Question Answer

What is human physiology? The study of the functioning of the human body and its systems.

What is homeostasis? The ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment.

What is the composition of the human The elements and substances that make up the human body.
body?

What are the structural levels of The levels from cells to tissues, organs, and organ systems.
organization of the human body?

What are the functions of cell They perform various functions such as providing structural support, facilitating cellular movement, and
structures? serving as the site of important chemical reactions.

What are intercellular connections? Structures that physically connect adjacent cells, providing strength and stability to tissues.

How do cells communicate with each Through chemical signals such as neurotransmitters and hormones, and through direct physical contact.
other?

How do substances move through the Via processes such as diffusion, osmosis, and active transport.
cell membrane?

What is physiology? The study of the functions of living organisms' bodies, including how cells, tissues, organs, and organ
systems function.

What does human physiology How the human body works.

specifically focus on?

What does physiology attempt to The specific characteristics and mechanisms that make it a living being.
explain about the human body?

What does physiology focus on in terms Mechanisms of action.

of processes?

What does physiology study to maintain How organ systems, cells, and even molecules interact.
normal function?

What does physiology explain about How the processes occur.

processes in the body?

Give an example of what physiology How blood glucose level is controlled, how muscle cells contract, how body temperature is regulated.
explains.

What is the goal of physiology? To explain the physical and chemical factors responsible for the origin, development, and progression of
life.

How is physiology related to other Physiology is closely related to disciplines such as anatomy and biochemistry.
disciplines?

What makes physiological mechanisms The structural design and relationships of the various body parts that carry out each of the body functions.
possible?

What does homeostasis refer to? Maintenance of relatively constant conditions in the internal environment of the body.

How is homeostasis defined Homeo = same; stasis= standing.

etymologically?

What is the role of homeostasis in the Maintaining the chemical composition and physical state of the internal environment within narrow limits.
body?

How does homeostasis work? By means of a control system to regulate itself and another system.

What is considered the internal The extracellular fluid (ECF) in which the cells live.
environment of the body?

What are some examples of parameters Body temperature, blood pressure, blood glucose, O2 & CO2 levels, electrolyte balance etc.
in the internal environment?

What is the term for the internal Extracellular fluid.

environment of the body?

What is the date of the figure labeled as 5/13/2024.

'Fig.1'?

What is the name of the author of the Kuma K.

figure labeled as 'Fig.1'?
Question Answer

What is homeostasis? The constant maintenance of the internal environment within physiological limits.

Why is homeostasis essential for the It is essential for each cell's survival.
survival of each cell?

How does each cell help maintain Through its specialized activities as part of a body system.
homeostasis?

What do all tissues, organs, and organ They perform functions to maintain relatively constant conditions in the internal environment.
systems of the body do?

Give an example of an organ system Lungs.

that helps maintain homeostasis for O2
and CO2.

What is the role of the gastrointestinal It is for nutrients.

system in maintaining homeostasis?

What is homeostasis? The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

Describe the interdependent It shows the relationship between cells, body systems, and homeostasis.
relationship illustrated in Fig.2.

What is homeostasis? The process of keeping the internal environment relatively stable.

Is the internal environment in No, it is not absolutely unchanging.

homeostasis absolutely unchanging?

How is homeostasis described? As a dynamic steady state with minimized changes by compensatory physiological responses.

What happens if the internal The body suffers from malfunction or dysfunction.
environment deviates beyond
physiological limits?

Provide examples of conditions due to Hypertension, diabetes mellitus, etc.

deviation from homeostasis.

What are some factors of the internal Blood glucose level, blood volume and pressure, body temperature, concentration of O2 and CO2,
environment that are homeostatically concentration of waste products, pH level, concentrations of water, salt (NaCl), and other electrolytes.
maintained?

What are the components of Receptors, control center, effectors.

homeostasis?

What is the function of receptors in Receives information about changes in the environment.
homeostasis?

What is the role of the control center in Receives and processes information from the receptors.
homeostasis?

What do effectors do in the context of Give responses to the commands by opposing/enhancing the stimulus.
homeostasis?

What is an input in a control system? The stimulus applied to a control system from a source outside the system to produce a specified
response.

What is an output in the context of a The actual response of a control system.

control system?

What does a homeostatic control It maintains nearly constant internal environment conditions.
system do?

How is a homeostatic control system A functionally interconnected network of body components that operate to maintain a given factor in the
defined? internal environment relatively constant around an optimal level.

What are the two classes in which 1) Intrinsic, or local controls. 2) Extrinsic, or systemic controls.
homeostatic control systems can be
grouped?

What are intrinsic controls in They are built into or inherent in an organ.
homeostatic control systems?

What are extrinsic controls in They are regulatory mechanisms initiated outside an organ to alter the organ’s activity, accomplished by
Question Answer

homeostatic control systems? the nervous and endocrine systems.

How do homeostatic control Through feedback and feed forward systems.

mechanisms operate?

What does the term 'feedback' refer to? Responses made after a change has been detected.

What are the two types of feedback Negative feedback and Positive feedback.
systems?

What is the main characteristic of It opposes variations from normal.

negative feedback?

In which direction is the response in In a direction opposite to the initial stimulus.

negative feedback?

What happens to the system in negative It is restored back to its original state.
feedback?

Which type of feedback system is the Negative feedback.

most common in homeostatic control?

What reactions are promoted when Reactions that promote a lowered pressure.
there is high arterial pressure?

What reactions are promoted when Reactions that promote an elevated pressure.
there is low arterial pressure?

What are baroreceptors? Nerve receptors stimulated by stretch of the arterial wall (monitor ABP).

Where are baroreceptors found? In the walls of the bifurcation region of the carotid arteries and in the arch of the aorta.

What is the role of baroreceptors in the They send nerve impulses to the medulla of the brain, inhibiting the vasomotor center.
regulation of arterial pressure?

How does the decrease in arterial blood It activates reverse processes to increase the arterial pressure back toward normal.
pressure trigger a response through
negative feedback mechanism?

Give an example of a process regulated Regulation of body temperature.

through negative feedback mechanism.

What is the role of the vasomotor center It decreases impulses to the heart and blood vessels, leading to a decrease in heart activity and dilation of
in response to increased baroreceptor the peripheral blood vessels.
activation?

How are body water balance and blood Through negative feedback mechanisms.
Ca2+ levels regulated?

What is depicted in Fig.3? Negative feedback mechanism for the regulation of body temperature.

What is the purpose of the negative Maintenance of water balance.

feedback mechanism shown in Fig.4?

What does ADH stand for in the context Antidiuretic hormone.

of the negative feedback mechanism?

When is the date associated with the 5/13/2024.

negative feedback mechanism?

Who is the author of the negative Kuma K.

feedback mechanism figure?

What is positive feedback mechanism? The mechanism to which the system reacts to increase the intensity of the initial change in the same
direction.

How common is positive feedback Less common than negative feedback.

compared to negative feedback?

In what instances does the body use In some instances.

positive feedback to its advantage?
Question Answer

How does the feedback signal or output It increases the action of the control system.
from the controlled system affect the
action of the control system?

What is the role of effectors in the They produce a physiological response that adds to the initial change.
positive feedback system?

What is an example of a process Childbirth (parturition).

occurring through positive feedback
mechanism?

How does stretching of the cervix lead It causes the entire body of the uterus to contract, and this contraction stretches the cervix even more due
to increased uterine contractions during to the downward thrust of the baby’s head.
labor?

What does cervical stretching cause the Oxytocin.

pituitary gland to secrete?

How does oxytocin contribute to It is another means for increasing uterine contractility.
increasing uterine contractility?

What triggers strong uterine Stretch of the cervix sends signals through the uterine muscle back to the body of the uterus.
contractions for the baby's head to
begin pushing through the cervix?

How do uterine contractions affect the Uterine contractions stretch the cervix.
cervix?

What causes even more powerful The stretch of the cervix sending signals through the uterine muscle back to the body of the uterus.
contractions during childbirth?

What happens when the process of The baby is born.

uterine contractions and cervical stretch
becomes powerful enough?

What is the concept being continued Homeostasis.

from the previous text?

What is the specific positive feedback Positive feedback mechanism during childbirth.
mechanism mentioned?

What is the definition of homeostasis? The ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

What is the role of oxytocin in the It stimulates uterine contractions, leading to more oxytocin release and further contractions.
positive feedback mechanism during
childbirth?

What is the process of coagulation to Hemostasis.

arrest bleeding called?

What is the process of expelling urine Micturition.

known as?

What is the process of expelling feces Defecation.

known as?

What is involved in the genesis of nerve Na+ inflow.

signals?

What is the process of producing and Lactation.

secreting milk known as?

What process involves an LH surge and Positive feedback.

enzyme production?

What is the concept of feed forward in Responses made in anticipation of a change.

homeostasis?

How does feed forward work in It involves the direct effect of a stimulus on the control system before the action of the feedback signal
homeostasis? occurs.

What is the significance of feed forward It enables adaptive feedback control and helps the human body to foresee and adapt to the environment
in feedback control? promptly and exactly.
Question Answer

Can you provide an example of feed Shivering before diving into cold water.
forward in homeostasis?

What is the average water composition 60%.

in the body of a young adult male?

What percentage of a young adult 18%.

male's body is composed of protein and
related substances?

What is the percentage of fat 15%.

composition in the body of a young
adult male?

What percentage of a young adult 7%.

male's body is composed of minerals?

Where is most of the body fluid located Inside the cells (intracellular fluid).
in the cells?

What is the name of the fluid found in Extracellular fluid (ECF).

the spaces outside the cells?

What are the two compartments of body Intracellular fluid (ICF) and Extracellular Fluid (ECF).
fluids?

What does ICF refer to? Fluids contained within all body cells.

What is the percentage of total body 40% (28L) of the total body weight.
weight that ICF constitutes?

Where is ECF located? Outside the cells but inside the body.

What is the approximate percentage of About 20% of body weight (14 L).
body weight that ECF contains?

What percentage of ECF does the fluid 25% of ECF.

in the vascular system (plasma)
constitute?

What makes up the ill-defined fluid in Blood, lymph, transcellular fluid, CSF, fluid in eyes, pericardial fluid, and pleural fluid.
ECF?

What are the main components of the Large amounts of sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions, as well as nutrients like oxygen, glucose, fatty
extracellular fluid? acids, and amino acids.

What elements are found in large Potassium, magnesium, and phosphate ions.
amounts in the intracellular fluid?

What are the two components of Plasma (the fluid portion of the blood) and Interstitial fluid (surrounds and bathes the cells).
extracellular fluid?

How is extracellular fluid transported It is transported in two stages: movement of blood throughout the body in the blood vessels, and
throughout the body? movement of fluid between the blood capillaries and the intercellular spaces between the tissue cells.

What are the major cations in the Na+ (Sodium).

extracellular fluid (ECF)?

What are the major anions in the Cl- (Chloride) and HCO3- (Bicarbonate).
extracellular fluid (ECF)?

What are the major cations in the K+ (Potassium).

intracellular fluid (ICF)?

What are the major anions in the Proteins and PO43- (Phosphate).
intracellular fluid (ICF)?

Why does Cl- tend to stay outside cells? Many cellular ions cannot diffuse out, hence Cl- tends to stay outside cells.

What is the Chemical level of structural It involves various atoms and molecules making up the body, including common atoms like oxygen,
organization in the human body? carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.

Which atoms make up approximately Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.

Question Answer

96% of the total body chemistry?

What are some of the molecules of life Proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and nucleic acids (genetic material such as DNA).
formed by the combination of common
atoms?

What is the Cellular level of structural It involves the arrangement and packaging of chemical components to form living entities called cells.
organization in the human body?

What is the fundamental structural and The cell.

functional unit in a living being?

What basic functions do all cells Certain basic functions essential for their own survival.
perform in multicellular organisms?

What is the specialized function that Usually a modification or elaboration of a basic cell function.
each cell in a multicellular organism
performs?

How are tissues defined? Groups of cells of similar specialization.

What are the four types of tissues? Muscle, nervous, epithelial, and connective tissue.

In clinical medicine, how is the term To mean the aggregate of various cellular and extracellular components that make up a particular organ.
'tissue' often used?

What is an organ at the structural level? A structure made up of two or more types of tissue organized together to perform a particular function or
functions.

Can you provide an example of an Stomach.

organ made up of all four primary tissue
types?

What are the four tissue types that Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
make up the stomach?

What is a body system? A collection of organs that perform related functions and interact to accomplish a common activity essential
for the body's survival.

What is an example of a body system? The digestive system, including the mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver,
gallbladder, small intestine, and large intestine.

What is the function of the digestive To break food down into small nutrient molecules that can be absorbed into the blood for distribution to all
system? cells.

How many body systems does the 11: circulatory, digestive, respiratory, urinary, skeletal, muscular, integumentary, immune, nervous,
human body have? endocrine, and reproductive system.

What is the organism level in structural The body systems all together form a functional whole body.
levels of organization in the human
body?

How is the whole body of an individual It consists of various body systems structurally and functionally linked as an entity.
composed at the organism level?

What do many complex body processes The interplay among multiple systems.
depend on at the organism level?

Give an example of a complex body Regulation of blood pressure, which depends on coordinated responses among the circulatory, urinary,
process that depends on the interplay nervous, and endocrine systems.
among multiple systems at the
organism level.

What are the structural levels of They include chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, and organismal
organization in the human body? level.

What are cells? The smallest living entities that serve as the living building blocks for the whole body.

What is the functional unit of Cells.

organisms?

From where do all new cells and new From the division of preexisting cells.
life arise?
Question Answer

On what do the functional activities of The specific structural properties of the cell.
each cell depend?

On what do an organism’s structure and The collective structural characteristics and functional capabilities of its cells.
function ultimately depend?

What are the three major subdivisions 1) Cell membrane (plasma membrane), 2) Nucleus, 3) Cytoplasm.
present in most cells of the human
body?

What is the function of the cell To enclose the cell.

membrane?

What does the nucleus contain? The cell’s genetic material.

What is the function of the cytoplasm? It is the portion of the cell’s interior not occupied by the nucleus.

What is the date of the document? 5/13/2024

Who is the author of the document? Kuma K.

What is the cell membrane composed An extremely thin layer of lipids and proteins.
of?

What does the cell membrane enclose? The intracellular contents.

What does the cell membrane The extracellular fluid (ECF) and the intracellular fluid (ICF).
separate?

How is the cell membrane described in Selectively semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass through and excluding others.
terms of permeability?

What accounts for the varied Numerous regulated ion channels and other transport proteins.
permeability of the cell membrane?

What is the cell membrane composed A fluid lipid bilayer embedded with protein.
of?

What are the main components of the Lipids and proteins with small amounts of carbohydrate.
cell membrane?

What are the most abundant membrane Phospholipids.

lipids?

What are lesser amounts present in the Cholesterol.

cell membrane besides phospholipids?

What is the structure of phospholipids? Polar head containing a negatively charged phosphate group and two nonpolar fatty acid chain tails.

What does 'hydrophilic' mean in relation It means 'water loving' and interacts with water molecules.
to the polar end of a phospholipid
molecule?

What does 'hydrophobic' mean in It means 'water fearing' and will not mix with water.
relation to the nonpolar end of a
phospholipid molecule?

How do phospholipids self-assemble in They self-assemble into a lipid bilayer, a double layer of lipid molecules.
water?

Where do the hydrophobic tails of They bury themselves in the center of the bilayer, away from the water.
phospholipids position themselves in
the lipid bilayer?

Where are the hydrophilic heads of They line up on both sides in contact with the water.
phospholipids located in the lipid
bilayer?

What is the outer surface of the lipid It is exposed to ECF (extracellular fluid).
bilayer exposed to?

What is the inner surface of the lipid It is in contact with the intracellular fluid (ICF).
bilayer in contact with?
Question Answer

What is the main structure of the Phospholipid molecules.

phospholipid molecules in a lipid
bilayer?

What is the organization of phospholipid Bilayer structure.

molecules in a lipid bilayer?

Where are membrane proteins inserted Within or attached to the lipid bilayer.
or attached?

What are integral proteins in the context Proteins that extend through the entire thickness of the membrane.
of cell membranes?

What are peripheral proteins in the Proteins attached to only the outer or inner surface of the membrane.
context of cell membranes?

What percentage of the mass of the 50%.

membrane is made up by proteins on
average?

How does the amount of protein in the Significantly with the function of the membrane.
membrane vary?

Where is a small amount of membrane On the outer surface of cells.

carbohydrate located?

How do short carbohydrate chains Like tiny antennas.

protrude from the outer surface of cells?

To what are the short carbohydrate Primarily to membrane proteins.

chains primarily bound on the outer
surface of cells?

To what are the short carbohydrate To lipids.

chains bound to a lesser extent on the
outer surface of cells?

What is the fluid mosaic model? It is a model of the plasma membrane structure.

What is the protective function of the To protect the cytoplasm and organelles in the cytoplasm.
cell membrane?

How does the cell membrane act as a It allows only some substances to pass through and acts as a barrier for other substances.
semipermeable membrane?

What function does the cell membrane It allows nutrients to be absorbed into the cell.
serve in absorbing nutrients?

Name one of the secretory and Excretion of waste materials from the cell.
excretory functions of the cell
membrane.

What gases are involved in the Oxygen (O2) and Carbon dioxide (CO2).
exchange facilitated by the cell
membrane?

How does the cell membrane contribute By providing structural support and regulation of substance transport.
to the maintenance of the cell's shape
and size?

What are the three important functions 1) Forms the basic structure of the membrane. 2) Acts as a barrier to passage of water-soluble substances
served by the lipid bilayer of the plasma between the ICF and the ECF. 3) Responsible for the fluidity of the membrane.
membrane?

What role does the lipid bilayer play in It forms the basic structure, acts as a barrier to passage of water-soluble substances, and is responsible
the plasma membrane? for the fluidity of the membrane.

How does the hydrophobic interior of It acts as a barrier to the passage of water-soluble substances between the ICF and the ECF.
the lipid bilayer function?

What is responsible for the fluidity of the The lipid bilayer.

plasma membrane?
Question Answer

What is the function of membrane They selectively admit particular ions.

proteins that span the membrane to
form water-filled pathways or channels?

What are leak channels and gated Leak channels allow continuous passive movement of ions, while gated channels open and close in
channels? response to specific stimuli.

What is the function of carrier or They transfer specific substances across the membrane that are unable to cross on their own.
transport molecules, which span the
membrane?

What is the function of carrier proteins Act as pumps to transport ions actively across the cell membrane.
in the cell membrane?

Where are membrane-bound enzymes Located on either the inner or outer cell surface, they control specific chemical reactions.
located and what is their function?

What is the function of proteins on the They 'recognize' and bind with specific molecules in the cell's environment.
outer cell surface that act as receptors?

What are cell adhesion molecules Attachment of cells to their neighbors or to basal lamina.
(CAMs) responsible for?

What is the importance of proteins on They are important in the cells' ability to recognize 'self'.
the outer membrane surface in
conjunction with carbohydrates?

What is the most prominent and largest Nucleus.

cellular organelle?

In which cells is the nucleus not Mature red blood cells.

present?

What is the term for cells that have only Uninucleated cells.
one nucleus?

Which cells have many nuclei? Skeletal muscle cells (multinucleated cells).

Where is the nucleus generally located In the center.

within the cell?

What is the structure that covers the Porous, double-layered nuclear membrane.
nucleus?

What is the function of nuclear pores? They allow necessary traffic to move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

What does the cell's nucleus contain? The cell's genetic material, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

What role does DNA play within the It provides codes or "instructions" for directing the synthesis of proteins.
cell?

How does the nucleus indirectly govern By specifying the kinds and amounts of proteins that are produced.
most cell activities?

What is the function of DNA during cell To ensure that the cell produces additional cells just like itself, continuing the identical type of cell line
replication? within the body.

What are the three main regions of the Nuclear membrane, nucleolus, and chromatin.
nucleus?

What are the functions of the nuclear Serving as a barrier of the nucleus and containing nuclear pores for material exchange.
membrane?

What is the composition of the nuclear Double phospholipid membrane.

membrane?

What is the function of the nucleolus? Site of ribosome production.

What is contained in the nucleolus? One or more nucleoli.

What is chromatin composed of? DNA and protein.

Question Answer

What is the responsibility of chromatin? Functional organization of the genetic material and condensing to form chromosomes during cell division.

What are the functions of the nucleus in Control of cell activities, synthesis of RNA, formation of ribosome subunits, storage and transfer of
a cell? hereditary information.

What does the nucleus control within a Cell activities, including metabolism, protein synthesis, growth, and reproduction.
cell?

What does the synthesis of RNA occur In the nucleus.

within the cell?

What is stored in the nucleus? Hereditary information (genes).

How does the nucleus transfer From one generation of the species to the next.
hereditary information?

What is cytoplasm? The portion of the cell interior not occupied by the nucleus.

What does the cytoplasm contain? Discrete, specialized organelles and the cytoskeleton dispersed within the cytosol.

What is cytosol? A semiliquid, gel-like mass where many chemical reactions take place and also the site of storage for fat
and carbohydrate.

What is the cytoskeleton? A scaffolding of proteins within the cell.

What are cell organelles? Distinct, highly organized structures that perform specialized functions within the cell.

What is the function of cell organelles? Perform metabolic activity of the cell and perform specific functions of the cell.

How many types of organelles are Two types: membrane bound organelles and non-membrane bound organelles.
present in the cytoplasm?

Name some examples of membrane Endoplasmic reticulum (EPR), Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, etc.
bound organelles.

Name some examples of Chromosomes, ribosome, microfilaments, and microtubules.

non-membrane bound organelles.

What is the structure of ribosomes? Organelles without a limiting membrane, made up of proteins and ribonucleic acid (rRNA).

What is the main function of ribosomes? Carrying out protein synthesis by translating mRNA into chains of amino acids as dictated by the original
DNA code.

Where do free ribosomes exist within In the cytosol.

the cell?

What do free ribosomes synthesize? Cytoplasmic proteins such as hemoglobin, proteins in peroxisomes, and proteins in mitochondria.

Where are the ribosomes attached to Synthesizing all transmembrane proteins, most secreted proteins, and most proteins in the Golgi
the endoplasmic reticulum found? apparatus, lysosomes, and endosomes.

What are the two distinct types of Rough or granular ER and smooth or agranular ER.
endoplasmic reticulum?

What is the main function of the rough Carrying ribosomes that represent the site of protein synthesis.
endoplasmic reticulum?

What is the main function of the smooth Cholesterol synthesis, breakdown of fat, metabolism, and detoxification of drugs.
endoplasmic reticulum?

How does the structure of rough ER Rough ER consists of stacks of relatively flattened interconnected sacs, whereas the smooth ER is a
differ from smooth ER? meshwork of tiny interconnected tubules.

What is the topic of Figure 11 in the Endoplasmic reticulum.

source material?

What is the function of the rough Synthesizes and releases a variety of new proteins into the ER lumen.
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in
association with its ribosomes?

Where are some proteins synthesized Some proteins are destined for export to the cell’s exterior as secretory products, such as protein
in the rough ER destined to go? hormones or enzymes.
Question Answer

What happens to the proteins Other proteins are transported to sites within the cell for use in constructing new cellular membrane or
synthesized in the rough ER that are other protein components of organelles.
not exported to the cell's exterior?

What is another name for Golgi Golgi Apparatus or Golgi body.

complex?

What is the structure of the Golgi It consists of a stack of flattened, slightly curved, membrane-enclosed sacs.
complex?

In which type of cells is the Golgi Secretory cells.

complex prominent?

What is the function of the Golgi It modifies and packages proteins.

complex?

How many ends or faces does the Golgi It has two ends or faces, namely cis face and trans face.
complex have? What are they called?

Through which face do reticular vesicles Cis face.

from endoplasmic reticulum enter the
Golgi apparatus?

Through which face do the processed Trans face.

substances exit from the Golgi
apparatus?

What is the topic of figure 12? Golgi apparatus.

What happens to proteins from the They are modified into their final form, for example, by having a carbohydrate attached.
endoplasmic reticulum within the Golgi
complex?

What is the responsibility of the Golgi Sorting and segregating different types of products according to their function and destination.
complex in the cell?

Where can the products processed by Cell’s exterior, new plasma membrane, or other organelles, especially lysosomes.
the Golgi complex be directed to?

How are lysosomes formed? By budding from the Golgi complex.

What do lysosomes contain? Powerful hydrolytic enzymes that break down organic molecules.

What type of materials do lysosomal Non-usable materials.

enzymes digest within the cells?

Name some important enzymes found Proteases, lipases, amylases, and nucleases.
in lysosomes.

What bactericidal agents are present in Lysozyme and lysoferrin.

lysosomes?

What is the role of lysosomes in cell They digest the organic molecules of cell debris and foreign material, such as bacteria, brought into the cell
debris and foreign material digestion? by endocytosis.

What do peroxisomes contain? Several powerful oxidative enzymes and most of the cell’s catalase.

What is the main function of Detoxifying various wastes produced within the cell or foreign toxic compounds.
peroxisomes?

How is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) Formed by molecular oxygen and the hydrogen atoms removed from the toxic molecule.
formed in peroxisomes?

What is the role of catalase in Decomposing potent H2O2 into harmless H2O and O2.
peroxisomes?

How much alcohol consumed is About half.

detoxified by the peroxisomes of the
liver cells?

What is the main function of To extract energy from nutrients in food and transform it into a usable form for cellular activities.
mitochondria in the cell?
Question Answer

How would you describe the shape of Rod-shaped or oval structures.

mitochondria?

Do mitochondria have their own Yes.

genome?

What does it mean for mitochondria to It means that one mitochondrion can form a second one, a third one, and so on, whenever there is a need
be self-replicative? in the cell for increased amounts of ATP.

What encloses the mitochondrion? A double membrane (inner and outer).

What is the intermembrane space in the A narrow space separating the inner and outer membranes.
mitochondrion?

What is found in the matrix of the Large quantities of dissolved enzymes necessary for extracting energy from nutrients.
mitochondrion?

What is the function of cristae in the Cristae contain many enzymes and other protein molecules involved in the synthesis of adenosine
mitochondrion? triphosphate (ATP).

What are the enzymes and other Respiratory chain or electron transport system.
protein molecules in cristae collectively
known as?

How do ATP molecules move They diffuse throughout the cell.

throughout the cell from the
mitochondrion?

What is the involvement of mitochondria Mitochondria are involved in apoptosis.

in apoptosis?

Apart from energy, what else do Mitochondria also store calcium.

mitochondria store?

What are cell organelles? Cell organelles are specialized structures within a cell that have specific functions.

What is the function of mitochondria? Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, responsible for generating energy in the form of ATP.

Who is the author of the content related Kuma K.

to mitochondria?

What is depicted in Fig.13 related to cell Mitochondria.

organelles?

What is cytoskeleton? An elaborate protein fibers scaffolding dispersed throughout the cytosol.

What is the role of cytoskeleton in the It maintains the structure, determines the shape, facilitates cellular movements, and responds to external
cell? stimuli.

What are the three major protein Microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments.
components of the cytoskeleton?

What are microtubules? The largest (25 nm in diameter) of the cytoskeletal elements.

What are microtubules composed of? Primarily of tubulin (±- and ²-tubulin), small globular protein molecules.

For which cells are microtubules Asymmetric cells, such as nerve cells.
important in maintaining shape?

What is the importance of microtubules They are important for transport of substances from one part of the cell to another.
in the transport of substances within the
cell?

How do microtubules contribute to the They play an important role in the movement of specialized cell projections such as cilia and flagella.
movement of specialized cell
projections?

What is the cytoskeleton? The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell.

What is the function of the It provides structural support for the cell, assists in cell motility, and plays a role in intracellular transport.
cytoskeleton?
Question Answer

What are the three main components of Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
the cytoskeleton?

What is the 'highway' for vesicular The microtubular 'highway'.

axonal transport in a neuron?

What are microfilaments? The smallest elements of the cytoskeleton, with a diameter of 6 nm, made up of actin and myosin.

What proteins make up microfilaments? Actin and myosin.

What are the functions of Involved in muscle cell contraction, cell division, and cell locomotion, give strength to the cell, maintain
microfilaments? shape of the cell, and allow cellular movement.

How are actin and myosin filaments Into a special contractile machine that is the basis for muscle contraction.
organized in muscle cells?

What is the size range of intermediate 7 to 11 nm in diameter.

filaments?

How do intermediate filaments appear Irregular and threadlike molecules.

in general?

What role do intermediate filaments Maintaining the structural integrity of a cell and resisting mechanical stresses externally applied to a cell.
play in a cell?

Where are neurofilaments found? In nerve cell axons.

What protein makes up the irregular Keratin.

networks of intermediate filaments in
skin cells?

What are the two types of junctions that 1) Junctions that fasten the cells to one another and to surrounding tissues, and 2) Junctions that permit
form between cells? transfer of ions and other molecules from one cell to another.

What is another name for the tight Zonula occludens.

junction?

Where are tight junctions (zonula In the apical margins of the epithelial cells.
occludens) present?

What is the junction that allows the Gap junction.

transfer of molecules between cells?

What are the functions of desmosome They hold cells together.

and zonula adherens?

What are the functions of They attach cells to their basal laminas.
hemidesmosome and focal adhesion?

What is the function of tight junctions in 1. They tie neighbouring cells firmly to provide strength and stability to the tissues. 2. They prevent the
intercellular connections? movement of ions and molecules from one cell to another cell.

What are tight and gap junctions? They are intercellular connections between cells.

What is the function of tight junctions? To prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of epithelial cells.

What is the function of gap junctions? To allow the passage of small molecules and ions between cells.

Where are tight junctions Surrounding the apical margins of the cells in epithelia such as the intestinal mucosa, the walls of the renal
characteristically found? tubules, and the choroid plexus.

What are tight junctions made up of? Ridges, half from one cell and half from the other, adhering strongly at cell junctions.

What is the function of gap junctions? To permit the rapid propagation of electrical activity from cell to cell and the exchange of various chemical
messengers.

How do gap junctions permit They permit substances to pass between the cells without entering the ECF.
substances to pass between cells?

How do cells communicate with one Via chemical messengers.

another?
Question Answer

How do some messengers move from Via gap junctions without entering the extracellular fluid (ECF).
cell to cell within a given tissue?

Where do chemical messengers bind To protein receptors on the surface of the cell, in the cytoplasm, or the nucleus.
on the cell to trigger intracellular
changes?

What triggers sequences of intracellular Chemical messengers binding to protein receptors.

changes in cells?

What are the three general types of Neural communication, endocrine communication, and paracrine communication.
intercellular communication mediated
by messengers in the ECF?

Describe neural communication in It involves the release of neurotransmitters at synaptic junctions from nerve cells, acting across a narrow
intercellular communication. synaptic cleft on a postsynaptic cell.

Explain endocrine communication in It involves hormones and growth factors reaching cells via the circulating blood.
intercellular communication.

Elaborate on paracrine communication It involves the diffusion of cell products in the ECF to affect neighboring cells that may be some distance
in intercellular communication. away.

What is autocrine communication in It occurs when cells secrete chemical messengers that bind to receptors on the same cell that secreted the
intercellular communication? messenger.

What are the chemical messengers Amines, amino acids, steroids, polypeptides, purine nucleotides, and pyrimidine nucleotides.
involved in intercellular communication?

Why do all cells in the body need to be To function properly and survive.
supplied with essential substances?

What are some examples of essential Nutrients, water, electrolytes, etc.

substances that cells need?

What are some unwanted substances Waste materials, carbon dioxide, etc.
that cells must get rid of?

How do cells achieve the transportation Through transport mechanisms.

of essential and unwanted substances
across the cell membrane?

What is the plasma (cell) membrane? It is selectively permeable.

What is the plasma membrane Proteins and nucleic acids.

generally not permeable to?

What is the plasma membrane Ions, nutrients, waste.

selectively permeable to?

What are the two categories of transport Carrier-mediated and non-carrier mediated.
based on structure?

What are the types of transport under Facilitated diffusion and active transport.
carrier-mediated category?

What are the types of transport under Simple diffusion and osmosis.
non-carrier mediated category?

What are the types of transport under Endocytosis and exocytosis.

vesicle mediated (bulk transports)?

What is carrier-mediated transport? Transport of substances across cell membranes with the help of carrier proteins.

What is non-carrier mediated transport? Transport of substances across cell membranes without the help of carrier proteins.

What is passive transport based on in Does not use metabolic energy.

terms of energy requirements?

What are the two types of passive Simple diffusion and osmosis.
transport?

What is facilitated diffusion? A form of passive transport.

Question Answer

What is active transport based on in Uses metabolic energy.

terms of energy requirements?

What is involved in active transport? Specific carriers.

What are the two types of active Primary active transport and secondary active transport.
transport?

What are the two subtypes of Symport/co-transport and exchange/anti-port.

secondary active transport?

What is passive transport? The transport of substances along the concentration gradient or electrical gradient, or both
(electrochemical gradient).

What are other names for passive Diffusion or downhill movement.

transport?

Does passive transport require ATP No, it does not need energy in the form of ATP; it is powered by thermal energy.
energy?

How do molecules move through the Molecules will randomly move through the opening, like a pore, by diffusion.
opening during passive transport?

How do substances move from a region By diffusion.

of higher concentration to the region of
lower concentration?

What are the two types of diffusion? Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.

Where does simple diffusion of Either through the lipid layer or protein channels.
substances occur in the cell
membrane?

How does simple diffusion through the It occurs for lipid-soluble substances like O2, CO2, and alcohol, and is directly proportional to the
lipid layer occur? substance's solubility in lipids.

How does facilitated diffusion occur? With the help of carrier proteins of the cell membrane.

What is simple diffusion through protein The process where protein channels permit the passage of ions, with each channel allowing only one type
channels? of ion to pass through it.

What is the characteristic of protein They are selectively permeable, allowing only specific ions to pass through.
channels in terms of selectivity?

How are protein channels named? They are named after the ions which diffuse through them, such as sodium channels and potassium
channels.

What are ungated channels also known Continuously opened channels.

as?

What are gated channels? Closed channels that open and close in response to specific signals or conditions.

What are the three types of transport A. Diffusion through lipid layer; B. Diffusion through ungated channel; C. Diffusion through gated channel.
mechanisms depicted in the figure?

What are voltage-gated channels? Channels that open with a change in electrical potential across the cell membrane.

Give an example of voltage-gated Voltage-gated Na+ channels, voltage-gated Ca2+ channels.

channels.

What are ligand-gated channels? Channels that open in the presence of hormonal substances or neurotransmitters.

Provide an example of ligand-gated Acetylcholine molecules causing the opening of sodium channels in the postsynaptic membrane.
channels.

What are mechanically gated channels? Channels that are opened by mechanical factors.

Can you provide an example of Channels present in the pressure receptors.

mechanically gated channels?

What is osmosis? The movement of water or any other solvent from an area of high concentration to an area of lower
concentration of a solute, through a semipermeable membrane.
Question Answer

When does osmosis occur? Whenever there is a difference in the solute concentration on either side of the membrane.

What are the requirements for osmosis There must be a difference in solute concentration on the two sides of the membrane.
to occur?

What is facilitated or carrier-mediated The type of diffusion by which water-soluble substances with larger molecular size are transported through
diffusion? the cell membrane with the help of a carrier protein.

What are the characteristics of protein Specificity, competition, and saturation.

carriers in facilitated diffusion?

What does specificity refer to in the Proteins carriers interact with a specific molecule only.
context of protein carriers?

What is the role of competition in Molecules with similar chemical structures compete for carrier sites.
facilitated diffusion?

How does the saturation of carrier sites When carrier sites are filled, the rate of facilitated diffusion is limited.
affect facilitated diffusion?

Which substances are transported by Glucose and amino acids.

facilitated diffusion?

What is the model for facilitated A passive form of carrier-mediated transport.

diffusion?

What is the topic of the figure on page Comparison of carrier-mediated transport and simple diffusion down a concentration gradient.
90?

What is active transport? The movement of substances against the chemical or electrical or electrochemical gradient.

What is the main source of energy for Breakdown of high energy compound adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
active transport?

How is active transport different from The carrier protein of active transport needs energy, whereas the carrier protein of facilitated diffusion does
facilitated diffusion? not need energy. Also, in active transport, the substances are transported against the concentration or
electrical or electrochemical gradient, while in facilitated diffusion, the substances are transported along
the concentration or electrical or electrochemical gradient.

What are the two types of carrier Uniport and symport or antiport.
proteins involved in active transport?

What is the characteristic of a uniport It carries only one substance in a single direction.
carrier protein?

What is the characteristic of a symport It transports two different substances in the same direction.
carrier protein?

What is the characteristic of an antiport It transports two different substances in opposite directions.
carrier protein?

What are the two types of active 1. Primary active transport. 2. Secondary active transport.
transport?

What is the source of energy for primary The breakdown of ATP.

active transport?

What is the role of the carrier protein in It acts as an enzyme with ATPase activity.
primary active transport?

What does ATPase activity of the carrier It splits the terminal phosphate from an ATP molecule to yield ADP, inorganic phosphate, and free energy.
protein in primary active transport
involve?

What is the function of Na+/K+ ATPase It transports 3Na+ out and 2K+ into the cell, creating an electrical imbalance.
or pump?

Where does the Ca++ pump/ATPase It transports calcium from the cytosol either to the ECF or into organelles (mitochondria and ER).
transport calcium from and to?

Why is cytosolic calcium 10,000 times Due to the action of the Ca++ pump/ATPase transporting calcium into organelles and the ECF.
smaller than ECF?
Question Answer

What is the function of the H+ pump? It transports hydrogen either to the ECF or to organelles.

What is the function of H+/K+ ATPase? It transports one H+ out and one K+ into the cell, creating electrically neutral transport.

What is the postulated mechanism The sodium-potassium pump.

shown in Figure 18?

What is the importance of the Na+-K+ To control the volume of each cell.
pump in cells?

What would happen to most cells of the They would swell until they burst.
body without the function of the Na+-K+
pump?

Why is the Na+-K+ pump considered Because it creates an electrical potential across the cell membrane.
electrogenic?

How does the energy used to run the It serves as the energy source for secondary active transport.
Na+-K+ pump indirectly serve as the
energy source for secondary active
transport?

How are calcium ions maintained in the Mainly by two primary active transport calcium pumps.
intracellular cytosol of cells?

Where is the calcium pump located that In the cell membrane.

pumps calcium to the outside of the
cell?

Where are calcium ions pumped by the Such as the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells and the mitochondria in all cells.
other calcium pump into one or more of
the intracellular vesicular organelles of
the cell?

What is the function of the calcium To transport calcium ions across the cell membrane.
pump?

When is the date mentioned in the 5/13/2024.

figure?

Who is the author of the figure? Kuma K.

What is the process called when Secondary active transport.

sodium ions are transported out of cells
by primary active transport?

What type of concentration gradient A large concentration gradient of sodium ions; high concentration outside the cell and very low
usually develops across the cell concentration inside.
membrane when sodium ions are
transported out of cells?

What does the gradient of excess A storehouse of energy.

sodium outside the cell membrane
represent?

Why is the excess sodium outside the Due to the high concentration gradient of sodium ions across the cell membrane.
cell membrane always attempting to
diffuse to the interior?

Under what conditions can the diffusion Under appropriate conditions.

energy of sodium pull other substances
along with the sodium through the cell
membrane?

What is the phenomenon called when a Co-transport.

carrier protein serves as an attachment
point for both sodium ion and a
substance to be co-transported?

What is one form of secondary active Co-transport.

transport?

What causes both the sodium ion and The energy gradient of the sodium ion.
the other substance to be transported
Question Answer

together to the interior of the cell in

co-transport?

Against what are glucose and many Against large concentration gradients.
amino acids transported into most cells
by co-transport?

What is the postulated mechanism Sodium glucose co-transport.

shown in Fig. 19?

What substance does the postulated Amino acids.

mechanism involve?

How does sodium glucose co-transport In the same manner as for glucose, using a different set of transport proteins.
of amino acids occur?

What is vesicle mediated transport? The transfer of large molecules/particles like protein hormones and bacteria between the ICF and ECF by
being wrapped in a membrane-enclosed vesicle.

Is vesicular transport an active or Active method.

passive method of membrane
transport?

What is required to accomplish vesicle Energy.

formation and movement within the
cell?

What is exocytosis? The process of 'cell vomiting' which releases neurotransmitters, digestive enzymes, and some hormones.

What molecule types does exocytosis Large polar molecules such as protein molecules and enzymes that cannot cross the plasma membrane.
provide a mechanism for secreting?

What is one purpose of exocytosis? To enable the cell to add specific components to the plasma membrane, such as carriers, channels, or
receptors, depending on the cell's need.

What is endocytosis? The process of 'cell eating' or taking up very large molecules surrounded by the cell membrane.

What is phagocytosis? A type of endocytosis where very large molecules such as bacteria or dead RBC are surrounded by the
cell membrane and taken up.

What is pinocytosis? A type of endocytosis where invagination occurs into the cell and pinches off to form the boundary of an
intracellular vesicle, vacuole, or tubule, for example, in the absorption of undigested protein in the gut of a
newborn.