai UQ bhi hain viva Q bhi so apny inko prepare
krna hai)

HNSS-P-005+6+7+14
Chapter 51
Cat A
• Macula and foveal region of retina and their significance (imp MCQs)
• Location of optic disc and its significance (imp)
• Cause, features and treatment of retinal detachment (UQ)
• Rhodopsin Retinal visual cycle (V.V..VVIMP UQ)
• Excitation of rods receptor potential
• Night Blindness (UQ)
• Mechanism of Light adaptation + Dark adaptation (refer to Ayesha Batool
shortlisting wahan acha likha hua hai, it's a v.v.v.v.imp UQ + VIVA Q)
• Night Blindness (UQ)
Cat B
• Anatomy and Function of structural levels of Retina
• Layers of Retina
• Significance of melanin pigment in retina (pigment layer of retina k topic main
likha hua hai)
• Pigment layer has large quantities of vit A (MCQs)
• Structure of Rods and Cones
• Protanopes, Deutranopes, Tritanopes
• (Types of color blindness and their causes imp)
Cat C
Investigation for Retinal diseases:
• 1. Visual Acuity Test: Measures the sharpness of vision.
• 2. Dilated Eye Exam: Examines the retina and optic disc after dilating the pupils.
• 3. Ophthalmoscopy/Fundoscopy: Examines the retina and optic disc using a
handheld device.
• 4. Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT): Uses low-coherence interferometry to
capture detailed images of the retina. (source: chatgpt)
HNSS-P-009+10+11+12+13
Chapter 52
Cat A
• Visual pathway and visual field (UQ + viva Q) {Ayesha batool shortlisting)
• Its abnormalities (UQ)
• Effect of removal of primary visual cortex

• Physiological Blind spot and location
• Patho logical blindspot and causes
• Abnormalities of field of vision
• Horner syndrome (imp)
Cat B
• Muscular and neural control of eye movement
Types of Strabismus (chatgpt)
Strabismus, also known as crossed eyes, is a condition where the eyes are
misaligned. There are several types of strabismus, including:
1. Esotropia: Eyes turn inward (toward the nose).
2. Exotropia: Eyes turn outward (away from the nose).
3. Hypertropia: One eye turns upward.
4. Hypotropia: One eye turns downward.
HNSS-P-015
• (Pupillary Light Reflex or Reaction in CNS disease)
YE SAB AP HEAD AND NECK KRTY HUYE KRENGY SO YE BD SE HI KRNY

HAIN, GUYTON SE NHI. BRAIN WALI BD MAIN HAIN YE FLOWCHART
PRINTOUTS NIKALWA LEN YA PDF RAKH LEN
HNSS-P-016 to 020
Chapter 52
Cat A
• Impedence matching and its significance (v.impUQ)
• Attenuation Reflex and its significance (vimp UQ)
• Endo cochlear potential and its significance (v.imp UQ)
• Normal range of frequency of hearing (mcq)
Place Principal (impUq)
• Volley's Principal (imp UQ)
• Types of deafness (refer to ayesha api Shortlisting)
• Their features and investigations
Cat B
• Auditory nervous pathway
• Physiological anatomy of outer and middle ear
• Functions of middle ear

• Mechanism of transmission of sound in cochlea
• Anatomy and function of organ of Corti
Cat C
• ~ Anatomy of inner ear
~ Clinical features and treatment of impacted wax (chat gpt)
Here are the clinical features and treatments for impacted wax
Clinical Features:
- Dulled hearing
- Feeling of fullness in the ear
- Itching
- Pain
- Tinnitus (ringing in the ear)
- Vertigo (dizziness)
- Cough
- Imbalance
- Reversible cognitive impairment in older persons
Treatment:
- Ear drops (alone or in combination with irrigation or manual instrumentation)
o Water-based
o Oil-based
o Non–water- or oil-based
- Irrigation (with or without cerumenolytic pre-treatment)
- Manual removal with instrumentation
- Cerumenolytic agents (topical preparations to soften cerumen)
- Avoid using cotton-tipped swabs, ear candling, and olive oil drops or sprays
~ Causes and features of Otomycosis (chat gpt)
Causes:
- Fungal infection
- Warm and damp environment
- Trauma or damage to the ear canal

- Excessive moisture
- Antibiotic and steroid use
- Fungal spores in the air
Features:
- Inflammation
- Dry skin in the ear canal
- Smelly discharge
- Discharge of fluid from the ears
- Hearing problems
- Redness and swelling
- Blocked sensation
- Itching in the ear
- Malodorous discharge
- Scaling
HNSS-P-021
Chapter 54
(imp for mcqs and viva only, that's why i am not categorizing them into A,B,C)
• Taste Blindness (McQ)
• Primary taste sesnations (mcqs)
• Anatomy and location of taste buds (Mcqs)
• Mechanism of stimulation of taste buds receptor potential (viva Q)
• Pathway of taste sensation (viva)
• Ageusia, Hypergeusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (viva + mcqs)
• Taste preference and taste aversion
• Primary sensations of smell
• Anatomy and Location of olfactory membrane
___________________________________________
Causes and clinical features of Rhinitis
Rhinitis is a general term that refers to the inflammation of the mucous membrane
of the nose. Here are the causes and clinical features of rhinitis:
Causes:
- Allergens

- Changes in the nasal mucosa
- Hormonal changes
- Irritants
- Medications
- Viral infections
- Bacterial infections
Clinical Features:
- Itchiness
- Nasal congestion
- Runny nose
- Sneezing
- Decreased sense of smell
- Coughing
- Postnasal drip
- Low-grade fever
- Redness and swelling of the eyes
- Crusting and bleeding in severe cases
__________________________________________
Difference between viral and allergic rhinitis
Here is the table comparing Allergic Rhinitis and Viral Rhinitis:

Differential diagnosis of Anisocoria (isn't in guyton, try using chat gpt)
GROSS ANATOMY
Module : Head And Neck

Special senses
Chap 1
Osteology:

• Skull bht achy se krna hai, sare normas, cranial fossas, un main jo cavities,
foraminas hain, unk contents (viva mostly yahan se start hota hai)
• mandible is imp too.
• Frontanalles + significance v.v.v.imp
• Cervical vertebrae
• Hyoid bone.
Chap 2
• SCALP,FACE,TEMPLE
Cat A
• Neurovascular supply of scalp (BD)
• Diagram (from BD or Snell)
• Spread of infection
• Black eye
• Gaping of wounds
• Superficial and deep lacerations. (all these clinicals are from KLM, if you find
enough in Snell go with that)
• Neurovascular supply of face (BD)
• Diagram from (KLM OR SNELL) v..v.v.vimp
• Muscles of mastication (Snell)
• Actions table (in KLM it's really good)
• Facial nerve (Snell's neuroanatomy)
• Trigeminal nerve (Snell's neuroanatomy)
• Lymphatic drainage of face
• Facial spaces (BD)
Cat B
• Facial artery
• Muscles of facial expressions
• Modiolus definition and muscles (KLM table k neechy caption main likhi hui hai
iski def.)
Cat C
Lymphatic drainage of scalp
Chap 3+4
• Side of neck + Ant. triangle
Cat A
• Ant. + Post. triangles of neck
• Ansa Cervicalis v.v..vimp

Cat B
• Deep cervical fascia
• Carotid sinus and body difference with clinical significance
Cat C
• SCM + Trapezius Actions + Nerve supply and attachments.
Chap 5
• Parotid Region
Cat A
• Neurovascular supply
• Frey's syndrome (BD)
• Parotid duct stones
• Surgery + Complications (KLM CLINICALS)
Cat B
Relations of gland
Chap 6
• Temporal and Infratemporal Regions
Cat A
• Temporal fossa + contents
• Infratemporal fossa + contents
• Pterygopalatine fossa + contents
• (All from BD)
• TMJ v..v.vimp
• Maxillary artery
• Otic ganglion (BD LAST TABLE)
Chap 7
Submandibular Region
Cat A
• Otic + Submandibular gland (BD last table)
Cat B
• Difference between 3 salivary glands and where do their ducts open?
• Supra hyoid Infra hyoid muscles

Chap 8
• Structures in the Neck
Cat A
• Thyroid gland neurovascular supply
• Carotid arteries
Chap 9
Prevertebral and Paravertebral Regions
Cat A
• Cervical plexus
Cat B
• Prevertebral muscles
• Trachea and esophagus neurovascular supply
Chap 10
• Suboccipital Region
Cat A
• Suboccipital Triangle
Chap 14
• Mouth and Pharynx
• Pharyngeal constrictor muscles
• Neurovascular supply of pharynx
• Pharyngeal plexus and it's location (UQ)
• Gaps b/w muscles (most imp)
• Palatine tonsil v.imp
• Waldeyer's Ring (Prof 2024 UQ)
• Muscles of soft palate
• Killian dehiscence
• Neurovascular Supply of Palate.
• OLFACTION / NOSE
Chap 15 MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS
Cat A
• Pterygopalatine Fossa
• Blood supply + Nerve supply of Nasal septum + Lateral wall of nose (v..v.v.imp)
+ Diagrams Bd imp
• Openings of paranasal sinuses (Snell + BD consult both, it's most imp for MCQs,
book wording matters).
• Olfactory Pathway (use any notes)

Cat B
• Anatomical features of nasal septum
• Lateral wall of nose.
Cat C
• lesions of Olfactory Pathway
Chap 16
• Larynx
Cat A
• Neurovascular supply of larynx
• Laryngeal muscles (abductors, adductors, tensor m.imp ones)
• Neurovascular supply of larynx
TASTE / TONGUE
Chap 17
Cat A
• Nerve supply+blood supply+lymphatic drainage of tongue v.v.v.imp
• Muscles of tongue (Snell's)
Cat B
• lingual carcinoma and spread
Hearing / Ear
Chap 18
Cat A
• Blood + nerve supply of Ear (BD)
• Middle Ear and it's walls (BD)
• Tympanic membrane (BD)
•
Middle Ear and it's Relation (Snell's diagram)
• {fig 12.70}
• Muscles of Ear Nerve supply v.v..vimp
• Auditory pathway
Cat B
• Vestibulo cochlear nerve (Snell's neuroanatomy)

VISION / EYE
Chap 19 + 13
Cat A
• Extraocular muscles (Snell's table)
• Actions of muscles (BD k table main bht achy likhy huye summarized)
• Cranial Nerves 1,3,4,6 (Snell's neuroanatomy se krni hain, not from gross Snell's)
• Optic nerve and lesion (v..v.v.vimp) (Snell's neuroanatomy)
• Horner's syndrome v.imp
• Ciliary Ganglion v.v.imp (BD last table)
• Pterygopalatine ganglion v.imp (BD last table)
Cat B
• Refractory media (YE TERM KLM MAIN LIKHI HUI HAI. 4 COMPONENTS
ISK, KLM MAIN DETAIL ZIADA HAI. EK DO LINES CHAHY BD SE PARH
LENA 4 COMPONENTS KI. MAIN POINTS)
• Ophthalmic artery
• Intraocular muscles
Cat C
• lacrimal apparatus (Viva Q.)
• Orbital wall (viva Q.)
• Orbit contents
• Structures traversing (viva Q)
✨ *LECTURE SOURCES FOR 2ND YEAR MBBS ✨*
🛑 *FOR PHYSIO* ‼️
💥 BRAINLESS MEDICOS
💥 MBS MEDILECTURES
🌟 Medical Gateway
💥 selfless MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS
⭐Dr. NAJEEB (kuch lectures available hain youtube pr)
🛑 *EMBRYOLOGY*
⭕medico visual
⭕ Brainless medicos

⭕ selfless medicos
⭕ Dr. NAJEEB
⭕ninja nerd
🛑 *Gross Anatomy*
✨ MSS subscription ( Head & neck)
✨Viren kiraya must for SKULL
✨Dr azam
⭐Dr. sumit gupta
🌟Essential of medical sciences
✨Johari mbbs
✨TCML
USE SNELL FOR MUSCLE TABLE ,OSPE & CLINICALS.
🛑 *Neuro*
⭐ MSS subscription
⭐ Dr. Najeeb
⭐ 3D videos
⭐ Dr.adel
🛑 *Biochemistry*
🌸 Awesome biochemistry
💥 N'Joy biochem
💥Brainless medicos
💥Dr. Rajesh
💥Ninja nerd
💥Dr Najeeb for carbs metabolism, Genetics

Credits:
1⃣ Endo module
◻️Physio Endo by Inshrah Nawaz

◻️biochem (Endo) by Syeda minahil gillani
◻️Biochem (genetics) by Syeda Minahil Gillani

◻️Gross (pelvis) by Abdullah Nadeem & Syeda Minahil Gillani
◻️Embryo by Inshrah Nawaz

◻️ histology (urogenital system) by Mouiz haroon karamat
2️⃣ head and neck module
🔷Gross ( head and neck) by Inshrah Nawaz

◻️Embryo (development of face and neck) by Inshrah Nawaz
◻️Histo ( parotid gland etc ) by Mouiz haroon karamat
◻️Physio (sensory physiology) by Inshrah Nawaz

◻️Biochem (mono-di metabolism) by Syeda Minahil Gillani
◻️ reviewed by Mehwish Saddique
◻️ Edited by:
Umair Ashraf (Slmc’2️7)
Shariq Salman

Block 5 Guidelines by MSS-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Block 5 Guidelines by MSS-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS

MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

Module: Endocrinology and Reproduction

(FOR PHYSIO GUIDELINES SOURCE: GUYTON AND HALL EDITION 14TH

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

⭕ Endocrinology & Reproduction⭕

MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

[ Acha ap logon ny in Chapters my se specifically in mentioned topics ko Details se aur

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

I'm adding notes for the following TOS.

MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

• Squares represent males, circles represent females.

Penetrance describes the likelihood of someone with a specific genetic mutation

• High Penetrance (over 90%): In a disease like Achondroplasia (a form of

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

- Located upstream (5' end) of the coding sequence.

2. 5' Untranslated Region (5' UTR):

- Plays a role in the regulation of translation and mRNA stability.

3. Coding Sequence (CDS):

- Includes exons (coding regions) and introns (non-coding regions) in eukaryotic

- Non-coding sequences interspersed among exons in eukaryotic genes.

- Removed from the pre-mRNA during RNA splicing.

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

- The segment following the stop codon in the mRNA.

- Involved in regulating mRNA stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

- Contains regulatory elements such as the polyadenylation signal.

- Signals the end of transcription.

- Involves specific sequences recognized by the transcription machinery.

Genes are organized differently in prokaryotes and eukaryotes:

- Each operon has a single promoter and terminator.

- Example: The lac operon in E. coli.

Eukaryotic Genes MEDICOS STUDYING SKILLS

- Genes may be spread across large distances on the chromosomes.

- Include extensive non-coding regions and introns.

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

- Involves regulatory proteins (transcription factors) that bind to specific DNA

- Example: The binding of activators to enhancers increases the rate of transcription.

- Control mechanisms acting on RNA after transcription.

- Includes RNA splicing, editing, transport, and degradation.

- Example: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) binding to mRNA to inhibit translation.

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

- Example: Phosphorylation of proteins can alter their activity and interactions.

- Heritable changes in gene expression without altering the DNA sequence.

- Involves DNA methylation, histone modification, and chromatin remodeling.

- Example: Methylation of cytosine residues in DNA can repress gene expression.

Key Concepts from Standard Biochemistry Texts

- Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry provides a detailed explanation of the central

These textbooks collectively provide a comprehensive understanding of gene structure,

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

- In a cross between pure-breeding purple-flowered (PP) and white-flowered (pp) plants,

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

GUIDELINE AND E-LEARNING PLATFORM CONTACT:03177824677

✨ LECTURE SOURCES FOR 2ND YEAR MBBS ✨