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Astronomy Today, 9th Edition Instructor Guide
Chapter 7: Earth Our Home in Space
Chapter 7: Earth
Our Home in Space
Outline
7.1 Overall Structure of Planet Earth

7.2 Earth’s Atmosphere
7.3 Earth’s Interior
7.4 Surface Activity
7.5 Earth’s Magnetosphere
7.6 The Tides
Summary
Chapter 7 sets the stage for our discussion of the terrestrial planets by describing the Earth as a planet. The
chapter follows a distinctive structure. After discussing the overall properties of the planet from space in Section
1, Section 2 describes the Earth’s atmosphere. Then, Section 3 details Earth’s interior, along with the methods
used to discover its structure. Section 4 describes Earth’s ever-changing surfaces, with all the forces that shape
and change it. Section 5 deals with the Earth’s magnetic field, how it protects us, and how it is generated. The
chapter concludes with a discussion of tidal forces and their effect on Earth. This is a nice bridge to the next
chapter on Earth’s Moon.
Major Concepts
 Overall Appearance
 Atmosphere of Earth
 Composition
 Layers
 Convection
 Ozone
 Greenhouse Effect
 Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere
 Earth’s Interior
 Using Seismic Waves
 Layers
 Differentiation
 Earth’s surface
 Effects of Plate Tectonics
 Causes of Plate Tectonics
 Magnetosphere
 Van Allen belts
 Aurorae
 Tides and the Tidal Force
1
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Teaching Suggestions and Demonstrations
Section 7.1
You may be surprised at how few students have actually studied a picture of the Earth, let alone a three-
dimensional globe. For this section of the text, you will find it extremely helpful to have both on hand to
supplement the pictures in the text. If you plan to show a globe with geographical relief, be sure to tell the
students that the true surface feature heights, if they were to scale, would be un-noticeable. In fact, if the Earth
were the size of a bowling ball, the surface would be as smooth as a bowling ball, even when considering the
heights of the tallest mountains and the depths of the deepest ocean.
As the authors state in the “Big Picture” statement for Chapter 7, this is a very important chapter, because it
establishes a baseline of information for the process of comparative planetology. Don’t be afraid to spend a lot of
time in this chapter treating the Earth as a planet. You’ll be introducing ideas that will recur throughout the
discussions of the planets.
The text is structured so that each planet has its own chapter. Some may decry this approach as inefficient, but it
affords an opportunity to teach using a “spiral” approach, returning to key ideas over and over again. While it is
indeed possible to spend a class session talking about, for example, planetary interiors in general, comparing and
contrasting the interiors of all the inner planets in one lesson, this could lead to a situation where students can’t
tell one planet from the other, because they were all discussed on the same day. On the other hand, talking about
each planet in turn allows you to explore the theme of planetary interiors no less than five times (including the
Moon). This will help to reinforce basic principles through repetition and afford students time to reflect on what
they are learning over the course of a few weeks. Accordingly, you may want to keep your class discussions
“parallel,” talking about the atmosphere, interior, and surface of each planet in that order, to facilitate
comparisons.
Section 7.2
Earth’s atmosphere is diagrammed in Figure 7.2. Call this figure to the students’ attention and ask them why they
think the layers are divided as they are. What, for instance, determines the line between the stratosphere and the
mesosphere? Be sure to point out the blue line snaking its way through the diagram, and explain briefly what it
means. Students should soon realize that changes in temperature are a primary consideration in determining the
layers of the atmosphere. For instance, in the troposphere, the temperature decreases with increasing altitude, but
in the stratosphere the opposite is true.
DEMO—You can use a meter stick to help students understand the range in surface temperature for the various
planets. You can use a scale of 1 cm = 10 K, for a range from 0 to 1000 K. Have two adjustable markers for
HIGH and LOW to indicate the high and low temperatures at the surface for a planet. This can also be done by
making a transparency of the thermometer and a second overlay transparency that shows the specific high and low
for the object. Have your “thermostat” on hand as each object is discussed. This is a nice visual aid while
presenting the reasons for the temperature range. For the Earth, set the high to 320 K (32 cm on the meter stick)
and the low to 210 K (at 21 cm). Note that for a planet with an atmosphere, the temperature varies widely with
altitude, so we generally use the temperature at the surface.
DEMO—You can also use a 2-m stick (or two meter sticks taped together) to illustrate the scale of the Earth’s
atmosphere, with a scale of 1 cm = 1 km. The Earth would be larger than a football field at this scale.
2
5 cm Half the atmosphere lies below this level

8 cm The tallest mountain, Mt. Everest
9–12 cm Cruising altitude of jet airliners
10 cm 90% of the atmosphere is below this level
15 cm Top of the troposphere; most of the weather occurs
below this level
24 cm Altitude record for a jet, set by SR-71
30 cm 99% of the atmosphere is below this level
15–50 cm Stratosphere
20–50 cm Location of the ozone layer
50–90 cm Mesosphere
90–200 cm Thermosphere
200 cm Low Earth Orbit satellites and Space Shuttle
Be sure to include discussions of the greenhouse effect and global warming on Earth as they are widely debated
topics and therefore relevant concepts for students to understand. Be sure to note that the greenhouse gasses
currently in the atmosphere actually help make life on Earth possible by keeping the average temperature above
freezing. However, increases in the concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere could be causing
temperatures to rise (see the graphs in Discovery 7-1). Bring in current journal or newspaper articles to share with
students or ask them to find and bring in articles of their own. This is one area in which their study of astronomy
will have a direct impact on their understanding of current events. Be sure to emphasize the difference here
between fact and theory. Increasing global temperatures are a measured fact; that greenhouse gasses from human
activity is the primary cause is a theory to explain that fact.
Emphasize the role that plants play in creating and maintaining the oxygen component of the atmosphere.
Students may think that rainforests are the main contributors to this, but in reality the humblest of plants, algae,
are most important. Note that plants take in water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight and give off oxygen. When we
burn plants, we consume oxygen and release what plants originally absorbed: water, carbon dioxide, and energy
that originally came from the Sun. Since “fossil fuels” are ancient plant matter, all of our cars are “solar
powered!” Of course, the process of releasing this energy also releases the greenhouse gasses water vapor and
carbon dioxide, which may pose a long-term threat. The greenhouse effect will come up again when we discuss
Venus in Chapter 9.
Questions may arise concerning holes in the ozone layer. It is certainly worthwhile to spend part of a lecture
discussing how the ozone layer is affected by man-made chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). One of
the advantages offered by CFCs is that they are inert. This fact, though helpful for many commercial applications,
is responsible for their ability to rise high into the atmosphere, where they are broken down by high-energy
sunlight into constituents that are capable of destroying the naturally occurring ozone molecules. Students may
ask why the holes are above the poles, where human habitation and CFC use are rare. This is an opportunity to
discuss circulation patterns in the Earth’s atmosphere. Ozone destruction is accelerated by cold, dry conditions,
such as those found at the poles. Therefore, when atmospheric circulation brings airborne CFCs from inhabited
areas to the polar regions, ozone levels can weaken so much that “holes” arise.
Section 7.3
If you have not yet introduced and demonstrated the concept of density, this is a good time to do so. Since
different materials have their own distinctive densities, density is a valuable tool for plumbing the depths of the
3
Earth. Have the students compare the average density of the Earth (5500 kg/m ) with the density of materials on
3
3
the surface (2000–3000 kg/m ). Try to lead them to the conclusion that the only way there can be such a big
difference between these two numbers is to have a large amount of very dense material hidden away in the center.
While we certainly cannot exclude the possibility of some exotic material at the center, common materials such as
iron and nickel can meet the requirements.
DEMO—The phenomenon of differentiation can be demonstrated with a mixture of materials at different

densities, such as unfiltered water from a lake. Shake up the dirty water so that it is well-mixed (“homogeneous”)
and then set it down on a table or desk. Ask the students to explain why the dirt settles to the bottom. Try to steer
them away from words like “heavier” and emphasize density. Be sure to note that lower density materials rise
because they are being pushed out of the way by denser materials, and have no place to go but up. Emphasize the
need for material to be in a non-solid state for differentiation to occur by asking students if the dirty water would
still separate if it is frozen. Thus, differentiation stopped in the Earth’s crust when it solidified, trapping small
amounts of dense materials like iron and gold. Homemade salad dressing (without emulsifiers to “prop up” the
materials) could also serve as a demonstration of differentiation, as would a mixture of cooking oil, water, and
barbeque sauce!
DEMO—Just as in Chapter 3, a Slinky can be used to demonstrate the two types of seismic waves. Just be sure
to oscillate the Slinky on the floor and not in the air, to keep from ruining it!
It’s a good idea to spend some time with Figure 7.8, talking with students about how density and temperature
change with each layer of the Earth. Especially note the sudden change in density as we go from the mantle to the
core. This is a powerful indicator of an abrupt change in composition. Also note the steady rise in temperature as
we travel through the mantle, causing a temperature gradient. Compare this to the temperature change in the
troposphere, and note the role that a temperature gradient plays in creating convection. This “boiling” of the
mantle will be important in the next section. Finally, ask the students how it can be possible that the inner core
can be solid and still be so hot. Hopefully students will note the effects of pressure; point out to them that the
course will be full of examples how pressure plays as great a role as temperature in determining what phase
material will be in.
DEMO—To demonstrate convection, which is responsible for driving the plates, add a couple of drops of food
coloring to water in a clear beaker and set it on a hot plate. A “lava lamp” can also serve this purpose.
Section 7.4
Since the solid crust of the Earth is less dense than the semi-solid mantle beneath it, the crust literally floats on the
mantle, the way ice or Styrofoam floats in water. The boiling action in the mantle is the driving force moving this
floating crust around in the process of plate tectonics. Discuss areas where plates interact by coming together,
spreading apart, and scraping against each other, and the surface features these interactions are responsible for.
Mention to students that you will be searching for these telltale signs of plate tectonics on the surfaces of other
planets.
Section 7.5
The electromagnetic and gravitational forces are very often confused and even referred to interchangeably by
some people, so don’t assume students know the difference. There are many demonstrations of magnetic fields
available to support physics classes and some of these can be quite useful here to remind astronomy students of a
few basic properties of magnetic fields. The form of a dipole field and the effects of a magnetic field on moving
charged particles are the two most important concepts to demonstrate.
4
DEMO—Get out a bar magnet and iron filings for the first demonstration. Iron filings encased in plastic can be
used with an overhead projector. Place a bar magnet on it, shake a bit, and there it is, the outline of the field. Show
how two magnetic fields interact and how there is no interaction between a magnet and a non-magnetic object.
DEMO—The second demonstration really depends on the equipment that is available. You need a source of
moving electrons. This can be something as simple as a cathode ray tube or any plasma discharge tube. Bring a
strong magnet near where the beam hits the screen and look for the beam to move. Change the pole of the magnet
used and demonstrate again. Now ask your students why a magnet should affect moving charged particles. Since
they just saw that magnetic fields only interact with other magnetic fields, they (hopefully) will conclude that the
moving charged particles must have a magnetic field. This can be shown to be true by making a very simple
electromagnet. Wind some copper wire around an iron nail and attach one end to a battery to create an
electromagnet. Make this in front of the class so they can see how simple it is.
To show some of the very real effects from the magnetic fields surrounding our planet, show movies of the aurora
borealis and/or aurora australis. Point out Figure 7.20, which shows an aurora from two different perspectives.
Ask the students if any of them have seen an aurora. The class (and even you!) may be surprised to hear just how
far away from the poles an aurora can be seen. Stress that the particles that electrify the atmosphere come from the
solar wind, so activity on the Sun can affect the lightshow on Earth.
Section 7.6
The tides are unfamiliar to many students who do not live near coastal areas. Even for those students who
regularly experience tides, they are usually at a loss to explain how there can be two high and two low tides each
day, since this would imply simultaneous high tides on opposite sides of the Earth, as seen in Figure 7.21. If the
concept of the Moon pulling the tide on the Earth is known at all by students, it usually results in them saying
there must be one high tide on the side facing the Moon and one low tide on the opposite side of the Earth.
Various demonstrations, such as rubber rings (dog toys) and small inflated inner tubes, can be used to show the
effects of tides. The rings or tubes are pulled on one side and become elliptically shaped like the tidal pattern. But
students often find these unconvincing because they want to know who or what is holding the other side of the
Earth to stretch it into this shape! It is a valid question.
A very important point to make to students regarding the tides caused by the Moon is that the important quantity
is the difference in gravitational force between the surface of the Earth facing the Moon, the center of the Earth,
and the side of the Earth opposite the Moon. The sheer size of the pull is not nearly as important as this difference.
The difference in forces is caused by the difference in distance from the Moon at each of the points. The following
simplified example may help. Imagine that the absolute strengths of the gravitational pull felt by points at three
different distances are as follows:
3 4 5
Now we can imagine what those forces feel like, relative to the pull at the center. From that perspective, there
appear to be two conflicting pulls:
3 – 4 = -1 4–4=0 5–4=1
5
An alternate explanation (in conjunction with Figure 7.21a) would be to tell the students that first, the water on
the side of the Earth facing the Moon feels a stronger pull that the center of the Earth, so it is effectively “pulled”
away from the Earth’s surface. This creates the tide on the side facing the Moon. The other tide is created by the
fact that the water on the side opposite the Moon feels a weaker pull that the center of the Earth, so the Earth itself
is effectively “pulled” away from the water on the side opposite the Moon, leaving that water behind. Bulges are
thus created on opposite sides of the Earth. An observer on the side facing the Moon sees a high tide because the
water is moving upward toward the Moon, but to the observer on the opposite side, there is a high tide because the
beach is effectively sinking! Understanding the tides is a real challenge to the students’ abstract visualization
skills, so be sure to take it slow, and use lots of visuals.
Because the tidal force is a differential force, an object has to have a substantial diameter, and be rather close to
another object, to feel a tidal force. This is why the space shuttle doesn’t have to worry about tidal forces (it is too
small), and also why tides from the Sun are less important than lunar tides (the Sun is so far away that every point
on Earth is in pretty much the same place). Ask the students to guess which is greater, the gravitational force of
the Moon on Earth or that of the Sun on Earth. Then do the calculation to show that the Sun’s force is greater.
(After all, we orbit the Sun, not the Moon!) Why then, ask the students, are the high and low tides mainly
determined by the Moon? The Moon is closer, so the diameter of the Earth is more significant to the Moon, and
the ratio of the forces it exerts on the two sides of Earth is greater than the corresponding ratio for the Sun.
A formula for the strength of a tidal pull can easily be shown using a little calculus and Newton’s law of gravity.
With greater difficulty the same result can be obtained using algebra. Although mathematical explanations may
not be as satisfying to some students, it is nonetheless another approach to help them understand the reason for the
two high and two low tides. If you have the time and the students have the background, you can use the calculus
approach:
GMm dF 2GMm
F 2
so 
r dr r3
In this case, dF is the difference in force between the near side and the far side of the body feeling the tidal force,
M is the mass of the body exerting the tidal force, r is the distance between the two bodies, m is a small mass
element on either side of the body feeling the tidal forces, and dr is the difference in distance between the two
sides. In other words, dr is the diameter of the object feeling the tidal force. Rearranging the equation gives
2GMmdr
dF 
r3
It is common to say that the tidal force dF falls off with the cube of the distance. Sometimes, the acceleration due
to the tidal force is calculated by dividing both sides by the small mass element m.
For a system like the Earth and Moon, the only difference between the tidal pull on the Moon produced by the
Earth, and the tidal pull on the Earth due to the Moon, is the term dr. Since the Earth is 4 times bigger than the
Moon, the tidal pull on the Earth is actually 4 times bigger than it is on the Moon. However, the degree of tidal
distortion will also depend on the surface gravity of the body. Since the Moon’s surface gravity is 6 times weaker
than the Earth’s, the net effect is greater on the Moon.
While the formula above is a convenient way to find the strength of the tidal force, it is not necessary. The tidal
force can simply be calculated by first calculating the force on the near side of the object and the force on the far
side, and subtracting one from the other:
6
GMm GMm
Fnear  and Ffar 
 r  r   r  r 
2 2
All the variables mean what they did before, except this time r is the radius of the object. We subtract these two
forces and get
 1 1 
dF  Fnear  Ffar  GMm   2
  r  r   r  r  
2
We can simplify the term in brackets, bearing in mind that terms involving multiples of ∆r are going to be very
small, and get essentially the same result as above:
GMm  4r  2GMmdr

dF   since 4 (radius) = 2 (diameter)
r3 r3
The Earth-Moon distance, r, is measured from the center of the Moon to the center of the Earth. dr is the diameter
of the Earth. Thus, the tidal force appears to be the same on both sides of the Earth (toward or away from the
F
Moon). The size of the tidal force, , is about 0.034 or 3% as stated in the text.
F
There is a problem in the text involving tidal forces. If you want to have an emphasis on tidal forces in your
course and have students do these calculations, you can give them the calculus-derived formulae above.
Relevant Lecture Tutorials

Earth’s Changing Surface, p. 101
Greenhouse Effect, p. 105
Student Writing Questions
1. What are some of the natural catastrophic events that occur on Earth that affect life? How often do these
occur? Does life survive these events? What about specific species?
2. Identify and discuss at least six different features of the Earth that indicate the Earth is very old. Don’t
just include methods for actual age dating, find properties of the Earth that must have taken place over a
long period of time. Giving more than six features will count as extra credit.
3. Describe what you might see if you were standing at your current location on Earth one million years ago
and 100 million years ago. Describe your location one billion years ago.
7
Chapter Review Answers
REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

3 3
1. The density of water is 1000 kg/m and the density of rock is typically 3000 kg/m . Since the average
3
density of the Earth is 5500 kg/m , the interior of the Earth must be made up of high-density material (8000
3
to 10,000 kg/m ) such as iron and nickel, in order to “bring the average up.”
2. P- and S-waves are seismic waves that move outward from the site of an earthquake. P-waves, or pressure
waves, alternately expand and compress the material through which they move, just as sound waves do.
They move through both liquids and solids. S-waves are shear waves that vibrate material perpendicular to
the wave motion. They move more slowly than P-waves and move only through solids. Both types of wave
travel faster through denser and hotter materials. These waves carry information about not only the
earthquake that produces them, but also the material through which they have traveled. Therefore, when
waves from earthquakes travel through the Earth’s interior, properties of those waves, such as their intensity
and speed, are changed by the materials they pass through. By seeing exactly how those properties change,
geologists can determine the nature of the material in the interior: density, temperature, and whether the
material in that layer is in a solid or non-solid state.
3. The greenhouse effect is a process that allows the Earth’s atmosphere to retain heat. Sunlight passes through
the atmosphere and is absorbed by the surface and turns to “heat”, or infrared radiation, which leaves the
surface. But infrared radiation cannot pass easily through the atmosphere and back into space because it is
absorbed and re-radiated in a random direction by “greenhouse gases,” such as carbon dioxide and water
vapor. The heat gets absorbed and re-radiated many times until by random chance it can escape into space.
The Earth’s surface is about 40 K warmer than it would be without this effect. On airless bodies like the
Moon, infrared radiation escapes into space as soon as it is radiated.
4. First, molten lava from volcanoes tells us that a large amount of material inside the Earth is liquid. Second,
S-waves from earthquakes cannot pass through liquid materials, and observations of seismic waves that
have passed through the interior of the Earth are lacking in S-waves.
5. The interior of the Earth is structured in layers, with high-density materials near the center and low-density
materials near the surface. The process of differentiation has created this situation, with high-density
materials sinking to the center and pushing lower density materials upward. However, differentiation can
only work if the materials have freedom of movement; thus, a differentiating object cannot be in the solid
state. The Earth’s differentiated structure, therefore, indicates the Earth was mostly liquid in its past.
6. Convection is the rising of hot material through cooler material, which sinks. (a) In the Earth’s atmosphere
it transports heat from the surface into the upper atmosphere and is responsible for many of the weather
patterns in the troposphere. (b) In the Earth’s interior it causes the liquid magma in the mantle to be in
constant motion, and promotes volcanism and plate tectonics. (c) Convection inside the Earth drives
volcanism and plate tectonics, which are two of the major agents of change on the Earth’s surface.
7. As radioactive elements break down into non-radioactive elements, they give off energy in form of gamma
rays, as well as particles that collide with other materials to produce heat. Due to differentiation, the core of
the Earth is rich in high density radioactive elements such as cobalt and uranium. As these elements decay,
a process which continues to this day, large amounts of heat are produced. The rock of the crust is such a
good insulator that much of this heat remains in the interior of the Earth. Although many of the Earth’s
original radioactive materials have decayed, some still remain, and continue to heat the Earth’s interior.
8
8. The process of plate tectonics is the cause of mountains, trenches, and most other surface features of the
Earth. Mountain ranges are often created when plates collide with each other, pushing up parts of one or
both plates into mountains. If a colliding plate slides under another plate—a process called subduction—an
oceanic trench can form on the lower altitude plate even as mountains form on the higher altitude plate.
When plates pull apart, they form rifts that allow new material to rise up from the mantle, thus forming
volcanic mountain chains and ridges.
9. A dynamo needs a large amount of an electrically conducting substance, preferably in the liquid state, and
that material must be in motion, such as motion due to rapid rotation. Earth’s interior meets both these
standards, and the dynamo in Earth’s interior is responsible for the planet’s magnetic field.
10. A planet’s magnetosphere is that region around a planet where the planet’s magnetic field has an important
influence. Magnetic fields can capture and trap charged particles, and the Earth’s magnetic field has trapped
charged particles from space in structures called the Van Allen Belts. Satellites during the early years of
space travel detected the fast moving particles in the Van Allen Belts. The magnetosphere especially traps
charged particles given off by the Sun, mostly electrons and protons. If not for the Earth’s magnetic field,
these high speed particles would bombard the Earth’s surface and threaten life on Earth.
11. Magma welling up from the Earth’s mantle contains pieces of iron and other magnetic materials. As the
magma cools on the surface, those metal fragments orient themselves along lines of magnetic field and then
preserve a record of that field when the lava solidifies. Rocks that cooled off at different times have
different orientations, revealing the shifts in the magnetic field. The Earth’s magnetic field appears to
reverse itself every 500,000 to one million years. The magnetic field weakens or disappears briefly, which
would remove the “shield” that protects the Earth’s surface from high energy particles from space.
Although not necessarily fatal to life, these particles could induce evolutionary changes through
reproductive mutations.
12. The Moon’s gravity pulls more strongly on the side of the Earth facing the Moon than it does the center of
the Earth. Thus, water on this side is pulled away from the Earth, creating a tidal bulge. Likewise, the
Moon’s gravity pulls more weakly on the far side of the Earth, than it does the center of the Earth.
Therefore, the Earth moves toward the Moon, leaving the water on the far side behind, and creating another
tidal bulge on the side opposite the Moon. The result is two high tides created by the Moon on these two
sides of the Earth. The areas of the Earth perpendicular to the tidal bulges experience low tides, as the water
is pulled away from these areas into the tidal bulges.
13. The Moon would experience stronger tides than on Earth because of the Moon’s weaker surface gravity; the
tidal force from the Earth is actually weaker due to the Moon’s smaller size. Since the Moon rotates once
during each orbit, the tidal bulges would not appear to move relative to the surface of the Moon. Thus, two
parts of the Moon would be in constant “high tide,” and there would be no variation in water level at a given
location.
14. Even without the Moon, the Earth would still experience tides from the Sun. Since the Earth is small
compared to its distance from the Sun, the solar tides are half of the lunar tides or one third of the total tides
experienced now. So even without the Moon we would know about the tides, although they would be much
smaller and weaker.
15. Currently, the greenhouse effect keeps the temperature of the Earth mostly above the freezing point of water
and quite likely helps make life possible. So it is currently quite helpful. However, an enhanced greenhouse
effect could potentially raise the temperature of the Earth to the point of being detrimental to life. A higher
9
temperature would melt the ice caps, flood most coastal regions, and significantly change the weather on
Earth in ways that are difficult to predict.
CONCEPTUAL SELF-TEST
1. B
2. D
3. A
4. C
5. B
6. B
7. C
8. B
9. D
10. B
PROBLEMS
1. The volume of the atmosphere is the surface area of the Earth times the thickness of the atmosphere, which
 
2 3
is 4 6.378 106  7500  3.8 1018 m . This volume multiplied by the density will give the total mass
18 3 3 18
of the atmosphere. m = V × Density = 3.8 × 10 m × 1.3 kg/m = 5.0 × 10 kg. The mass of the Earth is
24 −7
5.97 × 10 kg; dividing this into the mass of the atmosphere gives 8.4 × 10 or about one millionth the
mass of the Earth.
 
2 2
2. First we must find the total surface area of the Earth: 4 6.378 106  5.112 1014 m . Antarctica
12 2
occupies one half of one-percent of this, or 2.556 ×10 m . The volume of ice in the Antarctic will be this
15 3
area times the thickness, about 3 km or 3000 m. The volume is thus 7.668 ×10 m . The oceans cover 71%
14 2 18 3
of the surface area, or 3.629 ×10 m , and with a 3600 m thickness, have a volume of 1.307 ×10 m .
18 3
Adding the volume of the melted ice would increase this volume to 1.314 ×10 m . We divide this by the
surface area of the oceans to get the new thickness, 3622 m. Thus the sea level would rise by 21 m. Not a
big percentage, but significant to us!
  r23  r13  where r1 and r2 are the inner and outer radii. The volume of
4
3. The volume of a spherical shell is
3
4 3 3
the Earth is  R  1.09 1012 km . We divide the volume of the spherical shell by this total volume to
3
get the fractional volume.
Layer r1 r2 Shell volume Fraction

10 3
Crust 6348 6378 1.53×10 km 0.014
11 3
Mantle 3488 6348 8.94×10 km 0.82
11 3
Outer Core 1278 3488 1.69×10 km 0.16
10
9 3
Inner Core 0 1278 8.74×10 km 0.0084
4. The diameter of the Earth is 2 × 6378 km = 12,756 km. At 5 km/s the time it will take is 12,756/5 = 2551 s
or 42.4 minutes.
8 8 8
5. 6000 km is 6×10 cm. At a rate of 3 cm/yr, this will give 6×10 / 3 = 2×10 yr or 200 million years.
6. Doing the algebra, 3U = Pb and U + Pb = 1, where U and Pb are the fractions of Uranium 235 and Lead 206
in the sample. Solving the two equations, we get U = ¼ and Pb = ¾ . Thus, two “half-lives” have passed for
the sample, and since U-235 has a half-life of 713 million years, the total elapsed time would be 1.426
billion years. Now, we apply this time to the U-238 in the sample:
1.426
1 4.5
fraction of U-238 left    = 0.803
2
And the fraction of the sample that is lead is 1 – 0.803 = 0.197. This ratio is about 4 to 1.
t
 1  4.5
7. We use the formula in More Precisely 7-2 with 75% of the original uranium left: 0.75    . Solve this
2
by taking the logarithm of each side:
 t  1
log10  0.75    log10  
 4.5  2
 t 
0.125  0.301 
 4.5 
t = 1.9 billion years.
8. First we calculate the acceleration due to the Moon’s tidal forces, and again for the Sun’s influence:
2GM m dr 2   6.67 10    7.34 10    6.37 10 

11 22 6
am    1.10 106 m/s2

D3 3.84 10 
8 3
2GM s dr 2   6.67 10   1.99 10    6.37 10   5.0110

11 30 6
7
as   m/s2
D3 1.50 10 
11 3
Although they are on opposite sides of the Earth, their gravities reinforce each other. Therefore, their
−6 2
combined influence adds up to 1.6 ×10 m/s . This is over 6 million times weaker than the acceleration due
−7
to gravity at the surface, so your weight only changes by a factor of 1.63 × 10 .
11
Suggested Readings
Websites
This NASA website, http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/index.html, provides recent

information on Earth and its relationship with the Sun.
A beautiful film of a spectacular aurora borealis event can be found at

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fVsONlc3OUY
If you don’t have the ability to use a Slinky to demonstrate seismic waves, a demonstration can be found in the
“Seismic Slinky—An analogy for P & S waves” video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KZaI4MEWdc4
The website for the Paleomap Project, http://www.scotese.com/, has a number of maps and animations showing
the configuration of the Earth’s landmass at various times in the past and in the future.
The United States Geological Survey maintains a site for tracking the location and intensity of earthquakes at
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/
An interactive map of currently-erupting volcanoes and recent earthquakes can be found here:
https://earthquakes.volcanodiscovery.com/
The “Crash Course” series of videos on YouTube has videos about astronomy. Video #11 is relevant to this
chapter.
Magazine Articles
Berger, R., Schmitt, M. “Estimating the Earth’s magnetic field strength with an extension cord.” The Physics
Teacher (May 2003). p. 295. A class demonstration of one way to determine the strength of the Earth’s magnetic
field. May be too advanced for some classes.
Bohen, R.; Vandegrift, G. “Temperature-driven convection.” The Physics Teacher (February 2003). p. 76
Discusses easy-to-do demonstration of convection and its role in weather patterns on Earth.
Brekke, P. “Secrets of the Northern lights.” Sky & Telescope (February 2013), p. 18. An explanation of the
magnetospheric phenomenon.
Eicher, D. “Earth is a planet, too: Three-dimensional photography.” Astronomy (December 2000). p. 50. Presents
topographic images of the Earth.
Grifantini, K. “Where did Earth’s water come from?” Sky & Telescope (January 2011), p. 22. The mystery of how
water came out of and back to the Earth.
Hoffman, P., Schrag, D. P. “Snowball earth.” Scientific American (January 2000). p. 68. Discusses the evidence of
major climate reversals on Earth.
Jago, L. “The making of an aurora.” Astronomy (January 2002). p. 73. An excerpt from the book The Northern
Lights by Jago. Story about scientist named Kristian Birkeland. Includes fairly detailed description of his
laboratory aurora simulator and aurora phenomena. Nice images as well.
12
King, M., Herring, D. “Monitoring Earth’s vital signs.” Scientific American (April 2000). p. 92. Describes how
information obtained by the Terra satellite is used to study the Earth.
Lean, J. “Living with a variable Sun.” Physics Today (June 2005). p. 32. Examination of the effects that small
changes in the Sun can have on Earth.
Nguyen, J., Holmes, N. “Melting of iron at the physical conditions of the Earth's core.” Nature 427 (January
2004). pp. 339–342. Good discussion of current work in seismology and the investigation of the Earth’s Interior.
Pierrehumbert, R. T. “Infrared radiation and planetary temperature.” Physics Today 64:1 (2011). p. 33. How we
use infrared radiation to better understand planetary atmospheres.
Sherwood, S. “Science controversies past and present.” Physics Today 64:10 (2011). p. 39. A comparison
between the heliocentric controversy of the 17th Century and the global warming controversy of today.
Slater, T. “Inner solar system concepts.” The Physics Teacher (May 2000). p. 264. Discusses teaching
comparative planetology on a conceptual level.
Somerville, R. C. J., Hassal S. J. “Communicating the science of climate change.” Physics Today 64:10 (2011), p.
48. How to best inform the public about climate change.
Stevens, B., Bony, S. “Water in the atmosphere.” Physics Today 66:6 (2013). p. 29. The importance of water to
Earth’s atmospheric dynamics.
Taylor, S., McLennan, S. “The evolution of continental crust.” Scientific American (January 1996). p. 76.
Discusses the conditions on Earth which allowed the development of our continental crust.
Wood, B. “The formation and differentiation of the Earth.” Physics Today 64:12 (2011). p. 40–45. A summary of
the early history of the Earth.
Wright, K. “Seeing the light.” Discover (July 2000). p. 51. A very complete discussion of auroras, with great
pictures.
13
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not willingly submitted to by the latter, needs not, I
think, to be supported by any proof: it must certainly
have been with great reluctance, that they felt
themselves exposed to the lash of so formidable a
Flagellator[50].
FOOTNOTES:
[45] Conclusions against the antiquity of the upper

and the lower disciplines, are frequent in the Abbé
Boileau’s book; though I have thought it unnecessary
to lay them all before the reader. Against the latter kind
of discipline, he has been particularly zealous; and,
besides his usual charge of novelty, he has, on one
occasion, taxed it with being a remnant of idolatry and
Pagan superstition. This imputation has much
displeased a French Curate, who wrote an answer to
him: he thought it reflected on those Saints who
practised the discipline in question, and he
animadverted on the Abbé in the following terms.
Quelle plus grande injure peut-on faire aux Saints &
aux Saintes qui se disciplinent par en bas, que de dire
qu’ils sont des idolatres & des superstitieux?... Peut on
les deshonorer davantage, ces Saints, que d’en parler
comme fait M. Boileau? ‘Can a greater insult be put
upon those Saints of both Sexes who practise the
lower discipline, than saying that they are superstitious
persons and idolaters? Is it possible to shew more
disrespect to those Saints, than speaking of them as
Mons. Boileau does?’
With respect to the silence of the first Monastic
Rules, concerning voluntary flagellation, it may be
observed that it has been amply compensated in
subsequent ones. The Carmes are to discipline
themselves twice a week, and the Monks of Monte
Cassino, once at least; the Ursuline Nuns, every
Friday; the Carmelite Nuns, on Wednesdays and
Fridays; the Nuns of the Visitation, when they please;
the English Benedictines, a greater or less number of
times, weekly, according to the season of the year; the
Celestines, on the eve of every great festival; and the
Capuchin Friars are to perform a lower discipline every
morning in the week, &c. &c.
[46] Οἱ μὲν ἐν ἐκείνοις τὸ ἔδαφος τοῖς δάκρυσιν
ἔβρεχον, οἱ δὲ δακρύων ἀποροῦντες ἑαυτοὺς
κατέκοπτον.
[47] The above passage of St. Climax, like those of
David and St. Paul, discussed in the 2d and 3d
Chapters, has caused much disputation between the
Assertors, and the Opposers, of the doctrine of the
antiquity of voluntary flagellations. The Abbé Boileau
has taken much pains, in his text, to prove that St.
John Climax, notwithstanding the precision of the
expression he has used, only meant to speak in a
figurative sense; and he has for that purpose produced
a number of authorities from different books, and
entered into a long grammatical dissertation on the
Greek words used by that Saint, in which he at last
bewilders himself, and says the very reverse of what
he had promised to prove. He has also bestowed
some pains on different passages of other Greek
fathers, which are as positive as that quoted from St.
John Climax; and among others, upon one of St. Cyril,
Patriarch of Alexandria, who expresses himself with
great clearness, and says, he whips himself, and
exhorts his friends to do the same.
However, notwithstanding the great precision of the
words used by the above good Fathers, whether in
speaking of themselves, or of other persons, we are
not perhaps intirely to refuse to admit the assertions of
the Abbé Boileau, that they only spoke in a figurative
sense. It is not absolutely impossible that the
passages which are quoted from them, though ever so
expressly mentioning flagellations, beatings, and
scourgings, were no more, after all, than canting ways
of expression, like those commonly used by men who
affect pretensions to superior sanctity; who take every
opportunity of magnifying their sufferings, or those of
their friends, though often of an imaginary kind.
However, on this important subject, I shall leave the
Reader to determine: I will only observe, that the most
zealous Supporters of self-flagellation confess, that the
same was never so much practised among the
Eastern as among the Western Christians, as they had
adopted several other means of self-mortification.
[48] Sir Robert Walpole’s Excise Scheme made a
wonderful noise in this Nation; but we may safely
suppose, that if flagellations, like those above-
mentioned, had been made part of the project, the
noise would have been still greater.
A fact, supplied by the Abbé Boileau himself, will be
introduced in a subsequent Chapter, from which it
appears, that Theodoret was not unacquainted with
the practice of self-flagellation. The silence of that
Author on the subject, in certain parts of his writings,
only shews that that practice was not yet become, in
his time, that settled method of atoning for past sins,
which has been since adopted, and that a scourge had
not yet been made a necessary part of the furniture of
Devotees.
[49] Insidet dorso ejus festivus Gladiator, & latera
calcibus, cervicem flagello verberans.
[50] Instances of flagellations bestowed by the Devil,
occur frequently in the Books in which the Lives of
Saints, either antient or modern, are recited; whether it
was that those Saints, after having dreamed of such
flagellations, fancied they had in reality received them,
and spoke accordingly, or that they had some scheme
in view, when they made complaints of that kind. St.
Francis of Assisa, for instance, as is related in the
Golden Legend, received a dreadful flagellation from
the Devil the very first night he was in Rome, which
caused him to leave that place without delay. And, to
say the truth, it is not at all unlikely that, having met
there with a colder reception than he judged his
sanctity intitled him to, he thought proper to decamp
immediately, and when he returned to his Convent,
told the above story to his Monks.
Among those Saints who received flagellations, or
visits in general, from the Devil, St. Anthony is
however the most celebrated. At sometimes the Devil,
as is mentioned above, flagellated him vigorously; and
at others, employed temptations of quite a different
kind, in order to seduce him: thus, he assumed in one
instance, the shape of a beautiful young Woman, who
made all imaginable advances to the Saint: but,
happily, all was to no purpose. The celebrated
Engraver Calot has made one of those visits of the
Devil to St. Anthony, the subject of one of his Prints,
which is inscribed The Temptation of St. Anthony; and
he has represented in it such a numerous swarm of
Devils of all sizes, pouring at once into the Saint’s
cavern, and exhibiting so surprising a variety of faces,
postures, and ludicrous weapons, such as squirts,
bellows, and the like, that this Print may very well be
mentioned as an instance, among others, of the great
fertility of the imagination of that Engraver.
Besides the persecutions which St. Anthony suffered
from the Devil, he has the farther merit of having been
the first Institutor of the Monastic life, several other
Hermits having in his time chosen to assemble
together, and lived under his direction; and though he
has not expressly been the Founder of any particular
Order, yet it is glory enough for him to have been the
Father of the whole family of Friars and Nuns. In more
modern times, however, his relicks having been
brought from Egypt to Constantinople, and thence
transferred to Dauphiné, in France, a Church was built
on the spot where they were deposited, and a new
Order of Friars was a little after established, who go by
the name of Monks of St. Anthony. These Monks form
a kind of Order distinct from all others; but yet they
have no less ingenuity than the other Monks for
procuring the good of their Convent, as may be judged
from the following story, which, I think, I may venture to
relate as a conclusion both of this Note, and of the
whole Chapter.
The Story I mean, is contained in the Book of the
Apologie pour Hérodote, which was written about the
year 1500 by Henry Etienne, on purpose to shew that
those who intirely reject the facts related by Herodotus,
on account of their incredibility, treat him with too much
severity, since a number of facts daily happen, which
are altogether as surprising as those that are found in
that Author.
Before relating the story in question, the Reader
ought to be informed, that St. Anthony is commonly
thought to have a great command over fire, and a
power of destroying, by flashes of that element, those
who incur his displeasure: the common people have
been led into this belief, by constantly seeing a fire
placed by the side of that Saint, in the representations
that are made of him; though this fire is placed there
for no other reason than because the Saint is thought
to have the power of curing the erysipelas, which is
also called the sacred fire (ignis sacer), in the same
manner as St. Hubert cures the Hydrophoby, St. John
the Epilepsy, and other Saints other disorders. A
certain Monk of St. Anthony (to come to our point) who
was well acquainted with the above prepossession of
the vulgar concerning the power of his Saint, used on
Sundays to preach in public, in different villages within
a certain distance from his Convent. One day he
assembled his congregation under a tree on which a
magpye had built her nest, into which he had
previously found means to convey a small box filled
with gunpowder, which he had well secured therein;
and out of the box hung a long thin match, that was to
burn slowly, and was hidden among the leaves of the
tree. As soon as the Monk, or his Assistant, had
touched the match with a lighted coal, he began his
sermon. In the mean while the magpye returned to her
nest; and finding in it a strange body which she could
not remove, she fell into a passion, and began to
scratch with her feet, and chatter unmercifully. The
Friar affected to hear her without emotion, and
continued his sermon with great composure; only he
would now and then lift up his eyes towards the top of
the tree, as if he wanted to see what was the matter. At
last, when he judged the fire was very near reaching
the gun-powder, he pretended to be quite out of
patience, he cursed the magpye, and wished St.
Anthony’s fire might consume her, and went on again
with his sermon; but he had scarcely pronounced a
few periods, when the match on a sudden produced its
effect, and blew up the magpye with her nest; which
miracle wonderfully raised the character of the Friar,
and proved afterwards very beneficial both to him and
his Convent.
C H A P. IX.
Corrections of a flagellatory kind, inflicted by

force, were however, though in very early
times, the common method of correcting
offences of a religious nature; and the power
of inflicting them was possessed alike by
Bishops, and the Heads of Monasteries[51].
IT must be confessed, however, that though self-

flagellations made no part of the rules or statutes
belonging to the different monastic Orders, founded
in those early ages of Christianity, the same cannot
be said of that method of correction, when imposed
by force upon such Monks as had been guilty of
offences, either against the discipline of the Order, or
against piety: an extensive power of inflicting such
salutary corrections, having, from the earliest times,
been lodged in the hands of Abbots, and the
Superiors of Convents.
Nay more, we find that Bishops, during the very
first times of Christianity, assumed the paternal
power we mention, even with regard to persons who
were bound to them by no vow whatever, when they
happened to have been guilty either of breaches of
piety, or of heresy. Of this, a remarkable proof may
be deduced from the 59th Epistle of St. Augustin,
which he wrote to the Tribune Marcellinus,
concerning the Donatists. St. Augustin expresses
himself in the following words: ‘Do not recede from
that paternal diligence you have manifested in your
researches after offenders; in which you have
succeeded to procure confessions of such great
crimes, not by using racks, red-hot blades of iron, or
flames, but only by the application of rods. This is a
method of coercion which is frequently practised by
Teachers of the fine Arts upon their Pupils, by
Parents upon their Children, and often also by
Bishops upon those whom they find to have been
guilty of offences[52].’
Another proof of this power of flagellation,
assumed by Bishops in very early times, may be
derived from the account which Cyprianus has given
of Cesarius, Bishop of Arles; who says, that that
Bishop endeavoured as much as possible, in the
exercise of his power, to keep within the bounds of
moderation prescribed by the law of Moses. The
following are Cyprianus’s words. ‘This holy Man took
constant care, that those who were subjected to his
authority, whether they were of a free, or a servile
condition, when they were to be flagellated for some
offence they had committed, should not receive more
than thirty-nine stripes. If any of them, however, had
been guilty of a grievous fault, then indeed he
permitted them to be again lashed a few days
afterwards, though with a smaller number of stripes.’
From the two passages above, we are informed
that the power of whipping, possessed by Bishops,
extended to persons of every vocation,
indiscriminately; and with much more reason may we
think that those persons who made profession of the
Ecclesiastical Life, were subjected to it. In fact, we
see that even the different dignities which they might
possess in the Church, did not exempt them from
having a flagellation inflicted upon them by their
Bishops, when they had been guilty of offences of
rather a grievous kind; and Pope St. Gregory the
Great moreover recommended to the Bishops of his
time, to make a proper use of their authority. In his
sixty-sixth Epistle, he himself prescribes to Bishop
Paschasius, the manner in which he ought to
chastise Deacon Hilary, who had calumniated
Deacon John, ‘Whereas (he says) guilt ought not to
pass without adequate satisfaction, we recommend
to Bishop Paschasius to deprive the same Deacon
Hilary of his office, and, after having caused him to
be publickly lashed, to confine him to some distant
place; that the punishment inflicted upon one, may
thus serve to the correction of many.’
This power of inflicting the brotherly correction of
whipping, was also possessed by the Abbots and
Priors in all the antient Monasteries; though, at the
same time, it was expressly provided by the Rules of
the different Orders, that the same should be
assumed by no other persons. ‘Let no Man, except
the Abbot, or him to whom he has intrusted his
authority, presume to excommunicate, or flog, a
Brother.’
When the faults committed by Monks were of a
grievous kind, the Abbot was not only charged to
correct them by means of his discretionary power of
flagellation; but he was moreover expressly directed
to exert that power with rigour. In the Rule framed by
St. Fructuosus, Bishop of Braga, it is ordained with
respect to a Monk who is convicted of being a Liar, a
Thief, or a Striker, ‘That if, after having been warned
by the elder Monks, he neglects to mend his
manners, he shall, on the third time, be exhorted, in
the presence of all the Brethren, to leave off his bad
practices. If he still neglects to reform, let him be
flagellated with the utmost severity[53].’ The above
Rule of St. Fructuosus is mentioned by Ecbert, in his
Collection of Canons, which, together with the
Councils of England, has been published by
Spelman.
St. Ferreol, Bishop of Usez, has framed a Rule for
Monks, which, like that above, makes severe
provisions against such Monks as are addicted to the
practice of thieving. ‘With regard to the Monk who
stands convicted of theft, if we may still call him a
Monk, he shall be treated like him who is guilty of
adultery for the second time; let him therefore be
chastised with the whip, and with great rigour too: the
same punishment ought to be inflicted upon him as
upon a fornicator, since it may be justly suspected
that his lewdness has induced him to commit theft[54].’
Committing indecencies with other Monks, or with
Boys, were offences which the Statutes of Convents
likewise directed to be punished by severe
flagellations; and the above St. Fructuosus, Bishop of
Braga, ordered that the punishment should, in the
above case, be inflicted publickly. ‘If a Monk (it is said
in his Rule) is used to teaze Boys and young Men, or
is caught in attempting to give them kisses, or in any
other indecent action, and the fact be proved by
competent witnesses, let him be publickly
whipped[55].’
Refusing to make proper satisfaction to the Abbot
for offences committed, or in general persevering in
denying them, were also grievous faults in the eye of
the first Founders, or Reformers, of Monastic Orders.
In the Rule framed fifty years after that of St.
Benedict, in order to improve it, the following
direction was contained. ‘If the Brothers who have
been excommunicated for their faults, persevere so
far in their pride, as to continue, on the ninth hour of
the next day, to refuse to make proper satisfaction to
the Abbot, let them be confined, even till their death,
and lashed with rods.’ Nor is the Rule of the
abovementioned Bishop of Braga less severe against
those Monks whose pride prevents them from
making a proper confession of the offences they may
have committed. ‘To him (it is said in that Rule) who,
through pride and inclination to argue, continues to
deny his fault, let an additional and severer
flagellation be imparted.’
The habit of holding wanton discourses, or
soliciting the Brethren to wickedness, was also
deemed by the Founders of religious Orders to
deserve severe flagellations; and St. Pacom ordered
in his Rule, which, it was said, had been dictated to
him by an Angel, that such as had been guilty of the
above faults, and had been thrice admonished,
should be publickly lashed before the gate of the
Convent.
Attempts to escape from Monasteries, were, even
in very early times, punished by flagellation. We read
in Sozomenius, that St. Macarius of Alexandria,
Abbot of Nitria in Thebaid, who had five thousand
Monks under his direction, ordered that chastisement
to be inflicted upon those who should attempt to
climb over the walls of the Monasteries. ‘If any one
continues in his wickedness, and says, I can no
longer bear to stay here, but I will pack up my things,
and go where God will direct me[56]; let any one of the
Brothers inform the Prior, and the Prior the Abbot, of
the fact; let then the Abbot assemble the Brothers,
and order the offender to be brought before them,
and chastised with rods.’
The holy Founders of religious Orders have also
been very severe, in their provisions, against such
Monks as seek for familiarities with the other Sex. In
the Rule of the Monastery of Agaunus, it was
ordained, that, ‘If any Monk had contracted the bad
habit of looking on Women with concupiscence, the
Abbot ought to be informed of the fact, and bestow
upon the Monk a corrective discipline; and that, if he
did not mend his manners in conference thereof, he
ought to be expelled from the Society as a scabby
sheep, lest he should ruin others by his example.’
The above Monastery had been built by Sigismond,
King of Burgundy, to the honour of CXX. Martyrs of
the Theban Legion, of which St. Maurice was the
Commander, under the reign of the Emperor
Maximinus.
The above-quoted Rule of St. Fructuosus, is no
less severe against those Monks who seek for the
Company of Women. In the XVth Chapter, which
treats of the lewd and quarrelsome[57], it is ordered,
that, ‘if after having received proper reprehensions,
they persist in their wicked courses, they shall be
corrected by repeated lashings.’ And St.
Columbanus, who is the first who instituted the
Monastic Life in France, and has written a Rule as a
supplement to that of St. Benedict, also expresses
himself with great severity against such Monks as
are convicted of having barely conversed with a
Woman in the absence of witnesses; for though there
are faults for which he orders only six lashes to be
given, yet, in the case here mentioned, he prescribes
two hundred. ‘Let the Man who has been alone with
a Woman, and talked familiarly to her, either be kept
on bread and water for two days, or receive two
hundred lashes[58].’
FOOTNOTES:
[51] The whole substance of the Abbé Boileau’s

arguments (so far as it has been possible to make
them out) is contained in the three first Chapters of this
Work, and in those two which precede this: the Author
is now to continue the text part of the Book, without
any farther prospect of assistance from the Abbé’s
observations and directions; except in the last Chapter,
in which they are once more to meet, and to lay again
their wise heads together.
[52] “Noli perdere paternam diligentiam quam in ipsâ
inquisitione servasti, quando tantorum scelerum
confessionem cruisti, non extendente equuleo, non
sulcantibus ungulis, non urentibus flammis, sed
virgarum verberibus. Qui modus coercionis & à
magistris artium liberalium, & ab ipsis parentibus, &
sæpè etiam in judiciis solet ab Episcopis adhiberi.”—
This Letter of St. Augustin, addressed to a Man
invested both with military and civil power, as the
Tribune Marcellinus was, in order to exhort him to
employ violence and whipping against those who
differed from him in their opinions, is an additional
proof of a melancholy truth that has often been
noticed; which is, that those who exclaim most bitterly
against persecution, when exercised against them,
and are the most ready to claim toleration in their own
favour, are not always the most willing to grant the
same favour to others.
[53] Cap. XVI. De mendace, fure, & percussore
Monacho.... Si nec sic se emendaverit, flagelletur
acerrimè.
[54] “Furti scilicet conscium, si adhuc vocare
possumus Monachum, quasi adulterum secundum,
flagello subdi & magnâ coërceri afflictione jubemus;
dantes illi unam cum fornicante sententiam, quia &
ipse furatus est ut luxuriaretur.”
It is a little surprising that repeated adultery is, in the
above Rule, expressly placed on a level with simple
fornication. Whether the Framer of this Rule has done
so purposely, and thought that adultery ought to be
treated with indulgence, on account of the uncommon
temptation he supposed Men were under to commit it,
or has only been very careless in his manner of
expressing himself, I shall not attempt to discuss. Yet,
lest the Reader should thence be led to entertain too
bad an opinion of the tenets and morals of Monks in
general, I shall observe, that all are not in the same
way of thinking with respect to adultery, as the Framer
of the above Rule seems to have been. As a proof of
this, the instance, I think, may be produced of that
Monk, mentioned in one of the Epigrams of the Poet
Rousseau, who was a great enemy to that sin: one day
preaching against it, he grew so warm in his
arguments, and took so much pains to convince his
Congregation of his own abhorrence of it, that at last
he broke out into the following solemn declaration:
‘Yea, my Brethren, I had rather, for the good of my
soul, to have to do with ten Maidens every month, than
in ten years touch one married Woman.’
The following is the Epigram of Rousseau, which is
written in Marotic verses; a kind of jocular style among
the French, which admits of old words and turns of
phrase.
Un Cordelier prêchoit sur l’adultère,
Et s’échauffoit le Moine en son harnois
A démontrer par maint beau commentaire
Que ce péché blessoit toutes les loix.
Oui, mes Enfans, dit il, haussant la voix,
J’aimerois mieux, pour le bien de mon ame,
Avoir à faire à dix filles par mois
Que de toucher en dix ans, une femme.
[55] “Monachus parvulorum & adolescentulorum
consectator, vel qui osculo vel de quâlibet occasione
turpi deprehensus fuerit inhiare, comprobatâ patenter,
per accusatores verissimos, sive testes, causâ, publice
verberetur.”
[56] ... Hic ego durare non possum, sed accipiam
casulam, & eam ubi voluerit Dominus.
[57] Cap. XV. De lascivis & clamosis.
[58] “Qui solus cum solâ fœminâ sine personis certis
loquitur familiariter, maneat sine cibo, duobus diebus,
in pane & aquâ, vel ducentis plagis afficiatur.”
This Article, in which the Founder of a religious
Order expressly rates the hardship of living upon bread
and water for one day, at that of receiving an hundred
lashes, is somewhat surprising. And supposing the
generality of Readers should agree that the loss of a
good dinner has really been over-rated by the good
Father, his decision on that head, may then serve as
one proof of that remarkable love of good eating and
drinking which prevails among Monks; a disposition
with which, to say the truth, they have long ago been
charged. On this occasion, I shall quote the two
following lines in Monkish style, recited by Du Cange in
his Glossary, in which the love of good cheer is said to
be one of the three things that prove the ruin of Monks:
these lines only mention the black Monks; but this has
been done, we may suppose, for the sake of the
measure, and their meaning was, no doubt, also
intended to be applied to the Grey and White.
Sunt tria nigrorum, quæ vastant res Monachorum,
Renes & venter, & pocula sumpta frequenter.
Other modern Latin Writers have also exerted their
wit at the expence of the Clergy: some have pretended
that the word Sorbona (the Sorbonne) comes from
sorbendo[59]; and others have derived the word
Præsbiter (a Priest), from præ aliis bibens ter[60], &c.
&c.
As an instance of the love of Monks for
entertainments, I shall relate the following story, which
is extracted from a Monkish Book, and may serve to
give the reader some insight into the manner in which
Monks live among themselves, and the internal polity
of their Convents.
A certain Friar, in a Convent of the Benedictine
Order, found means to procure, besides plenty of good
wine, a certain number of dishes extremely nice and
well seasoned, several of which were expressly
forbidden by the Institutes of the Order; and he invited
a select party of Brothers to partake of his fare. As
they could not, with any degree of safety, carry on the
entertainment in the cell of any of them, they thought
of repairing to one of the cellars of the House; where
they hid themselves in one of those wide and shallow
tuns (about eight or nine feet in diameter, and three or
four deep) which serve in the making of wines. The
Abbot, in the meanwhile, missing so many of the
Monks from the Convent, went in search of them
through all the different apartments: being unable to

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