THOMSON —— ——. Australia @ Canada = Mexico = Singapore m Spain eASees United Kingdom a United StatesPublisher: Holly). Allen Senior Development Editor: Eric Carlson Assistant Editor: Shona Burke ditorial Assistant: Laryssa Polika Technology Project Manager: Jeanette Wiseman ‘Media Assistant: Bryan Davis, Marketing Manager: Kimberly Russell ‘Marketing Assistant: Nena Chandra Advertising Project Manager: Shemika Britt Project Manager, Editorial Production: Mary Noel Print/Meiia Buyer: Judy Inouye COPYRIGHT © 2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson, Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 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Windows is a registered trademark of the Miccosoft Corporation used herein under license, Macintosh and Power Macintosh are registered trademarks of Apple ‘Computer, Inc, Used herein under license, Library of Congress Control Number: 2003106372 Student Edition: ISBN 0-534-61245-8 Instructor's Edition: ISBN 0-534-61246-6 Permissions Editor: Elizabeth Zuber Production Service: Ideas to Images ‘Text Designer: Gary Palmatier, Ideas to Images Photo Researcher: Roberta Broyer Copy Editor: Blizabeth von Radics Illustrator: Robaite Ream, Ideas to Images Cover Designer: Gary Palmatier, Ideas to Images Cover Image: © Steve Prezant/CORBIS Cover Printer: Phoenix Color Corp Compositor: Ideas to Images Printer: Quebecor World/Taunton Wadsworth/Thomson Learning 10 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA Asia ‘Thomson Learning 5 Shenton Way #01-01 UIC Building Singapore 068808 Australia/New Zealand ‘Thomson Learning 102 Dodds Street Southbank, Victoria 3006 Australia Canada Nelson 1120 Birchmount Road ‘Toronto, Ontario MIK 5G4 Canada Burope/Middle East/Africa ‘Thomson Learning High Holborn House 50/51 Bedford Row London WCIR 4LR United Kingdom Latin America Thomson Learning Seneca, 53 Colonia Polanco 11560 Mexico DE Mexico Spain/Portugal Paraninfo Calle/Magallanes, 25 28015 Madrid, SpainOU have probably heard over and over again that television is primarily a visual medium. You have also often heard that the worst sin you can commit in video production is showing “talking heads." The Triple-| director you previously met at the MTV shoot thinks that this “talking head’ idea is a total misconception and reveals that many people still don’t seem to understand the true nature of the video medium. She tells you that video programs rely on the sound portion much more than films do. According to her, the audio portion not only conveys information, but also gives sequences added energy and structure. “There is nothing wrong with talking heads,” she says, “so long as they talk well and have something worthwhile to say.” In fact, much of the information in television and video programs is conveyed by somebody talking. You can do a simple experiment to prove this point: First, turn off the video portion of the program and try to follow what is going on; second, turn on the video again, but turn off the audio. You will probably have little trouble following the story by hearing only the sound track, but you will, in most cases, have a difficult time knowing what is going on by seeing only the pictures. Even if you can follow the story by watching the pictures, the lack of sound leaves the message strangely incomplete. Most amateur video is characterized not just by the madly moving camera and the fast zooms but also by bad audio. Professional video productions tend to suffer more from bad sound than bad pictures, as well. Why? At first glance the production of sound seems much easier to achieve than the corresponding video portion. When working your camcorder, you are probably concentrating so hard on getting good pictures that you don’t pay much attention to the sounds that surround you, You probably assume that the built-in microphone will do the job of picking up the necessary audio. In simple productions, such as an interview with a company executive, the pickup of sound is, indeed, relatively easy compared with the video requirements (lighting, camera handling, and videotaping). if the sound production is a little more challenging, 151152 eo aes Part Il image Creation: Light, Sound, Graphics, and Effects such as when doing an interview on a noisy street corner or mixing music and sound effects with dialogue, the audio portion requires at least as much attention and skill as the video, and often more. When videotaping a musical number, audio is obviously the most demanding part of the production. However simple or complex the production may be, sticking a microphone into a scene at the last minute is not the way to go. You need to consider the audio requirements from the start as an essential part of the medium requirements. This chapter examines the various tools and techniques of producing good audio for video. @ SOUNDPICKUP PRINCIPLE How microphones change sound waves into sound signals I] MICROPHONES How well they can hear, how they are made, and how they are used i SOUND CONTROL Working the audio mixer and the audio console SOUND RECORDING Analog and digital recording equipment and other audio-recording devices @ SYNTHESIZED SOUND Computer-generated sounds ll SOUND AESTHETICS Context, figure-ground, perspective, continuity, and energy SOUND PICKUP PRINCIPLE Like the translation process in video, in which the lens image of the object is translated into the video signal, in audio the sounds we actually hear are transduced (transformed) into electric energy—the audio signal. This signal is made audible again through the loudspeaker. The basic sound pickup tool is the microphone, or mic (“mike”), You can also create sounds synthetically, by electronically generating and recording certain frequencies, a process similar to creating computer-generated video images. We focus first on microphone-generated sounds, then turn briefly to synthesized sounds. Lad cole mye ge) it ee Urs eae le etre MEA CITA C electric energy—the audio signal.Chapter 8 Audio and Sound Control MICROPHONES Although all microphones fulfill the same basic function of translating sounds into audio signals, they do so in different ways and for different purposes. Good audio requires that you know how to choose the right mic for a specific sound pickup— not an easy task when faced with the great variety of mics available. Despite all the various brand names and numbers, you can make some sense out of the different microphones by classifying them by (1) how well they can hear, (2) how they are made, and (3) how they are generally used. How Well Mics Can Hear: Sound Pickup Not all microphones hear sounds in the same way. Some are built to hear sounds from all directions equally well; others favor sounds that come from a specific direction. In general, you will find that most microphones used in video production are omnidirectional or unidirectional. The directional characteristic—the zone within which a microphone can hear well—is specified by its pickup pattern, the two-dimensional representation of which is called the polar pattern. The omnidirectional mic hears equally well from all directions. Visualize the omnidirectional mic at the center of a sphere. The sphere itself represents the pickup pattern. SEE8.1 The unidirectional mic is designed to hear especially well from one direction—the front of the mic. Because the pickup pattern of a unidirectional mic is roughly heart-shaped, it is also called cardioid. seea.2 When this pickup pattern gets progressively thinner, the mics are supercardioid, hypercardioid, or ultracardioid. The “heart” of the cardioid pickup pattern has now Pickup pattern Polar pattern 153 Omnidirectional Microphone Pattern ‘The omnidirectional micro- phone hears equally well from all directions.154 Cardioid Microphone Pattern The unidirectional microphone favors sounds that are in front of it Its pickup pattern is heart- shaped, which Is why itis called cardioid, Hypercardioid Microphone Pattern The hypercardioid pickup Pattern is narrower than the catdioid and has a longer reach, Hypercardioid mics can also hear sounds coming from the back of the mic. ELA arr Part Ill Image Creation: Light, Sound, Graphics, and Effects Polar pattern Pickup pattern “Polar pattern been stretched to the shape of a watermelon. see s.3 The hypercardioid and ultracardioid mics have a long reach, which means that you can produce sounds that seem to come from fairly close by, although they may actually be quite far away. Hyper. and supercardioid mics are also sensitive to sounds that come directly from behind. Because these microphones are usually fairly long and are aimed at the direction of the sound source, they are commonly called shotgun mics, gee ee caer ceeee ee By Dale oN Cree Tavares mea ey Ciera dtongyChapter 8 Audio and Sound Control How Mics Are Made When selecting a mic for a particular audio task, you need to consider both its specific pickup pattern and its basic mechanics—its sound-generating element. When classifying microphones by how they are made, there are three types: (1) dynamic, (2) condenser, and (3) ribbon. The dynamic mic uses a small coil that moves within a magnetic field when activated by sound. The movement of the coil produces the varying sound signal. The condenser mic has a movable plate that oscillates against a fixed one to produce the sound signal. The ribbon mic has a small ribbon, rather than a coil, that moves in a magnetic field. But don’t worry too much about exactly how these sound elements work; it is more important to know how these mics differ in their use. Dynamic Dynamic microphones are the most rugged. You can take them outside inall kinds of weather, and they can even withstand occasional rough handling. You can work with them close to extremely loud sounds without distorting the sound too much or causing damage to the mic, Many dynamic microphones have a built- in pop filter, which eliminates the breath pops that occur when someone speaks into the mic at very close range, SEE8.4 Condenser These microphones are much more sensitive to physical shock and temperatures than are dynamic mics, but they produce higher-quality sounds. Condenser microphones are generally used indoors for critical sound pickup. They are especially prominent in music recording. Unlike dynamic mics, condenser microphones need a small power supply to activate the sound-generating device inside the microphone. Some need a small battery that is inserted in the microphone housing. See8.5 Others get their power supply through the cable from the audio console (usually called phantom power). If you use a battery, see to it that it is inserted properly (with the + and — poles as indicated in the housing) and that the battery is not run-down. Always have a spare battery handy when using a condenser mic. If you use a condenser shotgun mic (or, for that matter, any shotgun mic) outdoors, you need to protect the entire microphone from wind noise by covering it Dynamic Microphone with Pop Filter Dynamic microphones are the most rugged. They can withstand rough handling and extreme temperatures. The built-in pop filter reduces breath pops. 155156 Battery Power Supply for Condenser Mic Most condenser mics use a battery to charge the condenser plates, ‘When fed to the microphone from the audio console, the power is called phantom power. Windscreen on Shotgun Microphone The windscreen, made of porous material, protects the microphone from excessive wind noise. Windsock Pulled over Windscreen ‘The windsockis used on top of the windscreen to further reduce wind noise, Part iil Image Creation: Light, Sound, Graphics, and Effects with a windscreen, SkE8.6 Windscreens are made of acoustic foam rubber or other synthetic material, which lets normal sound frequencies enter the mic but keeps most of the lower wind rumbles out. For ENG/EFP microphones that are used primarily outdoors, you may want to add a windsock, also called wind jammer—a fuzzy cloth resembling a mop that can be pulled over the windscreen. SEE8.7 Ribbon Ribbon microphones (sometimes called velocity mics) are similar to condenser mics in high pickup quality and sensitivity. sees.s Ribbon mics produce a warm, rich sound, but they do not like rough handling, extreme temperatures, or very close and loud sound blasts. In fact, a loud sound burst close to the ribbon mic can cause permanent damage. The hero of a television western learned an impressive lesson about the ribbon mic’s sensitivity quite accidentally during a live television promo for his series: When he punctuated his quick-draw skills by firing a blank close to the mic, he blew the delicate ribbon clear out of the microphone. Only a lip reader could follow his subsequent pitch. How Mics Are Used Now that you know the basic types of microphones, you need to learn how to use them effectively. Even the most sophisticated and expensive mic will not guarantee good sound unless itis placed in an optimum pickup position, In fact, the proper positioning of the mic relative to the sound source is often more important than its sound- generating element. In video production microphones are, therefore, identified by the way they are used rather than how they are made: (1) lavaliere microphones, (2) hand microphones, (3) boom microphones, (4) desk and stand microphones, (5) headset microphones, and (6) wireless, or radio, microphones. Lavalieremicrophones The lavaliere mic, or lav for short, is a very small, rugged, ommidirectional micro- phone (dynamic or condenser) that is used principally for voice pickup. The quality of even the smallest one, which is about the size of a fingernail, is amazingly good. The combination of small size, ruggedness, and high quality have made the lavaliere indispensable in video production. It is usually clipped on top of the clothing, such as the lapel of a jacket or the front of a shirt, 6 to 8 inches below the chin. see8.9Chapter 8 Audio and Sound Control 157 Ribbon Microphone for High-Quality Sound Pickup The delicate ribbon microphone is often used by singers because it produces warm, rich sounds. (Note Beer Dynamics avadename—not thetype of migophone. The mic pleted berets rbben microphone) Although it’s primarily intended for voice pickup, you can also use the lavaliere for a variety of music pickups. Sound technicians have used the lav successfully on violins and string basses. Don’t be overly influenced by the normal use of such mics. ‘Try them out in a variety of ways and listen to the sound they deliver. If it sounds good to you, you've got the right mic. The obvious advantage of the lavaliere is that the talent has both hands free when he or she wears it. There are other important advantages to using a lavaliere mic: D> Because the distance from mic to sound source does not change once the mic is properly attached, you do not have to “ride gain” (adjust the volume) as much as with a hand mic or a boom mic. > Unlike lighting for the boom mic, which must be done in such a way that the boom shadows are hidden from camera view, the lavaliere needs no special lighting considerations. > Although the talent’s action radius is somewhat limited by the microphone cable, the lavaliere lets him or her move more quickly than with a boom mic or even a hand mic. For greater mobility you can plug the talent’s lavaliere into a belt-pack transmitter and use it as a wireless or radio mic. Clip-on Lavaliere Microphone The small lavaliere microphones usually clipped onto the clothing of the performer. It is normally used for voice pickup.158 Part Ill image Creation: Light, Sound, Graphics, and Effects Unfortunately, there are also some disadvantages to using a lavaliere mic: > If the environment is very noisy, you cannot moye the mic closer to the talent’s mouth. Consequently, the surrounding (ambient) noise is easily picked up. > You need a separate mic for each sound source. In a two-person interview, for example, you need separate lavaliere mics for the host and the guest. Ina five- person panel show, you obviously need five mics. D> Because it is attached to clothing, the lavaliere may pick up rubbing noises, especially if the talent moves around a great deal. You may also get occasional popping noises from static electricity generated by the clothing. > If the microphone must be concealed under clothing, the sound often takes on a muffled character and the danger of rubbing noises is greatly increased. D What we just listed as an advantage can also be a disadvantage. Because the distance from the mic to the mouth does not change, the sounds do not seem to come from a closer distance on a close-up or from farther away on a long shot. Therefore, you cannot achieve a desirable sound perspective. (You will read more about sound perspective later in this chapter.) Here are some points to consider when using a lavaliere microphone: > Once the microphone is attached to the mic cable but not yet to the talent, watch that you do not pull the mic off a table or chair and drop it on the floor. Although the lavaliere is fairly rugged, it does not tolerate mistreatment. If you accidentally drop the mic during the setup or strike (clearing of the produc- tion space), test it immediately to see whether it is still functioning properly. Ask the talent to avoid hitting it with his or her hand or some object that might be demonstrated on-camera. D Be sure to putit on. As obvious as this sounds, on the opening cue many a performer has been found sitting on the mic instead of wearing it. > To put on the microphone, bring it up underneath the talent’s shirt or jacket and attach it securely on the outside. Do not put the mic next to jewelry or buttons. If you have to conceal the mic, don’t bury it under layers of clothing; try to keep the top of the mic as exposed as possible, Tuck the cable into the talent’s belt or clothing so that it cannot pull the mic sideways or, worse, completely off. To further avoid pops and rumbles, put a small loop in the cable just below the mic clip, or try putting a loose knot in the small mic cable where it leaves the mic, Wedging a small piece of foam rubber between mic and clothing will further reduce rubbing noises. > When used outdoors, attach the little windscreen that slips over the top of the mic, > After the show watch that the talent does not get up and walk off the set without first removing the microphone. (eae eter ceo IeChapter 8 Audio and Sound Control Hand microphones As the name implies, hand microphones are handled by the talent. You select a hand mic for situations in which the talent needs to exercise some control over the sound pickup. A reporter can move a hand mic closer to his or her mouth when working in noisy surroundings, thereby eliminating much distracting ambience; the reporter can also point it toward the person he or she is interviewing. Because the talent can point the microphone toward whoever is doing the talking, you need only a single microphone for an interview with one or even several guests. Performers who do audience participation shows like the hand mic because it allows them to approach people and talk to them spontaneously without any elaborate multiple- microphone setup. A singer can control the intimacy of the sound (its presence) by holding the unidirectional hand mic very close to his or her mouth during an especially tender passage and pulling it farther away when the song gets louder and more external. Experienced singers use the hand mic as an important visual element; they work the mic during a song by switching it from one hand to the other to signal— visually—a new song segment or a change of pace or simply to supply additional visual interest. SEE 8.10 When the hand mic is used outdoors for numerous production tasks and under a great variety of weather conditions, you need a rugged mic that tolerates rough handling and extreme conditions. Dynamic hand mics with built-in pop filters are popular for such productions. Singers, on the other hand, demand much more sound quality than a field reporter and prefer high-quality condenser or ribbon hand mics. But these sensitive mics would not fare well under the extreme weather and handling conditions of some field productions and are largely confined to indoor use. The control of the mic by the talent can also be a disadvantage. Inexperienced talent often block their own and their guests’ faces; this no-no becomes especially apparent when the mic has a large, colored pop filter attached to it, Also, in the excitement of the interview, an inexperienced reporter may aim the microphone toward the guest when asking the question and toward himself or herself when Use of Directional Microphone by Singer To emphasize the richness of her hand mic close to her mouth, voice, the singer holds the directional 159160 Part Ill Image Creation: Light, Sound, Graphics, and Effects listening to the answer. As humorous as this unintentional comedy routine may seem to the bystander, it is not funny to the production people who see their efforts being spoiled by this maneuver. Other disadvantages of using a hand mic are that the talent’s hands are not free to do other things, such as demonstrate a product. And, unless it is a wireless hand mic, pulling the cable while working a hand mic is not always easy to do. These hints may help you work with a hand microphone: > During rehearsal, check the action radius of the mic cable. Also see that the cable has free travel and will not catch on furniture or scenery. Checking the reach of the cable is especially important when the mic is connected to a camcorder. > Test the microphone before the videotaping or live transmission. Say a few of the opening lines so that the audio engineer or camcorder operator can adjust the volume of the audio signal. When there are several microphones in the immediate vicinity and you need to find out which one is turned on, do not blow or whistle into it—or, worse, whack it; rather, lightly scratch the pop filter. This scratching noise will enable the audio engineer to identify your microphone and separate it from all others. > When using a hand mic in the field under normal conditions (the environ- ment is not excessively loud, and there is little or no wind), hold the micro- phone at chest level and speak across rather than into it. see8.11 In noisy and windy conditions, hold the mic closer to your mouth. SEE 8.12 > When using a directional hand microphone, hold it close to your mouth and speak or sing directly into it, as shown in figure 8.10. > When using a hand mic to interview a child, do not remain standing; squat down so that you are at the child’s level. This way you establish more personal contact with the child, and the camera can get a good two-shot. SEE8.13 Normal Position of Hand Position of Hand Microphone _ Int viewing a Child Microphone in Noisy Surroundings When interviewing a child, squat down Ina fairly quiet environment, the hand In nolsy surroundings the performer holds When holding the mic toward the child. mic should be held at chest height. The the mic closer to the mouth and speaks into The child! is now more aware of you than performer speaks across the mic rather the mic rather than across it. the mic, and the camera operator can than into it, include both faces in the shot.